implications for foreign aid across the continent: the shifting africa policies of china and the usa

8/6/2019 Implications for Foreign Aid Across the Continent: The Shifting Africa Policies of China and the USA

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Implications for Foreign Aid Across the Continent:The Shifting Africa Policies of China and the USA

Alex B. HillMC4928 May 2009

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The Beginnings of Giants

Philosophies, cultures, histories and ideologies are pushing the agendas of China and the

USA across the African continent. The USA is flexing its well-honed military resources to

provide counter-terrorism trainings in key countries while China is investing in growing

economies in a soft power move that often places them above the USA in local influence. China

is working now to change its image in Africa as the international community has raised issues.

The USA continues a humanitarian military presence, however there may be a new shift in the

USA's Africa policy with a newly elected President. Foreign aid in Africa is influenced by the

cultural histories and philosophies of the USA and China.

Asserting its extensive soft power in economics China is quickly becoming a world

leader in the current financial crisis: contributing to the IMF, long the bastion of Western power,

and pushing for a new reserve currency that is not the dollar.1 As a full understanding is reached

on the financial crisis' effects, China has said it will continue to support emerging African

economies2 while there is talk that the USA will become protectionist. The USA has steadily

fallen as a foreign aid leader in Africa and is increasingly using Chinese financial tactics to cope

with its own severe economic downturn. Since 2006 the Chinese government has been working

to create a less controversial policy in Africa.3 In supporting human rights and international

institutions, will they learn from the USA's Africa policy? A new administration is in the White

House and the USA is building a more comprehensive Africa policy. The USA has borrowed

ideas from the Chinese policy book on dealing with the economic crisis, will they also look to

1China ready to contribute to the IMF.BBC News. 27 March 2009.http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/7967706.stm.2Holslag, Jonathon. or Is America the New China?Foreign Policy. March 2009.http://www.foreignpolicy.com/story/cms.php?story_id=4778&page=2.3Ching, Frank. Chinas Africa policy changing for the better.Japan Times. 11 September 2008.http://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/eo20080911fc.html.

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China in building new partnerships with African countries?4

There has been increasing talk and scholarship on the implications of Chinese actions on

the African continent especially in relation to the USAs presence. Many experts and pundits

dont go beyond surface level involvements between the world powers. Scholarship often fails to

deconstruct media representations of both China and the USA. The media more often paints

China as an evil imperialist nation scooping up African resources. While Chinese actions in

Africa are problematic, the USA is not exempt from imperialist or destructive actions in Africa

either. Current scholarship fails to delve into the historical philosophies and histories of both

China and the USA. Culture and world visions are not taken into account when analyzing the

Africa policies of these countries. The respective views and values on moral aspiration,

international leadership and othering has driven scholarship on the quest for power between

China and the USA on the African continent.

Internationally Related

Within the realm of international relations, both China and the USA are taking more

normative approaches to engaging in African affairs. By taking more country specific

approaches to engagement and focusing on providing services to people, China and the USA

have been working to use more diplomatic actions to gain the upper hand in Africa. The actions

of both China and the USA have been problematic when it comes to engaging Africa. China has

implemented numerous aid programs, but is seen as hypocritical in its policy of not getting

involved a countrys domestic affairs. Some Africanist scholars have noted that the USAs policy

is borrowed directly from European imperial histories. These competing policies both based off

of diplomacy have numerous points of contention, but is that reason for China and the USA to

4Holslag, Jonathon. or Is America the New China?Foreign Policy. March 2009.http://www.foreignpolicy.com/story/cms.php?story_id=4778&page=2.

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not cooperate?

Still, the United States has much to gain from cooperating with China on foreign aid andAfrica policy. The US could help China develop a more permanent and transparent aidbureaucracy which would allow Chinese liberals to better promote their interests through

the system. Also, the United States should encourage China to play a larger role in thedonor community, allowing China to evaluate other countries aid programs and beingsubject to the same level of scrutiny. As major oil consumers, the United States andChina also have incentive to work together toward political stability and energy securityon the continent.5

Very often China is painted as an aggressor on the African continent by Western scholars,

however these scholars tend to forget the histories of their own countries and their policies,

which are based in colonialism, imperialism, and neocolonial actions. If an approach is taken that

builds of off John Fairbanks call for a re-evaluation of Chinese perceptions and Paul Cohens

call for a china-centered history. The importance of Western governments recognizing their

past and rethinking how they perceive a growing leader in international relations cannot be

emphasized more.

Our American assumptions about East Asia and our instinctive responses to problemsthere have been and still are far less conscious and far more blind and culture-bound thanwe realize. Too often we have leapt before looking and become partisan in feelingbefore making a serious intellectual effort to see all sides, including particularly our ownside. (John King Fairbank)

This is most relatable to Alexander Georges fundamental attribution error. The West (USA) is

looking for an enemy within Chinas policies in Africa as a way to position themselves

strategically. Since the USA looked for the negative in Chinese policy, they found an enemy in

China.

The Carnegie Endowment for International Peace scholars who wanted the USA to

engage China in more involvement in the international donor community in 2006 were right on

5Kurlantzick, Josh, David Shinn and Minxin Pei. Chinas Africa Strategy: A New Approach to Development andDiplomacy. Carnegie Endowment. 12 December 2006. http://www.carnegieendowment.org/events/index.cfm?fa=eventDetail&id=941.

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track. China has now said that it will become more involved in the IMF and will contribute

within its ability.6 Chinas efforts to strengthen its standing with the international community

are directly in line with its history of diplomacy. Michael Hunt talks of this long tradition of

Chinese diplomacy, but it is most important to compare this to the USAs diplomatic history

within the international system.

The IMF [] warned that the $25 billion figure is only a conservative estimate as thesituation on ground indicates that more countries will be more deeply affected, outsidethe 20 countries earlier identified by the body as much hit by the crisis. "The IMF studyfinds that more than 20 countries are particularly vulnerable to the unfolding crisis. Atleast US$25 billion in urgent concessional financing will be needed this year in the mostaffected countries, but much more may be needed given the heavy downside risks to the

global economic outlook, and the prospect of more countries being affected as the crisisdeepens," said IMF Managing Director, Dominique Strauss-Kahn. He warned that thenumber of vulnerable countries could double, raising additional financing needs to $140billion.7

As China has said it will continue to support emerging African economies into the current

financial crisis8, another historic financial crisis should be analyzed. In this current economic

crisis China has pledged support within the IMF as the "international community is determined

to act together to get through the time of hardship."9 China is emerging as a strong leader in this

current crisis by calling for reform along with their financial support. In contrast, during the

Great Depression, the effects were more sever because there was a lack of strong international

leadership.10Following World War I the USA had gained prominence as an economic player, but

was not interested in becoming a leader in the international economic game.11 A major reason

6China ready to contribute to the IMF.BBC News. 27 March 2009.http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/7967706.stm.

7Onu, Emele. Africa: Continent Needs U.S.$25 Billion Bailout, Says IMF. ThisDay. 4 March 2009.http://allafrica.com/stories/200903040005.html.8Chinas aid to Africa continues despite crisis. China Daily. 6 February 2009.http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2009-02/06/content_7452923.htm.9China ready to contribute to the IMF.BBC News. 27 March 2009.http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/7967706.stm.10James, Harold. Is China the New America?Foreign Policy. March 2009.http://www.foreignpolicy.com/story/cms.php?story_id=4778&page=0.11Ibid.

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that the USA was not interested during the Great Depression was because financially helping

Europe had no short-term gain. Will China take this same mode of thinking? Harold James notes

that this will be Chinas dilemma in the current crisis, but it appears that China is following their

cultural traditions and is coming to the aid of the international community instead of taking an

protectionist policy. The current economic crisis seems to be another example of the USA

shrinking from an international leadership role. China shows that it is committed to the

international community, where the USA is narrowly focused on national interest.

Both China and the USA have taken on more bilateral agreements with other countries as

of recent. China most notably, since the 1990s, made multiple bilateral agreements with African

(and other) countries in the multiple tours taken by their government leaders.12 The Obama

Administration has taken a very strong stance that its foreign policy will be driven by

diplomacy.13 This also happens to be the Chinese governments number one strategy to foreign

policy.

In recent years, China has begun to take a less confrontational, more sophisticated, moreconfident, and, at times, more constructive approach toward regional and global affairs.In contrast to a decade ago, the world's most populous country now largely works withinthe international system. It has embraced much of the current constellation ofinternational institutions, rules, and norms as a means to promote its national interests.And it has even sought to shape the evolution of that system in limited ways.14

While it is difficult to gauge Obamas foreign policy of diplomacy as of yet, significant efforts

have been made to meet with world leaders of countries where relations with the USA have been

strained. The Chinese effort is measurable and visible over an almost 10 year period. China is

growing a network of cooperation across the African continent and the globe while the USA is

12Mederios, Evan S. and M. Taylor Fravel. Chinas New Diplomacy.Foreign Affairs.November/ December2003. http://www.foreignaffairs.org/articles/59362/evan-s-medeiros-and-m-taylor-fravel/chinas-new-diplomacy.13Zunes, Stephen. Barack Obama on Diplomacy.Foreign Policy In Focus. 17 January 2008.http://www.fpif.org/fpiftxt/4901.14Mederios, Evan S. and M. Taylor Fravel. Chinas New Diplomacy.Foreign Affairs.November/ December2003. http://www.foreignaffairs.org/articles/59362/evan-s-medeiros-and-m-taylor-fravel/chinas-new-diplomacy.

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just beginning to mend broken international relationships and extend a hand to former enemies.

Africa is a growing interest for both countries, how long will it be before China and the USA

cooperate more closely on African issues?

Before delving too deeply into the nuances and implications of various foreign policies, it

is important to understand the origins of Chinese and USA cultural traditions and international

involvements.

Invisibly Shared Power15

The basis of Chinese international relations begins with the teachings of Fu Xi, author of

the I-Ching. The I-Chings lesson on the Law of Change and promotion of harmony (yin/yang)

governed early Chinese policy where there must be a complimentary balance. A very important

concept to understand within Chinese foreign policy based in the I-Ching is The Principle of

Heaven. This is sometimes called the Rise of the Dragon and teaches about how one should act,

whether an individual or a state actor, when the top is reached. In the Chinese tradition, one who

reaches the top has two choices: to be arrogant which will result in falling from heaven [the top];

or to assist those below in also reaching the top. This teaching plays into the I-Chings Concept

of Hegemony, which is best explained with the analogy of a group of dragons without a chief.

In the Concept of Hegemony there is no one leader in the international community there would

be multiple hegemons that work together to bring more into the group of dragons.

This philosophy coupled with the Chinese traditions of a collective societal structure has

translated to foreign policy as China works to increase cooperation with many international

actors. The diplomatic history of China dates as far back as 3000 BC. However, China was not

always so internationally focused. During its history China was controlled and relegated to a

15Section based on classroom lectures by Professor S. Qing.

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lesser status by the British governments colonial treaty system. The treaty system essentially

placed China under the economic control of the British government. Following the end of the

treaty system China became more nationally focused. Many scholars such as Sun Yat-Sen,

Cohen, and Hunt, write on how building a strong and safe China was the priority that developed

as a response to the imperial treaty system which had divided the country and weakened the

people by creating widespread poverty.

The ideas of the I-Ching continued to be taught years later by Lao Zi and Confucius.

These ideas seemed to pervade Chinese cultural traditions and it is no surprise that they

translated into the foreign policy of China. One of Lao Zis great contributions to Chinese

international relations was on political philosophy. He wrote that the best leaders are known

when the people feel like they have accomplished something on their own and the leader has

only acted as an invisible hand to guide them. This idea is evident in Chinese foreign policy as

China seeks to bring other countries up with them into the group of dragons and increase

cooperation within international systems.

The Rise of Individualism16

Needless to say the USA has a very different, and much shorter, history than China. As a

country of immigrants the USA developed a cultural tradition focused on the individual. The

idea posited by Fritijof Capra that Western societies were very logic based and Eastern societies

were more intuition based shows the strong focus of the USA cultural tradition on the

productivity of the individual within a growing economy.

The development of the USA into industrialization was fueled in large part by the

emergence of the nuclear family. The nuclear family was a result of the large number of

16Section based on early classroom discussions in Professor S. Qings seminar.

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immigrants who arrived in the USA as individuals often without any extended family. Talcott

Parsons, argues that the nuclear family fits industrial needs because, on the one hand, it allows

families to be mobile and economically independent of the wider kin group; and, on the other

hand, it ensures that in an individualistic and impersonal world, adults and children have a stable,

if limited, set of affective relationships.17

In the history of the USA the individual has been the building block and has driven the

success of the country. Because the USA has such a short history and has built itself from the

people and ideas of other countries, it is a country that does not have its own distinct or concrete

cultural tradition. It is a cultural tradition that is constantly changing. The best idea that can sum

up cultural tradition in the USA is that of pulling yourself up by your bootstraps. This

individualist fervor can be easily translated into the USAs foreign policy as it is focused

narrowly on USA national interests and is not driven by cooperation with others.

Sino-African Relations

The earliest records of interactions between the Chinese and the African continent comes

by way of myth and trade. Somewhere around 1414, the treasure fleet of Zheng He landed on

the East African coast.18 He returned with two giraffes, which were gifts from the Malindi King

(present day Kenya), which the Chinese thought were qilin.19 Qilin were mythical creatures

thought to symbolize a well-governed country or one where a wise man was born. This marked

the earliest Sino-African relations based in trade.

The tradition of Chinese-African cooperation grew significantly between 1949 and

17Parsons, Talcott and Robert Bales. Family, Socialization and Interaction Process. Routledge, 1998 (original1955).18Krebs, Sylvia. China to Africa, Africa to China. US-China Review. Vol. XXXI, No. 3, Summer 2007.19Krebs, Sylvia. China to Africa, Africa to China. US-China Review. Vol. XXXI, No. 3, Summer 2007.

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1970.20

Peking had diplomatic relations with fifteen African states in 1970. Approximately 5.1percent of Chinas imports and exports were in African trade in 1966. By mid-1966China had promised African countries $350,000,000 in aid, although the sums made

available and actually drawn were much less. But these figures are dwarfed by hercommitment to finance and build the Tanzania-Zambia railway; China could spend$280,000,000 or more for that project.21

This time period marked significant Chinese involvement in African development. This was a

period in which the majority of African countries gained independence and began working to

develop themselves. Beyond the trade

relations that are now ever growing, the

political ties have been and remain strong.

During the 1960s China provided military

and financial to nationalist movements as

well as increasing development dollars -

$100 million. They also sent 150,000

technicians to implement projects in

agriculture, transport, and infrastructure

development. China was involved in

numerous independence movements. In the build-up to democracy in the Democratic Republic

of the Congo, China was providing financial support, but it wasn't enough. After Lumumba was

assassinated by the USA CIA, the Chinese demonstrated en masse. Millions gathered in Peking,

400,000 in Shanghai, which solidified the Chinese influence and support for further

revolutionary movements. A new regime was supported in Tanzania (1964) until Nyerere took

power. Nyerere even adopted the Mao-style uniform. Chinese engineers built a railroad from

20Larkin, Bruce D. China and Africa 1949-1970. University of California Press: Berkley and Los Angeles, 1971.21Ibid, 2.

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Zambia to Dar es Salaam, Tanzania showing the Chinese economic might and proving that

China was serious in Africa. China supported many nationalist and revolutionary movements

(see inset map, Page 9) with arms, money, medical supplies, scholarships, and guerrilla trainings

and camps.

In 1971 China received 76 votes for a permanent UN Security Council seat. Of those

votes 26 were from African countries and by the 1980s fourty-four African countries had

established diplomatic ties with Beijing. These ties soon faded out, but have recently been

rekindled in the 1990s and even more recently in 2006. In the third China-Africa forum of 2006,

48 African countries were represented. During the past three years the Chinese President, Prime

Minister, and Minister of Foreign Affairs have visited almost 20 African countries in efforts to

strengthen diplomatic relations.

China has regained a strong influence in African countries. Their power is unmatched and

their recent wave of settlement unprecedented. This is a point of contention for both Western

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powers that may be afraid of the growing Chinese power and the people of African countries

who should be wary of another possible exploiter. The Chinese may have a history of support,

development and influence, but that does not justify current action.

Colonial Legacy of the USA

Born of European heritage, the USAs Africa policy is not far departed from the same

heritage. From the early American explorers commissioned by European powers, the USAs

Africa policy has been driven by misperceptions and national interests.

One might ask why the Berlin Conference is pertinent to an examination of modern

U.S./African policy issues. The answer, to some may appear elliptical. And that isbecause we were not a party to that Conference or to the spoils of its outcome. Putanother way, the United States was never a colonial power in Africa. And because of thatthe U.S. had a great opportunity to shape post independent relations between Africa andthe West. Indeed, Africans looked to the United States to play a neutral and constructiverole in bridging relations with the West.22

It was seemingly impossible for the USA to play a neutral role when there was so much to gain

from Africa. The USAs past is inexorably linked to the African slave trade and events that

followed, further connections increased with support for Liberia, and exploitation began when its

own multinational corporations became wise to the vast natural resources of the continent.

During the Cold War, the USAs Africa policy was one founded on Soviet

containment.23 The Cold War saw USA involvement in establishing proxy wars to stem the

spread of communism across Africa. The CIA was involved in a number of controversial coups

as well as rebel movements within countries run by governments close to the Soviet Union. As a

result of Cold War policy a number of countries are notably still in turmoil: DRC and Uganda.

With the end of the Cold War some have ventured to say the USA is engaging in a

22Ward, Haskell. Africa: U.S.-Africa Relations Hampered by Colonial Legacy.AllAfrica.com. 10 April 2009.http://allafrica.com/stories/200904100642.html.23Ibid.

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containment strategy for China and also for the war on terrorism. The ideas of containment

for China and terrorism has translated into growing misperceptions about Chinese intentions in

Africa as well as implications for the delivery of development aid by the USA.

Development Aid

Foreign aid; development assistance; foreign investment; these terms are now gaining

another synonym: rogue aid. Rogue aiders are defined as such, "Because their goal is not to help

other countries develop. Rather, they are motivated by a desire to further their own national

interests, advance an ideological agenda, or sometimes line their own pockets. Rogue aid

providers couldnt care less about the long-term well-being of the population of the countries

they 'aid'."24

China is now the largest rogue aid competitor. Moises Naim says, "My friend was visibly

shaken. He had just learned that he had lost one of his clients to Chinese competitors. 'Its

amazing, he told me. The Chinese have completely priced us out of the market. We cant

compete with what they are able to offer'." China can outbid the World Bank in foreign aid

lending power! What does this say for the future of the aid community? What does this say for

the future of development? Naim gives three simple answers as to why China and other countries

are stepping up their aid game. "[...] money, access to raw materials, and international politics."

China now rivals OECD countries of the developed West in providing foreign aid. In 2006-2008,

China provided over $10 billion in loans to African countries.25

Along with the financial crisis, China is becoming a world leader in giving development

24Naim, Moises. Rogue Aid.Foreign Policy. March/ April 2007. http://www.foreignpolicy.com/users/login.php?story_id=3732&URL=http://www.foreignpolicy.com/story/cms.php?story_id=3732.25Naim, Moises. Rogue Aid.Foreign Policy. March/ April 2007. http://www.foreignpolicy.com/users/login.php?story_id=3732&URL=http://www.foreignpolicy.com/story/cms.php?story_id=3732.

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aid and engaging in development projects, especially in Africa. The USA has in recent years

given out more development aid than ever before, specifically in Africa, but this is still dwarfed

by Chinese investment in African development. USA development aid is also increasingly

controlled by the military. Almost 25% of all development funds are implemented by the

military up from just 3%, while USAID has fallen from 65% to less than 40%.26

The gradual shift from USAID to the USA military implementing development aid and

projects has been calculated. Many believe that the advent of AFRICOM and the shift in

development aid funding is a direct response to Chinas growth on the continent. One scholar

says that the USA is launching a new containment strategy for China in Africa via military

presence.27 When asked about the motives of USA development aid, Navy Captain Paul Dies

said, "I can tell you with a straight face, and I swear on my mother's grave, our mission here is

purely humanitarian. There's no ulterior motive."28

The Bush administration has laid the foundation of a new containment strategy for itssuccessor with the establishment of AFRICOM, enabling the United States to leveragemore effectively its soft and hard power assets to contain China. The next administration

will be forced to confront China's rise and its rapidly expanding influence in Africa.Writing in the November/December 2007 issue of Foreign Affairs, Senator John McCainidentified China's rise as a "central challenge" for the next president and cautionedagainst Beijing's expanding economic and diplomatic relations with African nationsSudan and Zimbabwe. In the coming years, Washington's new containment strategy willlikely mature as China's balancing efforts in Africa collide with U.S. interests.29

A few authors of African affairs have noted that members of Obamas transition team are very

supportive of AFRICOM as a means to increase diplomatic relations with Africa, but they are

26Haru, Mutasa. US military aid troubles Africa.Aljazeera. 24 October 2008.http://english.aljazeera.net/news/americas/2008/10/20081023174622900109.html.27Skypek, Thomas M. The Great Game in Africa: Washingtons Emerging Containment Strategy. The WeeklyStandard. 9 October 2008. http://www.weeklystandard.com/Content/Public/Articles/000/000/015/673xzgig.asp.28Haru, Mutasa. US military aid troubles Africa.Aljazeera. 24 October 2008.http://english.aljazeera.net/news/americas/2008/10/20081023174622900109.html.29Skypek, Thomas M. The Great Game in Africa: Washingtons Emerging Containment Strategy. The WeeklyStandard. 9 October 2008. http://www.weeklystandard.com/Content/Public/Articles/000/000/015/673xzgig.asp.

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quick to note that this is a problematic approach to Obamas call for diplomacy first. Disproving

that there is no alternate motive is very easily done when the locations of USA military aid is

implemented.

Another side to Chinese development aid investment can be seen in the form of the

Chinese population. A recent wave of nearly 750,000 Chinese migrants to Africa are not the

first.30In the 1960s Mao Zedong sent people to forge political ties with the continent. This

newest wave or Chinese people is to strengthen the Chinese claims over raw materials and

markets. The head of the China Export-Import Bank has said that he will support this migration

with "investment, project development, and help with the sale of products." Mr. Li says,"There's

no harm in allowing [Chinese] farmers to leave the country to become farm owners [in Africa],"

he added.

Mission of the China Export-Import Bank:

The main mandate of the Bank is to implement the state policies in industry, foreign tradeand economy and finance to provide policy financial support so as to promote the exportof Chinese mechanical and electronic products and high- and new-tech products, tosupport Chinese companies with comparative advantages to "go global" for offshoreconstruction contracts and overseas investment projects, to develop and strengthenrelations with foreign countries, and to enhance Sino-foreign economic and technologicalcooperation and exchanges.

The numbers of Chinese migrants has dramatically increased. A large part of Chinas

development aid policy is that African governments use Chinese contract labor, so the aid

funding goes directly back to China. China's work in the DRC is its largest loan out to any

African country. There are plans to build a road from Kisangani to the Zambian border and a

major railway to connect the mineral rich provice of Katanga to the port city of Matadi. Other

funds are set aside to rebuild the deteriorating mining infrastructure. As well as being the biggest

30French, Howard W. and Lydia Polgreen. Entrepreneurs from China Flourish in Africa.New York Times. 18August 2007. http://www.nytimes.com/2007/08/18/world/africa/18malawi.html.

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loan supplier, China also has the largest building company, China Road and Bridge Construction,

owned by the Chinese government, with 29 projects in Africa (many financed by the World

Bank or other lenders) and offices in 22 African countries.31

A final, but contentious, piece of the development aid debate hinges on Taiwan. When

China launched its Africa policy plan in the 1990s, Taiwan was not a huge issue. Now China has

provided development aid to six African countries that have switched their recognition of

Taiwan. Lesotho and Niger switched their diplomatic recognition to the PRC in 1994 and 1996,

the Central African Republic, Guinea-Bissau, and South Africa switched their recognition from

Taipei to Beijing in 1998, and Liberia switched recognition to Beijing in 2003.

32

It is in the areas of development policy, however, that we and others in the West haveexperienced our greatest failures in Africa. This is so largely because while wellintentioned in many instances, we have sought to export our values and ways of doingthings to Africa. In both the public and private sectors, NGOs notwithstanding, for fiftyyears it has been our way or the highway. Our money or no money. For 50 years our aidto Africa has been tied to our own formulations, priorities and institutions. Theapproaches made by the Bretton Woods financial institutions have not been different. Inlike manner, the major international financial institutions have dictated the terms ofdevelopment under the rubrics of partnership and sustainability while excluding Africansfrom the councils of governance and staff leadership. These institutions, the World Bank,IMF, IFC, and others, have conditioned their aid on structural adjustment and otherprivate sector strategies while shielding themselves from the consequences andaccountabilities associated with outcomes and policy failures.33

Development aid is probably the area of most contention between China and the USA. Some

want to see greater collaboration with the USA helping China reverse its rogue aid policies.

Others criticize both the USA and China in their implementation of development aid. The

Western aid institutions and agency have come under much criticism latterly from withint their

31China opens coffers to minerals.BBC News. 18 September 2007.http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/7000925.stm.32Brookes, Peter and Ji Hye Shin. Chinas Influence in Africa: Implications for the United States. The Heritage

Foundation. 22 February 2006. http://www.heritage.org/research/asiaandthepacific/bg1916.cfm.33Ward, Haskell. Africa: U.S.-Africa Relations Hampered by Colonial Legacy.AllAfrica.com. 10 April 2009.http://allafrica.com/stories/200904100642.html.

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own communities. The Chinese take a policy that is very much in line with the idea of bring up

many countries to the group of dragons, but on the other hand it is often only China that

benefits. The USA follows a fairly rigid policy that has specific national security interests at

heart and nothing more.

Military Support

Both China and the USA have had long time military involvement on the African

continent. From early Chinese military expeditions to exploratory actions of the USA, military

presence in Africa is nothing new. China is often criticized for its small arms trade with corrupt

African governments. The USA is criticized for attempting to have African militaries do its dirty

work through anti-terrorism trainings many of which are held in strategic resource countries.34

Where the USA has not sent troops, China has increased its number of peacekeepers and has sent

active troops of the Peoples Army as a way to strengthen diplomatic ties.35Oddly enough

military support is directly related to development aid.

AFRICOM is seen by some as a milestone in US foreign policy showing that the US

actually does care about Africa. I would say this is a great representation of how we have seen

Africa throughout our policy writing - only important when the USA has a self-interest or gain to

achieve. It seems that the only future for US foreign policy in Africa will be military based. Our

'development' and aid work will be conducted by the military and people will begin looking to

the military for aid and assistance. Kenyan columnist, Salim Lone, sums up the fears of many,

"The military now is going to be working with civil society, to promote health and education.

Africa is going to look at all its development efforts through the lens of the Pentagon. That's a

34Africa Outreach Includes Training, Humanitarian Aid.America.gov. http://www.america.gov/st/peacesec-english/2008/February/20080207152552sjhtrop0.2349054.html.35Brookes, Peter and Ji Hye Shin. Chinas Influence in Africa: Implications for the United States. The Heritage

Foundation. 22 February 2006. http://www.heritage.org/research/asiaandthepacific/bg1916.cfm.

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truly dangerous dimension. We don't need militarisation of Africa, we don't need securitisation

of aid and development in Africa."36 The Association for Concerned African Scholars (ACAS)

has a comprehensive archive of USA military involvement in Africa. The archive lists that every

African country has received military support whether it be supplies or trainings from the USA

military, including the USA base in Djibouti.37

Its the oil, stupid!38As the phrase goes, some experts argue that the real reason that

China and the USA are engaging in development aid and military support is to access the natural

resource wealth of African countries. China has been accused of this in relation to the genocide

in Sudan.

Sudan, which now supplies 7 percent of Chinas total oil imports, has benefited from thelargest Chinese investments. The China National Petroleum Corporation (CNPC) is thesingle largest shareholder (40 percent) in the Greater Nile Petroleum OperatingCompany, which controls Sudans oil fields, and has invested $3 billion in refinery andpipeline construction in Sudan since 1999.39

China has also invested heavily in Angolas oil development and Nigerias. The USA depends

largely on Nigerias oil wealth, but it seems China is cutting in on the business.

Investment in oil development is one thing, but investment by way of military support is

another story. The USA has invested millions of dollars and has conducted hundreds of joint

military trainings with African countries. China is accused of fueling genocide against an ethnic

minority in Sudan through its small arms sales.

Weapons deliveries from China to Sudan since 1995 have included ammunition, tanks,helicopters, and fighter aircraft. China also became a major supplier of antipersonnel and

36Gordon, Daniel. The controversy over Africom.BBC News. 3 October 2007.http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/7026197.stm.37US Military Involvement by Country.Association of Concerned Africa Scholars. 11 February 2003.http://www.concernedafricascholars.org/military/militarysummary.html.38Engdahl, F. William. China and USA in New cold war over Africa's oil riches: its the oil stupid! Global

Research. 20 May 2007. http://www.globalresearch.ca/index.php?context=va&aid=5714.39Brookes, Peter and Ji Hye Shin. Chinas Influence in Africa: Implications for the United States. The Heritage

Foundation. 22 February 2006. http://www.heritage.org/research/asiaandthepacific/bg1916.cfm.

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antitank mines after 1980, according to a Sudanese government official.40

The evidence for military support influencing development aid implementation has

become overwhelming for both China and the USA. Neither country is exempt from blame in

meddling in the affairs of African countries trying to development and build stable economies.

Both countries have long histories of military involvement in Africa from colonial times and

earlier. Neither country is new to playing with African foreign policy. However what is most

important is how China and the USA implement their support. China tends to claim no

involvement in domestic affairs, but their actions often translate into serious domestic effects.

The USA claims to be working towards anti-terrorism (a containment strategy?), but this is often

a larger tactic to get closer to the natural resource wealth of African countries. The policies seem

very similar, but China and the USA come from different cultural traditions that drive their

policy decisions.

Conclusion

The implications for foreign aid both developmental and military, is determined by the

cultural traditions of a particular country as well as a long-standing involvement on the African

continent.

China builds from a philosophy based on bringing everyone up to the same level. They

have had trade relations with African countries since the 14 th Century and take pride in having

been involved in African liberation struggles. The Chinese traditions that look at hegemony,

leadership, and responsibility have translated into their foreign policy actions. The underlying

assumptions of Western/ USA academics shows the continued misperceptions of Chinese

intentions in Africa. While there are a number of problematic policies, the Chinese government

40Chinas involvement in Sudan: arms and oil.Human Rights Watch. November 2003.http://www.hrw.org/reports/2003/sudan1103/26.htm.

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gives responses that follow in the steps of its cultural tradition. With a very long cultural

tradition, China works to push cooperation on the African continent, but to what degree is

cooperation competition for resources?

The USA is, and has always been, very focused on national interest. If there were no

national interest to engaging African countries then the USA would most likely not be there. The

serious shift in implementation of USA foreign aid dollars is very worrisome and does not bode

well for the future of African development practice. The colonial legacy of the USAs policy in

Africa perpetuates the failures of the past into the future of African development. A re-

militaization of Africa is a poor policy for Chinese or terrorist containment and must be re-

evaluated by Obama. The potential for the USA Africa policy to depart from the detrimental

ideas of the Bush administration is very strong under Obama.

While there are problems on both sides of the Africa policies, China and the USA can

learn from each other on how they engage African countries. China has an excellent cooperation

model and the USA has serious potential to support human rights and accountability. As soon as

the Obama administration releases a serious Africa policy brief, scholars and experts can be sure

that the USA is committed to a positive shift in the way Africa has been handled. Since the

1990s China has developed a serious Africa policy and for good reason. They now hold the sway

of the majority of all African leaders and have access to their resources and markets.

Calls for diplomacy can no longer fall on deaf ears as policies shift, foreign aid is

restructured, and economies continue to falter. China and the USA will have to prove to the

world that they are ready to build a working world order. A world order where there are multiple

hegemons: China as a financially stable elder and the USA as a young and ambitious innovator.

There is much that the two countries can collaborate on especially in regards to development

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practice and foreign aid across Africa. The continent needs renewed policies that see outcomes in

an Africa-centered view. The worlds giants can no longer use and abuse the African

continent, rather they need to actively engage Africa if financial and social woes are to be

remedied.

Works Cited:

Africa Outreach Includes Training, Humanitarian Aid.America.gov..

Bristow, Michael. China in Africa, developing ties.BBC News, Beijing. 29 November 2007..

Brookes, Peter and Ji Hye Shin. Chinas Influence in Africa: Implications for the UnitedStates. The Heritage Foundation. 22 February 2006..

Chen, Shirong. China seeks broader Africa role.BBC News. 12 February 2008.

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.

China ready to contribute to the IMF.BBC News. 27 March 2009..

Chinas aid to Africa continues despite crisis. China Daily. 6 February 2009..

Chinas involvement in Sudan: arms and oil.Human Rights Watch.November 2003..

China opens coffers to minerals.BBC News. 18 September 2007..

Ching, Frank. Chinas Africa policy changing for the better.Japan Times. 11 September 2008..

Engdahl, F. William. China and USA in New cold war over Africa's oil riches: its the oilstupid! Global Research. 20 May 2007. .

Eze, C. Paschal. America versus China in Africa: Oil and minerals first.AfricaResults.com..

French, Howard W. and Lydia Polgreen. Entrepreneurs from China Flourish in Africa.NewYork Times. 18 August 2007..

Gordon, Daniel. The controversy over Africom.BBC News. 3 October 2007..

Hansen, Stephanie. Imaging Obamas Africa Policy. Council on Foreign Relations. 22December 2008..

Hanson, Stephanie. China, Africa, and Oil. Council on Foreign Relations. 6 June 2008..

Haru, Mutasa. US military aid troubles Africa.Aljazeera. 24 October 2008..

Holslag, Jonathon. or Is America the New China?Foreign Policy. March 2009. .

Hill, Alex B. Chinese exodus of influence. When not in Africa. 30 January 2008.

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.

Hill, Alex B. No more foreign aid institutions. . .its china. When not in Africa. 4 April 2007..

James, Harold. Is China the New America?Foreign Policy. March 2009..

Krebs, Sylvia. China to Africa, Africa to China. US-China Review. Vol. XXXI, No. 3,Summer 2007.

Krebs, Sylvia. The African Marco Polo in China. US-China Review. Vol. XXXI, No. 3,Summer 2007.

Kurlantzick, Josh, David Shinn and Minxin Pei. Chinas Africa Strategy: A New Approach toDevelopment and Diplomacy. Carnegie Endowment. 12 December 2006.

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Larkin, Bruce D. China and Africa 1949-1970. University of California Press: Berkley and LosAngeles, 1971.

Mederios, Evan S. and M. Taylor Fravel. Chinas New Diplomacy.Foreign Affairs.November/ December 2003. .

Naim, Moises. Rogue Aid.Foreign Policy. March/ April 2007..

Onu, Emele. Africa: Continent Needs U.S.$25 Billion Bailout, Says IMF. ThisDay. 4 March2009. .

Parsons, Talcott and Robert Bales. Family, Socialization and Interaction Process. Routledge,1998 (original 1955).

Sanket. Chinese migrants in Africa (and vice versa). World Bank: People Move. 15 January2009. .

Skypek, Thomas M. The Great Game in Africa: Washingtons Emerging ContainmentStrategy. The Weekly Standard. 9 October 2008..

Tuckey, Beth. Obama: Africa, US Africa Policy, and AFRICOM.Pambazuka News. 6November 2008. .

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USA arms war-torn Africa under guise of humanitarian aid.Pravda.ru..

US Making Peace or Fueling War on the Continent?AfricaFocus. 18 March 2009..

US Military Involvement by Country.Association of Concerned Africa Scholars. 11 February2003. .

Ward, Haskell. Africa: U.S.-Africa Relations Hampered by Colonial Legacy.AllAfrica.com.10 April 2009. .

Zunes, Stephen. Barack Obama on Diplomacy.Foreign Policy In Focus. 17 January 2008..

Annotated Bibliography:

Hansen, Stephanie. Imaging Obamas Africa Policy. Council on Foreign Relations. 22December 2008..

A report published by the Council on Foreign Relations, long a source for international issuesand USA foreign policy analysis, explores the potential of Barack Obama in being a messiah forAfrica and serving a role like a superhero. This CFR article also outlines key national securityinterest that the Obama administration will need to act on in Africa: Sudan, Somalia, and easternCongo (DRC). Many people across Africa are optimistic about the Obama administrationsAfrica policy, however CFR notes that the State Departments Africa Bureau is the smallest anddoesnt have the strength or depth to handle key issues.

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Tuckey, Beth. Obama: Africa, US Africa Policy, and AFRICOM.Pambazuka News. 6November 2008. .

Author, Beth Tuckey, reporting for Pambazuka News focuses on the need for USAs Africapolicy to not focus on military might as an alternative for diplomacy and humanitarian aid. She

notes with skepticism that Obama may be committed to certain ideals for his presidency, but thatdoes not necessarily mean that he will chart a new course for the USAs Africa policy. Tuckeyrepeats the need for Obamas words to match his active commitments in African initiatives.AFRICOM becomes a sticking point as current Obama advisors support the venture as a meansof legitimizing African militaries and gaining access to oil.

Africa Policy - China

Kurlantzick, Josh, David Shinn and Minxin Pei. Chinas Africa Strategy: A New Approach toDevelopment and Diplomacy. Carnegie Endowment. 12 December 2006..

Although a few years have passed since the publication of this report by members of theCarnegie Endowment, it is still a relevant piece for understanding the reasons for changingChinese aspirations in Africa. The report is very comprehensive as it draws from experts bothChinese and other. Five components are outlined that define Chinas Africa policy as it haschanged. Since the report is 2 years old, these components can be reviewed and analyzed.

Ching, Frank. Chinas Africa policy changing for the better.Japan Times. 11 September 2008..

A short article written by a Chinese commentator, this offers a quick look at changes in ChinasAfrica policy over the 2008 year. The author focuses on the Chinese Olympic Games and thequest for oil by China across the continent. Importantly Ching focuses on the portrayal of Chinain the international media as a resource hungry country and not interested in Africandevelopment.

implications for foreign aid across the continent: the shifting africa policies of china and the usa

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