implications for promoting south american tourism ... filetinations based on motivational...

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Implications for Promoting SouthAmerican Tourism Destinations Basedon Motivational SegmentationSaegert, Joel (PhD) (2008). “Implications for Promoting South American Tourism Destina-tions Based on Motivational Segmentation”. EsicMarket, 130, pp. 99-114.E. Bajac, H. (MBA, MSc) (2008). “Implications for Promoting South American Tourism Des-tinations Based on Motivational Segmentation”. EsicMarket, 130, pp. 99-114.Cannon, Thomas. (JD) (2008). “Implications for Promoting South American Tourism Desti-nations Based on Motivational Segmentation”. EsicMarket, 130, pp. 99-114.Hoover, Robert J. (PhD) (2008). “Implications for Promoting South American Tourism Des-tinations Based on Motivational Segmentation”. EsicMarket, 130, pp. 99-114.

AbstractSome 46 examples of empirical reports of tourism market segmentationare cataloged; it is concluded that relatively few of these have reported anattempt to explore market segments from the standpoint of customermotivation that exists upstream from existing offerings. Questionnaireitems designed to reflect upstream motivation based on a model of sevenmotivational classes were administered to a sample of 550 prospectivetourists. Factor analysis isolated six motivational factors and clusteranalysis identified six candidate market segments. These suggest alternati-ve approaches to promoting tourism in South America, beyond the pre-dominant theme of ecotourism.

Keywords: South American Tourism, International Tourism, Market Seg-mentation, Motivation, Tourism Advertising.

JEL Code:

Joel Saegert, PhD. ([email protected]) / Thomas Cannon, JD ([email protected])Department of Marketing. The University of Texas at San Antonio. San Antonio, TX 78249. 210-458-5375. FAX: 210-458-6335.Hector E. Bajac, MBA, MSc.Director of the MBA. Universidad ORT. Urugay. [email protected] J. Hoover, PhDDepartment of Marketing. Idaho State University. Pocatello, Idaho 83209. 208/282-4219.

may · august 2008 · esic market

implications for promoting south american tourism destinationsbased on motivational segmentation

Destinations Based on Motivational SegmentationMarketers well know that their markets are invariably heterogeneous andthat success in business requires careful attention to variations in demandamong relatively homogeneous subgroups within those markets. Tourismmarketers are no different and many attempts have been reported to clas-sify segments within the tourism market. Table 1 shows examples of empi-rical tourism segmentation research (labeled by year and first author) inthe last several decades.

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Year Article Example variables Example Segments

1984 Calontone Season, Benefits Benefits varied by predominant weather1984 Mazanec Benefits Comfort-seekers; Water/sun lovers;

Walking tourists1985 McQueen Various First-timers1985 Perdue Decision timing and experience High vs. Low promotion influence 1985 Woodside Destination benefits National groups1986 Pitts Personal values Eco-friendly1987 Snepenger Novelty-seeking roles Individuals; Explorers; Drifters1988 Davis, D. Activities/Interests/Opinions Haters; Cautious romantics; In-betweeners;

Love ‘em for a reason; Lovers1988 Nichols Demographics Husband/Wife/Joint dominated decision1989 Menezes Personality Aggressive behavior (soccer thugs)1989 Shoemaker Benefits, Motivations Family time; Intellectual-spiritual

enrichment/socialize. 1989 Taylor Motivations, Lifestyle, Benefits, Positive/negative destination image1989 Uysal Broad based Rest/relaxation; Business; Active water1991 Muller Benefits Personal value orientations1992 Rajshekhar Benefits Multiple trip; Touring; Outdoor1993 Mazanec Lifestyle Rocky; Defense; Romance1993 Spotts Motivation, Benefits Inactives; Active reactionists/nonhunters;

Campers; Passive recreationists; Fall color viewers; Active recreationists/hunters

Table 1. Examples of Recent Tourism Segmentation Research


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1994 Mo Demographics, Benefits Novelty seekers; Destination seekers; Social contact seekers; Familiarity seekers

1994 Shoemaker Benefits Get Away/Family; Adventurous/ Educational; Gamblers/Fun Oriented

1995 Cha Motivation Sports Seekers; Novelty Seekers; Family/Relaxation Seekers

1996 Ahmed Experience, Geo region Prior visit vs. not; Geographic origin1998 Formica Motivation, Benefits Enthusiasts; Moderates2000 Diaz- Martin Benefits expectation, Demographics High vs. low expectations2000 Moscarado Benefits Beach relaxation; Inactive; Nature lovers; Beach

resort2001 Arimond Motivations, Benefits Romantic experience; Sports activities;

Scenic/quite/value2001 Leisen Motivations, Benefits Socio-cultural; Natural; Recreational

participative; Natural/Climate2001 Todd Self concept Holiday partners; Happy holiday-makers;2002 Carmichael Motivation, Demographics US vs. Canadian2002 Gonzalez Activities/Interests/Opinions Home-Loving; Idealistic; Autonomous;

Hedonistic; Conservative2002 Hudson Benefits Young, urban, outdoor; indoor leisure;

children-first; fair-weather friends; older cost-conscious

2002 Johns Benefits, Motivation, Demographics Active/Inactive Vacationers2002 Mackay Motivation, Experience, Cultural; Outdoor recreationists; General

Demographics sightseers2002 Orth Motivation, Benefits Traditional/modern; Destination climate;

Education/brain vs. relaxation/ body2002 Weaver Benefits Soft; Hard; Structured ecotourists2003 Andriotis Various First time; Regular; Heavy users2003 Brown Benefits Horse/nonhorse tourists2003 Kim Demographics, Group size Loaners vs. joiners2003 Laws Various Dinosaur specialists; General visitors;

Transit travellers2003 McKercher Culture Benefits Purposeful cultural; Sightseeing cultural; Casual

cultural; Incidental cultural; Serendipitous

Table 1. (Continuation)



As can be seen, researchers have used a wide range of variables to tryto characterize variation among tourists and have claimed evidence formany empirically-derived subgroups. However, relatively few of the stu-dies have attempted to view market segments from the standpoint ofcustomer conditions (concerns and interests) that exist upstream from(i.e., are logically prior to) available tourism destinations; that is, moststudies approach segmentation via reactions to lists of attributes orbenefits that characterize existing offerings. One exception is the paperby McKercher and du Cros (2003) in which tourists are classified interms of their predisposition to cultural sites/activities. A problem withbasing segment classifications on existing benefits of existing goods andservices (cf. Haley, 1968) is that unmet motivations, and thus opportu-nity for profitable offerings, may have been overlooked by the market-place.

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2003 Moskowitz Benefits Not responsive to communications; Room as office; Pamper me; Room as vacation

2003 Olsen Benefits Short break; Short tours; Big tour; Grand tour 2003 Pennington- Benefits, Motivation Stay with friends/relatives; Visit friends/relatives,

Gray. Stay in commercial accommodation; Not visiting friends/relatives but stayed with friends/relatives

2004 Carmichael Benefits Shopping vacation; Short vacation; Getaway; Outdoors and sports; Long vacation;

2004 Dolnicar Benefits Active individual; Health-oriented holiday-makers; Just hangin’ arounds; Tourists on tour; Individual sightseers

2004 Weaver Tourism Attitudes Hinterland protectives; Sharers; Neutrals; Integration ambivalents

2005 Sarigollu Benefits Safety; Accommodation availability; Affordability

Table 1. (Continuation)



The purpose of this paper is to review briefly a model of market seg-mentation based on prospective tourists’ motivations to engage in leisuretravel and to present evidence for motivational variation based on themodel. From this, conclusions are drawn regarding strategic promotion oftourism destinations by countries in South America.

Customer Motivation as the Basis for Market SegmentationFennell (e.g., 1978; Fennell & Saegert, 2004) has proposed that a firm’smarket is defined as people who are predisposed to allocate resourcestoward an activity or experience in a behavioral domain that corres-ponds to the firm’s productive capabilities. For example, the market fora toothbrush manufacturer is people who brush their teeth; the marketfor a pet food producer is people who feed pets. If so, the market for tou-rism offerings must be people who have some degree of predisposition toallocate resources toward touristic travel; moreover, anyone who exami-nes the tourism market will immediately find that the motivating condi-tions within it are heterogeneous. Fennell has further proposed a modelof motivation (Fennell, 1978) that classifies potential conditions ofdemand into seven classes based on qualitative variation among predis-positions to act.

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Motivational classes Example

1 Problem solving I am feeling poorly due to physical/psychological stress.Simple 2 Social/self esteem I feel I owe it to myself to travel.

3 Routine maintenance All destinations seem pretty much the same to me.4 Interest opportunity I want to learn about other cultures.5 Sensory opportunity I want to enjoy spectacular scenery.

Complex 6 Product-caused problem I am concerned about dirty or unhygienic conditions when I travel.

7 Frustration with available options I worry that there isn’t any travel opportunity I haven’t already experienced.

Table 2. Seven motivational classes (Fennell, 1978) with Tourism Examples



Table 2 shows Fennell’s seven motivational classes along with an exam-ple in the domain of predisposition to leisure travel. Each of the motiva-tional classes is based on a specific psychological condition; briefly, theseare: 1) a specific noxious stimulus will persist unless I act; 2) a noxious sti-mulus (experience of low social/self esteem) may occur unless I act; 3) anoxious condition will occur routinely unless I act; 4) I will not experien-ce interest enjoyment unless I act; 5) I will not experience sensory enjoy-ment unless I act; 6) if I act under conditions of any of the above five moti-vations, another noxious condition will occur (approach–avoidance); 7)there seems no action I can take to alleviate any of the above five motiva-tions. Fennell’s (1978) original proposal of the motivational model as wellas many subsequent discussions elaborate these motivational classes in fulldetail.

Exploring the tourism market for heterogeneity of motivationTo explore the tourism market for evidence of upstream motivationalheterogeneity suggested by Fennell’s motivational model, a survey of pros-pective tourists was conducted. Questionnaires were sent via e-mail to4,230 individuals who had requested information for a touristic destina-tion in Texas. Usable responses were received from 550 of these (respon-se rate = 13%). The questionnaire contained items designed to reflectmotivations from each of Fennell’s classes.

ResultsTable 3 shows 28 items designed to reflect the motivational classes in Fen-nell’s model. As can be seen, there was great variability in responses to theitems for the group as a whole with no clear indication that any particu-lar motivational class was predominant.

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Motivational condition Cl M SD

We wanted to attend specific attractions or events that interest us. 4 4.1 1.1We wanted to be stimulated by new experiences and adventures. 4 3.9 1.1We wanted to enjoy spectacular scenery. 5 3.9 1.1We felt we deserved a vacation trip. 2 3.8 1.4We wanted the opportunity to enjoy delicious food. 5 3.8 1.2We wanted to learn about other cultures. 4 3.2 1.4We wanted the opportunity to enjoy luxurious accommodations. 5 3.0 1.3We were concerned about the high cost of vacation travel. 6 2.9 1.3We wanted to enjoy beautiful art or music. 5 2.9 1.3We worried that destinations would be overpriced. 6 2.6 1.3We wanted the sensations of participating in athletic or outdoor activities. 4 2.4 1.3We wanted to get away from severe weather conditions (e.g., too hot/cold). 1 2.3 1.4We worried that we couldn’t enjoy our travel experience because of tourist crowds. 6 2.1 1.2We felt we owed it to our self-esteem to travel. 2 2.1 1.4We were concerned about unsafe conditions. 6 2.1 1.3We were concerned about dirty or unhygienic conditions. 6 2.0 1.3We were concerned that the experience would be less than was promised. 7 1.9 1.1We worried that vacation conditions would be shoddy/poor quality. 6 1.9 1.2We were concerned about people being out to exploit tourists. 6 1.8 1.1All destinations seemed pretty much the same to us. 3 1.5 0.9We worried that local people would be rude to us. 6 1.5 0.9We were feeling poorly due to physical/psychological stress. 1 1.5 1.0We don’t pay much attention to where we would go for our vacation travel. 3 1.4 1.0We worried that there wasn’t any travel opportunity we hadn’t already experienced. 7 1.4 0.8We felt that taking vacations is expected in our social circle. 2 1.3 0.8We were feeling lonely/isolated and wanted more contact with other people. 1 1.3 0.8We let others decide where we would go. 3 1.3 0.6We were feeling poorly because of ill health. 1 1.2 0.5

Table 3. Means and Standard Deviations for 28 Questionnaire Items* Designed to Measure Touristic Motivations (Motivational Classes are Designated Under C1).

*Note: items were worded in the plural to reflect the fact that tourism inquiries typically reflect group ratherthan individual trips.



To explore the sampled tourists for subgroups of relatively homogene-ous demand, responses to the items were subjected to further analysis. Avarimax rotated factor analysis yielded six factors with Eigenvalues grea-ter than 1.0; the factors, including an example of an items loading oneach, are shown in Table 4.

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Factor label (number of items Example itemloading > .4)

I. “We worry…” (9) We worried that vacation conditions would be shoddy/poor quality.II. “Cultural experience” (5) We wanted to learn about other cultures.III. “Poor us” (7) We were feeling lonely/isolated and wanted more contact with other people.IV. “Self-esteem” (2) We felt we deserved a vacation trip.V. “Attractions/ events” (1) We wanted to attend specific attractions or events that interest us.VI. “Athletic/ outdoors” (1) We wanted the sensations of participating in athletic or outdoor activities.

Table 4. Six Factors Extracted from Responses to 28 Tourism Motivation Items

Factor I seems to reflect motivational class 6 (Approach-Avoidance),Factor II suggests class 4 (Interest Opportunity), Factor II, class 1 (Pro-blem Solving), Factor IV, class 2 (Social/self Esteem), Factor V, class 4again and Factor VI, also class 4. That the factor analysis does not reflectdirectly the seven classes the items were intended to represent may stemfrom failure of the items to capture the motivational concern/interestexperienced by respondents. Clearly, further work must be done to esta-blish the validity and reliability of the items as reflections of underlyingtourism motivations; however, the logical appeal of exploring upstreamheterogeneous motivations among prospective customers seems to provi-de the rationale for further investigation.

Non-hierarchical cluster analysis of the factor scores for the seven fac-tors extracted from the data revealed an interesting four-cluster solution.Table 5 shows that three clusters loaded on one or two specific factorswhile a fourth failed to load on any factor. The clusters were labeled as



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1 2 3 4(157) (140) (74) (103)

I We worry… -.06 -.23 1.39 -.58II Cultural Experience -.13 .73 .21 -.91III Poor Us -.35 -.19 1.34 -.31IV Pamper Us .42 .24 -.01 -.89V Events .80 -.62 .16 -.47VI Athletic .07 .23 .37 -.73

Table 5. Cluster scores for Four Clusters on Seven Tourism Factors(Numbers in parentheses indicate number in each cluster; shaded values indi-cate relatively high loadings)

follows: 1. Events/Pamper; 2. Culture; 3. Worry/Poor Us; and 4. NotMuch, the latter to represent the fact that the cluster fails to score high onany tourism motivation factor. Figure 1 shows the factor profiles of thefour clusters graphically. First, the graph shows clearly that the four clus-ters differ dramatically in their loadings on the seven factors. Further, thehigh scores outlined above can be seen as the basis for differentiation.

-1

0

1

Event

s

Cultur

e

Wor

riers

Not m

uch

We worry…

Culture

Poor us

Pamper us

Events

Athletics

Figure 1. Cluster Scores on Seven Tourism Factors



Comparison of Clusters on Benefit ImportanceImportance ratings for 22 destination attributes were also measured inthe survey and means for these were compared among the four clusters.Across the four cluster groups, the highest mean importance rating for“Activities for children” was made by the Events/Pamper Us cluster; thehighest means for each of several cultural events such as “Art gallery,”“Mexican culture,” and “Musical entertainment” were made by the Cul-ture cluster; the highest means for “Attend sports,” “Theme park rides”and “X-treme” sports” were made by the Worry/Poor Us cluster; no des-tination attribute had the highest mean for the “Not Much” cluster. Allof these seem to offer intuitively appealing support for characterizationsof the subgroups identified, especially if it can be conceded that theimportance ratings of the Worry/Poor Us cluster imply concern that dis-tribution characteristics not give them cause for worry in their tourismpursuits.

Extensions of Motivational Theory to South American Destination PromotionsMany South American countries earn revenue or expect to earn revenuefrom promoting the attractions of their countries to prospective touristsworldwide. A systematic review of promotional materials of these coun-tries reveals a strong theme of “ecotourism,” apparently in hopes of cas-hing in on what appears to be a widespread interest in tourism to expe-rience natural beauty in developing countries. Figure 2 shows a potpourriof such promotional efforts.

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DISCOVER URUGUAY

Such advertisements may be attempting to appeal to interest and/orsensory opportunity motivations among those considering tourism acti-vity. Of interest in the context of the present survey project is the apparentexistence of other motivational classes in the tourism market beyond eco-tourism interests; that segments of the tourism market include individuals

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Figure 2. Examples of Typical South American Ecotourism Promotions



who are motivated by other factors, e.g., cultural/athletic events andsocial/self-esteem or that some are motivated to avoid destinations thatpresent potentially unpleasant side-effects provides an indication thatSouth American destinations should consider promoting attractions besi-des “ecotourism” to prospective tourists.

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implications for promoting south american tourism ... filetinations based on motivational...

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