improvement of the quality of basic education in developing countries

7/24/2019 IMPROVEMENT OF THE QUALITY OF BASIC EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES

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Pergamon

Int. J. Educati~mal Development,

Vol. 16, No. 2, pp. 173 184, 1996

Copyright 1996. Elsevier Science Ltd

Printed in Great Britain, All rights reserved

0738-1)593/96 $15 .I~ + 0.(~

0738-0593(95)00040-2

E D U C A T I N G T E A C H E R S F O R T H E I M P R O V E M E N T O F T H E Q U A L I T Y

O F B A S I C E D U C A T I O N I N D E V E L O P I N G C O U N T R I E S

YATTA KANU

I . E . D . , A g a K h a n U n i v e r s i t y , K a r a c h i , P a k is t a n

b s t r a c t

- - I n d i s c u s s i o n s a b o u t i m p r o v i n g t h e q u a l it y o f b a s i c e d u c a t i o n i n th e d e v e l o p i n g

c o u n t r i e s m u c h f o c u s h a s b e e n o n e d u c a t i o n f u n c t i o n i n g to i m p r o v e t h e e c o n o m i c c o n d i t io n s

o f i n d i v id u a l s . B a s i c e d u c a t i o n a s c ri t ic a l l it e r a c y w h i c h e m p o w e r s p e o p l e t o i m p r o v e t h e i r

s o c ia l a n d p e r s o n a l l i v e s b y p a r t i c i p a t i n g p o l i t ic a l ly i n d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g p r o c e s s e s r e l a t i n g t o

e q u i t a b l e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f e c o n o m i c w e a l t h a p p e a r s t o b e m i s s i n g f r o m t h e d i s c u s s i o n o n b a s ic

e d u c a t i o n . G r o u n d i n g h e r a r g u m e n t s i n o b s e r v a t i o n s o f cl a s s r oo m t e a c h i n g i n tw o d e v e l o p i n g

c o u n t r i e s , t h e a u t h o r a r g u e s i n t h i s a r t ic l e t h a t t h e c u r r e n t ' s o c i a l i z a t i o n ' a p p r o a c h t o e d u c a t i o n

i n t h e d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s n e e d s t o b e r e p l a c e d b y i n n o v a t i v e , c r it i ca l a p p r o a c h e s i n v o l v i n g

r e s oc i a li z a ti o n i f b a s i c e d u c a t i o n i s t o p l a y a r o l e i n i m p r o v i n g t h e l iv e s o f t h e m a s s e s . W h a t

s o m e d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s a r e d o i n g i n t e a c h e r e d u c a t i o n t o a c h i e v e t h i s i n n o v a t i o n i s a l s o

d i s c u s s e d .

INTRODUCTION

In the 1990s improving the quality of basic edu-

cation in the developing countries seems to be

at the forefront of the international education

agenda, as evidenced by several conferences

already held in various par ts of the world. ~

It was the theme at the conference of the

Ministers of Education of the Commonwealth

held in Barbados in 1990 and continues to be a

focus of concern for many leading international

educationists.

What exactly constitutes a good quality ba-

sic education remains an area of disagreement

because, as it has emerged in policy planning

and educational discourse and practice, the

concept is multidimensional, with a range of

definitions and interpretations based on how

the term is conceptualized by the different

stakeholders in policy planning and the edu-

cational process.

In the developing world, views of good

quality basic education have ranged from

an instrumentalist conceptualization of edu-

cation, which urges schools to raise the aca-

demic performance of students in their various

school subjects, to increasing the rate of school

enrollment in order to provide educational op-

portunity for every child, to providing children

with the skills necessary to meet their essential

learning needs for survival, security and growth

(Coombs

e t a l . ,

1973).

Many of these views have their origin in the

modernization and human capital theories of

education, which have linked education to eco-

nomic developmentz and influenced not only

educational policy planning in the developing

countries for the past three decades but also

the planning and lending policies of the World

Bank in relation to developing countries?

Admittedly, the World Bank, by regarding

education as a basic need which helps to

meet other basic needs and education as an

activity sustaining and accelerating overall de-

velopment (World Bank, 1980a, p. 86), gives

legitimacy to the multid imensional contribution

of education not only to economic productivity

but also the creation of those conditions that

lead to such other factors as political develop-

ment and social participation.

Despite this recognition, however, percep-

tions of the role of education in development

for most people, and the World Bank itself,

have seldom gone beyond an economic view

of education. Consequently, the function of

basic education as critical literacy that em-

powers people to improve their lives socially

and personally by participating politically in

decision-making processes in relation to issues

such as equitable distribution of economic

wealth has been largely neglected in basic

education. If basic education is to improve

the quality of life for the masses in the de-

veloping countries, its meaning and practice

173


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174

Y A T T A K A N U

m u s t i n c l u d e a c r it ic a l d i m e n s i o n t h a t p r e p a r e s

a n d e n a b l e s p e o p l e t o p a r t i c i p a t e s o c i a l l y ,

p o l i t i c a l l y a n d m e a n i n g f u l l y i n i s s u e s a f f e c t -

i n g t h e i r l i v e s . T h i s m e a n s t h a t g o o d q u a l i t y

b a s i c e d u c a t i o n s h o u l d p r o v i d e c h i l d r e n n o t

o n l y w i t h t h e m i n i m u m e d u c a t i o n n e e d e d t o

b e c o m e a r e s o u r c e f o r p r o d u c t i o n ( M o r a l e s -

G o m e z , 1 9 9 1 ) b u t a l so , e s p e c ia l l y a m o n g t h e

p o o r a n d m a r g i n a l i z e d , w i t h t h e s k il ls , a t t i tu d e s

a n d d i s p o s i t i o n s t h a t w i ll e n a b l e t h e m t o h a v e a

b e t t e r v i s i o n o f li fe a n d s t r iv e t o w a r d s p o s i t i v e

c h a n g e i n t h e s o c i a l , p o l i t i c a l a n d e c o n o m i c

r e a l it i e s in w h i c h t h e y f i n d t h e m s e l v e s .

I n t h e d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t ri e s , m a n y w a y s in

w h i c h g o o d q u a l i t y b a s i c e d u c a t i o n c a n b e

p r o v i d e d h a v e b e e n p u t f o r w a r d . F o r i n s ta n c e ,

B a c c h u s ( 1 9 9 1 ) h a s p r o p o s e d t h a t b e c a u s e o f

t h e c e n t r a l r o l e o f t h e c u r r i c u l u m i n t h e e d u ca L

t i o n a l p r o c e s s a n y e f f o r t t o i m p r o v e t h e q u a l i t y

o f b as i c e d u c a t i o n i n t h e d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s

m u s t b e g i n w i t h a c h a n g e i n t h e c u r r i c u l u m .

A m o n g t he m a n y i n n ov a t iv e a p p r o a c h es t o

c u r r i c u l u m p r a c t i c e B a c c h u s h a s p r o p o s e d a r e

t h e f o l l o w i n g :

- More ac t ive involvement of loca l communi t ies

and teachers in the development of school-based

curriculum to ensu re that i t responds to the needs

of children in different areas of a cou ntry

- The p rod uctio n of more relevant instructional

materials including mo re detailed teache r's guides

and self-instructional materials

Greater use of child-to-child learning possibilities

the development and use of distance education

delivery techniqu es

A more f lexible supervisory relationship between

teachers and school inspectors which allows teach-

ers to try out new ideas

The adoption of m ore innovative teaching strate-

gies.

(Bacchu s, 1991, pp. 21-23)

I n t h i s p a p e r a n a t t e m p t w i l l b e m a d e t o

d e v e l o p i n g r e a t e r d e t a i l B a c c h u s ' s l a s t p o i n t

i n t h is l is t o f p r o p o s a l s a n d a r g u e t h a t i f b a s i c

e d u c a t i o n i s t o b e u s e f u l a t a l l i n i m p r o v i n g

t h e l i v e s o f th e m a s s e s i n th e d e v e l o p i n g

c o u n t r i e s , t h e n t h e p r e p a r a t i o n o f t e a c h e r s

i n a l t e r n a t i v e a n d i n n o v a t i v e a p p r o a c h e s t o

c l a s s r o o m p r a c t i c e b a s e d o n c r i t i c a l l i t e r a c y

s h o u l d b e o f c e n t ra l i m p o r t a n c e i n a n y a t te m p t

a t e d u c a t i o n a l c h a n g e .

T h e r o l e o f c r it i ca l l it e r a c y a n d t h a t o f t h e

t e a c h e r i n e f f e c t i n g s u c h i n n o v a t i o n s n e e d s t o

b e c l a ri f ie d h e r e . U n d e r l y i n g t h e i d e a o f c ri ti c a l

l i t e ra c y is th e b e l i e f t h a t t h e f u n d a m e n t a l e f f o r t

o f e d u c a t i o n i s t o h e l p w i t h r a i s in g c o n s c i o u s -

n e s s a n d t h u s l i b e r a te p e o p l e b y p r o v id i n g t h e m

w i t h c r i t i c a l k n o w l e d g e t h a t l e a d s t o d e s i r a b l e

c h a n g e s i n t h e i r c i r c u m s t a n c e s . I n o t h e r w o r d s ,

b a s i c l i t e r a c y i s i n s u f f i c i e n t i f i t o n l y p r o v i d e s

p e o p l e w i th o p p o r t u n i t i e s t o r e a d a n d w r i te o r

e n c o u n t e r i n e r t b o d i e s o f k n o w l e d g e w i t h o u t

i n v i ti n g t h e m t o t h i n k c r it ic a l ly a b o u t t h a t

k n o w l e d g e , t h e l e a r n i n g p r o c e s s i t se l f a n d t h e i r

s o c i e t y . I t s h o u l d e n a b l e t h o s e w h o e x p e r i e n c e

i t t o r e a d t h e w o r l d c r i ti c a ll y a n d d e m y s t i f y i t

a n d t h o s e d i s t o r t e d p e r c e p t i o n s t h a t h o l d t h e m

i n p a s s i v i t y .

T h e t e a c h e r c l e a rl y b e c o m e s t h e v a n g u a r d o f

t h is e f f o r t . T h e c r u c i a l r o l e o f t h e t e a c h e r i n

b r i n g i n g a b o u t m e a n i n g f u l e d u c a t i o n a l c h a n g e

h a s b e e n r e c o g n i z e d i n b o t h t h e d e v e l o p e d a n d

d e v e l o p i n g co u n t r ie s . F o r e x a m p l e , t h e H o l m e s

G r o u p s t u d y ( 1 9 8 6 ) o n e d u c a t i o n a l r e f o r m i n

t h e U . S . g a v e re c o g n i t io n t o t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f

t e a c h e r s i n e d u c a t i o n a l r e f o r m w h e n i t s t a t e d

c l e a r l y t h a t :

. .

Curriculum plans, instructional ma terials, elegant

classrooms and e v e n . . , intell igent administrators can-

not overcome the negative effects of w eak teaching or

match the positive effects of positive teaching . . . The

entire form al and informal curriculum of the school

is filtered through the hearts and minds of classroom

teachers, m ak ing the quality of s ch oo l learning

dependent on the q uality of teachers.

(Holm es Group, 1986, p. 23)

D u r i n g t h e c o n f e r e n c e o f th e M i n i st e rs o f

E d u c a t i o n o f t h e C o m m o n w e a l t h h e l d in B a r -

b a d o s i n 1 9 9 0 , s i m i l a r r e c o g n i t i o n w a s g i v e n

t o t h e r o l e o f t e a c h e r s w h e n t e a c h e r e d u c a t i o n

w a s i d e n t i fi e d a s o n e o f t h e a r e a s t h a t c o u l d

b e t a k e n u p a t b o t h n a t i o n a l a n d i n t e r n a -

t i o n a l l e v e l s t o i m p r o v e q u a l i t y i n e d u c a t i o n

( C o m m o n w e a l t h R e p o r t c i te d in B a c c h u s , 1 9 91 ).

T h i s p a p e r w i ll s t a rt b y l o o k i n g a t t h e c u r -

r e n t l y d o m i n a n t a p p r o a c h t o c l a s sr o o m i n s t ru c -

t i o n in t h e d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s a s e x e m p l i f ie d

b y t e a c h i n g p r a c t i c e s i n s o c i a l s t u d i e s i n t w o

c o u n t r i e s - - S i e r ra L e o n e i n W e s t A f r i c a

a n d P a k i s t a n i n S o u t h A s i a . T h i s a p p r o a c h ,

w h i c h w i l l b e r e f e r r e d t o a s t h e ' s o c i a l i z a -

t i o n ' a p p r o a c h t o c l a s s r o o m t e a c h i n g , w i l l b e

p r o b l e m a t i z e d a n d i t s e d u c a t i o n a l i m p l i c a t i o n s

f o r t h e d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s w i ll b e d i s c u s se d .

A c a s e w il l t h e n b e a r g u e d f o r a n in n o v a -

t i v e , c r i t i c a l a p p r o a c h t o t e a c h i n g i n v o l v i n g

' r e s o c i a l i z a t i o n ' i n o r d e r f o r b a s i c e d u c a t i o n

t o a c h i e v e i t s l o n g - t e r m g o a l o f e m p o w e r i n g

a n d l i b e r a t in g t h e v a s t m a j o r i t y o f t h e p e o p l e

i n th e d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t ri e s a n d t h e r e b y b e t t e r

p r e p a r e t h e m t o p l a y a m o r e a c t i v e r o l e i n


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IMPROVING BASIC EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES

175

shaping their own lives. The paper will end

with a description of how such innovation

is being currently embarked upon in teacher

education at the newly established Institute for

Educational Development (I.E.D.) at the Aga

Khan University in Karachi, Pakistan.

THE SOCIALIZATION AP PROACH TO

CLASSROOM INSTRUCTION IN THE

SOCIAL STUDIES

The strategies of classroom teaching de-

scribed in this section are based on observations

of teaching social studies in classrooms in cross-

cultural settings in Sierra Leone and Pakistan.

The teaching of social studies in particular has

been chosen for discussion here because it is

the school subject that comprises almost all

the disciplines of the social sciences -- e.g.

history, geography, economics, cultural stud-

ies, anthropology, political science, sociology,

etc. Even though social studies is an integrated

area in the school curriculum, each component

is usually taught as a separate discipline, thus

giving an observer a clear insight into the way

each discipline is handled in the classroom. A

general description of what is practised in the

teaching of social studies in each count ry is first

provided.

SIERRA LEONE

For three months (Augus t-October) in 1991,

the author carried out intense observations of

the teaching of social studies in four class-

rooms in four different schools (two primary

and two secondary) in Sierra Leone. (The

exercise was done as part of her doctoral

research, which inquired into reflective prac-

tice for teacher education in a post-colonial

context) (Kanu, 1993). Through research, the

author had identified various approaches to

reflective practice, which had been classified

as the technical, the practical-interpretive and

the reconstructionist approaches. 4 The aim of

these careful and extended observations was

to find out which of these approaches was

followed in the classrooms observed or if

there were other approaches different from

those identified in the research. The findings

of that study and their implications for teacher

education in Sierra Leone are outside the scope

of this paper. Here discussions will be confined

to the way social studies teaching was carried

out in the classes where the observations were

carried out.

The dominant approach to the teaching of

social studies in the schools observed can be

characterized as one involving the following

steps: teacher asking the students to read

sections of the prescribed textbook; teacher

engaging in a monologue to explain what has

been read to ensure that all the essentials

(usually factual details) have been covered;

and teacher testing the students to see how

well they can recall the material contained in

the reading.

In the primary school classrooms observed,

testing was usually done by children being

asked to fill in the blanks in the worksheets

provided. In the secondary schools students

were asked to answer low-level fact-oriented

questions prescribed at the end of a chapter.

This approach to teaching social studies

was reinforced by the government prescribed

textbooks, which were filled with an incredible

amount of trivia relating to the culture, history

and geography of Sierra Leone that students

were required to remember (at least tempo-

rarily) and that generally managed to avoid

any topics that would generate controversy,

meaningful discussion or critical thinking in

the classroom. Any approach to assessment

and evaluation that required students to apply

what they had learned to new situations or

that would inquire into their own beliefs,

experiences and behaviours as individuals were

markedly absent in all the lessons observed.

PAKISTAN

The scenario of social studies teaching in

Pakistan where the author started teaching in

1993 was equally dismal. For several weeks

she, along with her students at the I.E.D.,

observed social studies classes in seven class-

rooms (classes 4-10) in various primary and

secondary schools run by the government and

private sectors in Karachi. The observations

carried out by the students were part of the

M.Ed. teacher education programme offered

at the Institute. This requires students to carry

out sustained school visits and observations as

a vehicle for reflecting on teaching and making

sense of their own teaching experiences in new

and enlightening ways.

The social studies lessons were conducted in

Urdu (the medium of instruction), which was


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176

YATI A KANU

f o r e i g n t o t h i s a u t h o r , b u t i t w a s e a s y t o s e e

t h a t t h e y w e r e b a s e d o n t h e s a m e e x p o s i t o r y

m e t h o d s o b s e r v e d i n S i e r r a L e o n e . T h e r e w a s

v e r y l im i t e d s t u d e n t p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n t h e l e s s o n s

s e e n . I n b o t h t h e p r i m a r y a n d t h e s e c o n d a r y

s c h o o l s , t h e t e a c h e r d i d a l l t h e r e a d i n g f r o m

t h e t e x t b o o k , e x p l a i n e d w h a t s h e r e a d a n d

a s k e d t h e s tu d e n t s w h e t h e r t h e y u n d e r s t o o d

t h e e x p l a n a t i o n , t o w h i c h t h e y a n s w e r e d J i

( y e s ) i n a c h o r u s . S h e w o u l d t h e n a s k t h e m a

f e w q u e s t i o n s r e q u i r i n g v e r y s h o r t a n s w e r s o r ,

i n t h e c a s e o f t h e p r i m a r y s c h o o l c la s s e s, g i v e

t h e m f i l l - i n - t h e - b l a n k e x e r c i s e s t o a s s e s s t h e

' l e a r n i n g ' t h a t h a d o c c u r r e d . O n o n e o c c a s i o n

i n c l a s s 8 a s t u d e n t r a i s e d h e r h a n d a n d s a i d

s o m e t h i n g i n U r d u t o t h e t e a c h e r w h o s i m p l y

s a id s o m e t h i n g i n r e t u r n a n d c o n t i n u e d w i t h t h e

l e s s o n . I n a c o n v e r s a t i o n l a t e r w i t h o n e o f t h e

I . E . D . s t u d e n t s i t w a s d i s c o v e r e d t h a t t h e s t u-

d e n t h a d r a i s e d a n i ss u e t h a t w a s v e r y p e r t i n e n t

t o w h a t t h e t e a c h e r w a s e x p l a i n i n g a n d t h a t t h e

p o i n t c o u l d h a v e l e d t o a l i v e ly c l a ss d i s c u s s i o n ,

b u t t h e t e a c h e r s i m p l y t o ld t h e s t u d e n t t h a t t h e

p o i n t s h e w a s r a i s i n g w a s n o t i n t h e t e x t b o o k

a n d w e n t o n w i t h t h e l e s s o n . I n c l a s s e s 9 a n d

1 0 , w h i c h w e r e t h e m a t r i c u l a t i o n e x a m i n a t i o n s

c l a ss e s , t e a c h i n g i n v o l v e d m a i n l y n o t e - t a k i n g

f r o m t h e b l a c k b o a r d w i t h b r i e f e x p l a n a t io n s

o f p o i n t s b y t h e t e a c h e r . N o d i s c us s i o ns o r

m e a n i n g f u l i n t e r a c t i o n s b e t w e e n t e a c h e r a n d

s t u d e n t s w e r e o b s e r v e d .

A n e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e g o v e r n m e n t - p r e s c r i b e d

b o o k s u s e d i n t h o s e c l a s s e s r e v e a l e d a m a r k e d

f o c u s o n c u l t u r a l t r a n s m i s s i o n , r e v e r e n c e o f

h i s t o r i c a l f i g u r e s a n d w h a t w a s r e f e r r e d t o a s

' P a k i s t a n I d e o l o g y ' m e a n t t o b e i n c u l c a t e d in t o

s t u d e n t s . A g a i n , a s i n t h e c a s e o f S i e rr a L e o n e ,

t h e r e w a s a n a b s e n c e o f a n y c o n t e n t i n v it i n g

c o n t r o v e r s y i n t h e c l a s s r o o m o r c r e a t iv e a n d

c r i ti c a l t h i n k i n g o n t h e p a r t o f th e s t u d e n t s .

E D U C A T I O N A L I M P L I C A T I O N S

A s s e e n f r o m t h e s e d e s c r i p t i o n s , t h e a p -

p r o a c h e s t o t h e t e a c h i n g o f s o c i al s t u d ie s i n

S i e r ra L e o n e a n d P a k i s ta n a r e r e m a r k a b l y s im i -

l a r , c o n s t i t u t i n g w h a t h a s b e e n l a b e l l e d i n t h i s

p a p e r a s t h e ' s o c i a l i z a t i o n ' a p p r o a c h t o e d u -

c a t i o n . U n d e r l y i n g t h e s o c i a li z a ti o n a p p r o a c h

t o e d u c a t i o n a l p r a c t i c e i s t h e b a s i c a s s u m p t i o n

t h a t t h e r e is a b o d y o f fi x e d 'w o r t h w h i l e '

k n o w l e d g e , w h i c h s t u d e n t s s h o u l d m a s t e r a n d

d i g e s t w i t h o u t r a i s i n g q u e s t i o n s o r d i s c u s s i o n s

a b o u t i t. T e a c h i n g i n t h e s o c i a l iz a t i o n a p p r o a c h

is c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y w h a t t h e B r a z i l i a n e d u c a t o r ,

P a u l o F r e i r e , c a l l s a ' c u l t u r e o f s i l e n c e ' , w h e r e -

b y k n o w l e d g e is g i v e n t o l e a r n e r s w h o a r e n o t

e x p e c t e d t o d i s c u ss , q u e s t i o n o r c h a n g e t h a t

k n o w l e d g e . T e a c h i n g , i n s u c h a s i t u a t i o n , i s a

m o n o l o g i c a l p r o c e ss ( e n g a g e d b y t h e t e a c h e r ) ,

w h i c h l a c k s a n y t h e o r y a b o u t t h e c r e a t i v e

c a p a c i t y o f s t u d e n t s t o i n t e r p r e t w h a t t h e y a r e

t a u g h t a n d b e s t o w i t w i t h t h e i r o w n m e a n i n g s .

A s o n e e d u c a t o r p u t i t o v e r 30 y e a r s ag o :

Learners experiencing this (Socialization) orientation

to education are not, as a rule, given the opportunity

to do things for themselves. They are told or made to

feel that t heir opinions are worthless; that they should

follow, not lead; listen and remember , not work things

out for themselves.

(Duminy, 1973, p. 27)

B e c a u s e i t f a i l s t o r e l a t e t e x t b o o k k n o w l -

e d g e t o t h e n e e d s , c i r c u m s t a n c e s , e x p e r i e n c e s

a n d r e a l i t ie s o f t h e l e a r n e r s b u t , r a t h e r , e m -

p h a s iz e s a n u n q u e s t i o n e d a c c e p t a n c e o f an d

a c q u i e s c i e n c e t o t h e t e a c h i n g s a n d b e l i e f s o f

a u t h o r i t y f i g u r e s t h e s o c i a l i z a t i o n a p p r o a c h

e f f e c t i v e ly a l i e n a t e s l e a r n e r s f r o m t h e e d u -

c a t i o n a l p r o c e s s a n d h a s b e e n i d e n t i f i e d a s a

m a j o r f a c t o r c o n t r i b u t i n g t o t h e h i g h s t u d e n t

d r o p - o u t r a t e f r o m s c h o o l i n t h e d e v e l o p i n g

c o u n t r i e s .

I t i s n o t b e i n g a r g u e d h e r e t h a t s c h o o l s

s h o u l d n o t s o c i a l i z e s t u d e n t s i n t o c e r t a i n c u l -

t u r a l n o r m s c o n s i d e r e d a s v a l u a b l e t o t h e i r

s o c i e t i e s o r t h a t s t u d e n t s s h o u l d n o t b e t a u g h t

s u c h t h i n g s a s t h e i r n a t i o n ' s h i s t o r y o r t h e

v a l u e s u n d e r l y i n g t h e i r c u l t u r a l a n d r e l i g i o u s

p r a c t i c e s t h r o u g h s o c i a li z a t io n . E v e r y s o c i e t y

p r a c t i s e s a f o r m o f s o c i a l i z a ti o n b y t r y i n g

t o i n d u c t i t s y o u n g p e o p l e i n t o i t s v a l u e s ,

b e l i e f s y s t e m s a n d b e h a v i o u r s a s a w a y o f

h o l d i n g t h a t s o c i e t y t o g e t h e r a n d p r e s e r v i n g

i t s t r a d i t i o n s a n d p r a c t i c e s . H o w e v e r , I t h i n k

t h a t a s c h i l d r e n m a t u r e i n t o a d u l t s t h e i r e d u -

c a t io n s h o u l d p r o v i d e t h e m w i th o p p o r t u n i t i e s

t o e x a m i n e a n d e v a l u a te w h a t t h e y h a v e b e e n

s o c i a l i z e d i n t o i n o r d e r t o s e e i t s r e l e v a n c e t o

t h e i r o w n l i v e s a n d t i m e s . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , t h i s

c r i t i c a l a n d q u e s t i o n i n g d i m e n s i o n i s m i s s i n g

f r o m t h e e d u c a t i o n o f y o u n g p e o p l e i n sc h o o l s .

T y p i c a l l y , f o r i n s t a n c e , a s c h o o l s u b j e c t l ik e

h i s t o r y i s t a u g h t a s i f t h e h i s t o r i c a l s t a t e m e n t s

r e p o r t e d i n t h e t e x t b o o k s a r e n o t b a s e d o n

i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s b y t h e w ( i .t er s o f t h e b o o k s ,

w i t h a l l t h e b i a s e s a n d v e s t e d i n t e r e s t s t h a t

a c c o m p a n y s u c h i n te r p r e t a ti o n s . W h e n h i s to r y

i s t a u g h t t h i s w a y t h e t e a c h e r i s s o c i a l i z i n g


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IMPROVING BASIC EDUCATION

s t u d e n t s i n t o a b o d y o f ' t r u t h s ' a s s u m e d t o b e

b e y o n d q u e s t i o n i n g , c r i t i c i s m o r m o d i f i c a t i o n

t h r o u g h r e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . M a n y t e a c h e r s p r a c -

t i s e t h i s s o c i a l i z a t i o n a p p r o a c h t o t h e t e a c h i n g

o f h i s to r y i n o r d e r t o d e v e l o p ' p a t r i o t i s m ' i n

t h e i r s t u d e n t s . H o w e v e r , s u c h a n u n c r i ti c a l w a y

o f t e a c h i n g p a t r i o t i s m o r n a t i o n a l i s m d e n i e s

s t u d e n t s t h e h i s t o r i c a l i n s i g h t s t h e y n e e d t o

i n t e r p r e t a n d s h a p e a l t e r n a t i v e f u t u r e s t h a t a r e

r o o t e d i n t h e i r h i s t o r i c a l r e a l i t i e s . A s w e l l , i t

f a il s t o h e l p s t u d e n t s d e v e l o p t h o s e i m p o r t a n t

c r i t i c a l i n s i g h t s t h a t l e a d t o a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g

o f t h e h u m a n c o n d i t i o n i n a w o r l d t h a t i s

i n c re a s in g l y b e c o m i n g a h i gh l y i n t e r d e p e n d e n t

g l o b a l c o m m u n i t y .

S i m i l a r l y , b a s i c e d u c a t i o n t h a t i n d o c t r i n a t e s

s t u d e n t s i n t o p a r t i c u l a r r e l i g i o u s i d e a l s d o e s

n o t s e r v e a u s e f u l p u r p o s e t o i m p r o v e t h e

q u a l i t y o f t h e i r l i v e s n o w o r i n t h e f u t u r e .

W h a t is n e e d e d is a n a p p r o a c h t o th e t e a c h i n g

o f re l i g io n t h a t h e l p s s tu d e n t s t o b e c o m e a w a r e

o f t h e c o n s i s t e n c i e s o r i n c o n s i s t e n c ie s b e t w e e n

r e l i g i o u s i d e a l s a n d t h e b e h a v i o u r s e x i s t i n g

i n t h e i r s o c i e t y . T h i s w a y , t h e c r i t i c a l a n d

r e f l e c ti v e ' w i d e - a w a k e n e s s ' n e e d e d t o b r i d g e

l h e g a p b e t w e e n r e l i g i o u s i d e a l s a n d r e a l i t y

i s c r e a t e d , t h u s b e t t e r p r e p a r i n g s t u d e n t s t o

i m p r o v e t h e i r s o c i e t y .

S o c i a l i z a t i o n c a n h a v e p o l i t i c a l i m p l i c a t i o n s

a s w e l l , b e c a u s e , i n t h e w r o n g h a n d s , i t c o u l d b e

e a si ly t u r n e d i n to a n i n s t r u m e n t o f d o m i n a t i o n .

I n m a n y d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s s o c i a l i z a t i o n i s

a c t iv e l y e m p l o y e d a s a n e d u c a t i o n a l a p p r o a c h

t o s u b m e r g e t h e c o n s c i o u s n e s s o f t h e v a s t

m a j o r i t y o f t h e p e o p l e a n d t h u s p r e s e r v e t h e

p o w e r f u l p o s i t i o n s t h a t t h e r u l i n g a n d e l i t i s t

c l a s s e s , a s w e l l a s o t h e r v e s t e d i n t e r e s t g r o u p s ,

h o l d i n t h e s e c o u n t r i e s . A n d t h e p r o c e s s e s

i n v o l v e d i n t h is a r e n o t d i f fi c u l t t o s e e . A s a n e f -

f e c t iv e m e a n s o f b r i n g i n g c h i l d r e n t o f it i n t o t h e

e x i s ti n g s o ci a l o r d e r , t h e s o c i a l iz a t i o n a p p r o a c h

is n o t c o n c e r n e d w i t h d e v e l o p i n g t h e i n t e l l e c t,

c r e a t i v e c a p a c i t y o r i n d e p e n d e n t - m i n d e d n e s s

o f in d i v i d u a l s . I t s g o a l is t o e n c o u r a g e c o n -

f o r m i t y t o e x i s ti n g id e a l s a n d t h u s e n s u r e

t h e c o n t i n u i t y o f t h e s t a t u s q u o . S o c i a l i z a ti o n

is n o t r e f l e c t iv e , f o r it d o e s n o t e n c o u r a g e

i n d i v i d u a l s t o t h i n k c r i t i c a l l y , a n a l y s e r e a l i t y

o r s u p p o r t v i e w s t h a t t h e y m i g h t h o l d w i t h

r e a s o n a n d e v i d e n c e . C h i l d r e n e x p e r i e n c i n g

e d u c a t i o n b a s e d o n s o c i a l i z a t i o n o f t e n c o m e

t o a c c e p t t h e i r w o r l d a s a g iv e n a n d a r e n o t

p r o n e t o c h a l l e n g i n g e x i s t in g p r a c t i c e s t o a r r i v e

a t a l t e r n a t i v e v i e w s o f t h e w o r l d a n d t h e i r

IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES

177

p l a c e i n i t . A s a n e d u c a t i o n a l a p p r o a c h , i t

d i m i n i s h e s t h e i n d i v i d u a l ' s p o t e n t i a l t o b e c o m e

s o m e t h i n g o t h e r t h a n w h a t h a s b e e n p r e s c r i b e d

o r p r e d i c t e d .

A n a d d i t i o n a l d e b i l i t a t i n g s h o r t - c o m i n g o f

t h e s o c i a l i z a t i o n a p p r o a c h t o t e a c h i n g i s i t s

o u t r i g h t n e g l e c t o f t h e k e y r o l e o f v a l u e s i n

t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g a n d c o n s t r u c t i o n o f w h a t a

s t u d e n t i s t a u g h t . I n a l l t h e s o c i a l s t u d i e s c l a s -

s e s d e s c r i b e d a b o v e , t h e t e a c h e r ' s e x p o s i t o r y

m e t h o d s i m p l i e d o n e o f t w o t h in g s : e i t h e r th e

t o p i c s t h e y w e r e t e a c h i n g w e r e v a l u e f r e e o r th e

v a l u es e m b e d d e d i n o r u n d e r ly i n g t h e m w e r e

f i x e d b e l i e f s t o b e t a k e n o n f a i t h o r a u t h o r i t y

w i t h o u t b e i n g q u e s t i o n e d b y c h i l d re n . V a l u e s

a r e n o t f i x e d e n t i ti e s t h a t c a n b e h a n d e d

d o w n i n t a c t f r o m a d u l t s t o c h i l d r e n o r f r o m

g e n e r a t i o n t o g e n e r a t i o n . H o w a p a r t i c u l a r

v a l u e i s t o b e t a k e n o r a p p l i e d d e p e n d s o n

t h e c i r c u m s t a n c e s a n d t i m e s . B e c a u s e t i m e s

a n d c i r c u m s t a n c e s a r e n o t s t a t i c b u t a r e c o n -

s t a n t l y c h a n g i n g , v a l u e s a n d t r a d i t i o n a l b e l i e f

s y s t e m s s h o u l d b e i n t e r p r e t e d c a s e b y c a s e

a n d g e n e r a t i o n b y g e n e r a t i o n . T h i s a u t h o r h a s

a r g u e d e l s e w h e r e ( K a n u , 1 9 93 ) t h a t , i n d e e d ,

t o c o n t i n u e t o b e h u m a n i n a d e e p s e n s e i s

t o p o s s e s s t h e p o l i t i c a l w i l l t o r e a d t r a d i t i o n a l

n o r m s a n d v a l u e s as o p e n - e n d e d t e x ts n e e d i n g

c o n s t a n t r e r e a d i n g a n d r e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i n l i g h t

o f e m e r g i n g s i t u a t io n s , a s o p p o s e d t o r e a d i n g

t h e m a s c l o s e d e n t i t i e s t h a t b a r a l t e r n a t i v e

p o s s i b i l i t i e s e v e n w h e n c i r c u m s t a n c e s p o i n t u p

t h e n e e d .

W h e t h e r w e r e c o g n i z e i t o r n o t , t h e v a l u e s

w e h o l d a r e t h e k e y t o t he w a y w e b e h a v e

t o o u r fe l l o w h u m a n b e i n g s a n d i n t e r p r e t a n d

d e a l w i t h a c e r t a i n g i v e n r e a l i ty . A s o c i a l

s t u d i e s c u r r i c u l u m t h a t f o c u s e s o n t h e t r a n s -

m i s s i o n o f f a c t s a n d n e g l e c t s t o d e a l w i t h

v a l u e p ro b l e m s e m b e d d e d i n t e x t b o o k s s t op s

f a r s h o r t o f te a c h i n g c h i l d r e n h o w t o t h i n k

i n t e l l i g e n t l y a b o u t t h e r e a l w o r l d . T o d a y ' s

c h i l d r e n a r e t o m o r r o w ' s a d u l t ci t iz e n s c h a r g e d

w i t h d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g r e s p o n s i b il i ti e s . T o c a r r y

o u t t h e s e r e s p o n s i b il i ti e s p r o p e r l y s u c h c i t iz e n s

m u s t b e a b l e t o i d e n t i f y a n d c l a r i fy th e i r o w n

v a l u e s b e f o r e t h e y c a n a c t t o s o l v e p e r s o n a l

p r o b l e m s o r i n f l u e n c e p u b l i c p o l i c y . B a s i c

e d u c a t i o n a i m e d a t im p r o v i n g t h e q u a l it y o f

l i f e f o r c i t i z e n s m u s t p r o v i d e c i t i z e n s w i t h t h e

s k il ls n e c e s s a r y t o m a k e r e f le c t i v e d e c i s io n s b y

e x a m i n i n g v a l u e s ( t h e ir s o r i m p o s e d ) , c l a r i fy i n g

t h e m a n d r e l a t i n g t h e m t o f a c t s t h e y h a v e a t

h a n d . I n d o c t r i n a t i n g c h i l d r e n i n t o c o r r e c t'


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178

Y A T r A K A N U

values by means of didactic inculcation or

treating value problems as invisible in the

classroom is not only pedagogically unsound,

but it also denies children a most effective

decision-making tool.

If basic education is to make a difference

in the lives of those experiencing it, then

classroom instructional strategies should be

reconsidered and recast in new ways based

on resocialization of students within which

they are encouraged to carefully and critically

examine the facts and values they encounter

and their taken-for-g ranted ways of looking at

the world. Students should be taught to make

sense of the world through questioning, inquir-

ing and considering alternatives and making

decisions based on careful deliberation. In

this way basic education prepares them to

participate more actively in the shaping of

their lives. How we might educate teachers for

a new teaching role based on resocia lization

and what some developing countries are doing

to realize such a goal is the focus of the next

section of this paper.

EDUCATING TEACHERS FOR

RESOCIALIZATION

In the preceding pages it has been argued

that current instructional strategies in class-

rooms in many developing countries are based

on a socialization approach, and the educa-

tional/political implications of this approach to

education have been discussed. Evidence sug-

gests that this approach to educational practice

has thus far not led to any meaningful trans-

formation in the attitudes and dispositions of

the vast majority of the people experiencing it.

Despite this, it remains the dominant approach

to education in these countries. How can this

phenomenon be explained?

There are several reasons for this, three

of which are pertinent here. First, as was

pointed out earlier, there are powerful forces

in these countries serving to maintain such an

approach to education because it works in their

own interests. In the developing societies (as

indeed in many others) a great disparity exists

between a small group of people who are rich

and powerful and a vast majority who are

poor, powerless and down-trodden. As long as

this majority is made to continue experiencing

education as a process of socialization into the

existing ways of life and the dominant beliefs

in their society, and not as an opportunity to

question these beliefs and practices, how they

came to exist and whether they need to be

changed, the rich and powerful classes will

continue to enjoy their privileged lives.

Second, the indigenous approach to the

education of young people in many developing

societies depends heavily on the socialization

process. A major objective of indigenous edu-

cation in these societies is the preservation of

the tribal or community heritage done largely

through the transmission of community values,

such as unquestioned respect for adults and

their teachings, and moral and religious be-

liefs, to name a few. The successful trans-

mission of these values requires unquestioned

obedience and conformity on the part of the

educands. Although this approach to pedagogy

has sometimes helped to hold the community

together and has minimized the loss of parental

control over children in these cultures, the

approach can be inimical to children because

it transforms them into youngsters who, though

biologically equipped with the same keen in-

terests and imagination as their counterparts

from other cultures, quickly come to lack

the spirit of initiative, creativity and critical

thinking. Such an educational process produces

what one might refer to as over-socialized

individuals for the world that is changing so

rapidly around them.

Third, apart from the indigenous pedagogical

tradition described above, many developing

countries are emerging from over 200 years

of colonial rule and domination during which

they experienced educational approaches that

were based on socialization into the culture of

their colonial masters. A major goal of colonial

education was the assimilation of the colonized

people into the habits and ways of thinking of

the colonizers, and the content and teaching

methodologies employed in classrooms during

the colonial period were all aimed at achieving

this purpose. The content knowledge offered

was foreign to the colonized people, divorced

from their histories, reality and experiences and

transmitted to them in a way that discouraged

any questioning of this knowledge. The aim was

to discourage critical thinking in the colonized

people so that they would make no demands

for independence from their colonizers. Even

though these countries are now independent,

but because they were effectively socialized

into colonial ways of doing things, many of


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IMPROVING BASIC EDUC ATI ON IN DEVE LOPI NG COUNTRIES 179

their practices, including those of education,

remain firmly rooted in the colonial system.

Thus, education continues to be delivered in

a transmission mode that allows little or no

questioning by those receiving it. Teachers

find the method simple and straightforward,

involving no controversy and leaving them in

complete control in the classroom. As well, its

outcomes are easier to measure and, therefore,

favoured by those who wish to see teaching not

as the flux that it is but as a straightforward job

involving no ambiguities.

Thus, firmly embedded in political interests

and pedagogical practices that are difficult to

uproot, the socialization approach to education

poses a significant challenge to any attempt to

bring about educational reform based on an

innovative, critical approach. And yet, because

of its woeful inadequacy as a liberatory tool,

there is need to move beyond this orientation to

educational practice towards alternative prac-

tices that will bring about those emancipatory

norms towards which all good quality basic

education should be oriented.

The crucial role of the teacher in the edu-

cational process puts teacher education at the

centre of this task. As teachers themselves are

the products o f the socialization system, efforts

to educate them for this new teaching role need

to be guided by certain principles considered

as important to resocialization . The first of

these principles involves a recognition that the

teaching/learning process should foster the hab-

its of social criticism, independent and critical

thinking and questioning of existing realities, so

that those experiencing education can come to

realize that through their own effort they can be

instrumental in creating an alternative world.

The second principle involves a reappraisal of

what has been learned through the process

of socialization so that such knowledge is

now interpreted and understood within wider

social, political and economic configurations.

The third principle relates to understanding

the dynamics involved in the psychology of so-

cialization within which people internalize the

ideologies embedded in certain actions, values

and traditions they encounter, sometimes to the

point where these ideologies become second

nature and their origins and histories are either

forgott en or cease to be questioned. Educating

teachers to underst and and unravel this type of

psychology means preparing them for instruc-

tional approaches that abandon the expository

modes of teaching in favour of methods that

allow students to question basic assumptions

of their society in the quest for a better life for

all. It requires teacher education that prepares

teachers in the skills that build up or restore

the confidence and dignity of their students as

human beings whose views and experiences are

recognized and honoured in the teaching/learn-

ing process. It also involves teacher education

that builds an awareness in its participants that

the resocialization approach involves difficul-

ties and is more intellectually demanding than

the transmission approach, but that, if they

consider their teaching acts as a central issue

in the struggle for a better world, then they

should be prepared to put in the extra resources

needed to achieve this goal.

Implicit in the principles outlined above is a

teacher education programme based on critical

reflection so that teachers become reflective,

critical inquirers who, through modelling, will

eventually pass on the habits of critical reflec-

tion and inquiry to their students. Reflective

teachers are those who possess the capacity to

surpass the given, look at things as if they could

be otherwise. That teaching is not a neutral act

and that teachers , consciously or not, do help to

organize the way students perceive themselves

and the world is no longer in dispute. Teachers

who are prepared to go beyond the given and

aim for a better society are likely to influence

the thinking of their students towards similar

views. This is the vision of teacher education

and teaching that developing countries must

work towards if education is to serve to improve

the quality of life for the masses. The final

section of this paper describes what is being

done in one developing country, Pakistan, to

realize this vision.

THE I.E.D. PROJECT AT THE AGA

KHAN UNIVERSITY

The Institute for Educational Development

(I. E.D .) came into operation in July 1993 as

part of the Aga Khan University in Karachi,

Pakistan. This university was opened 11 years

~igo with the purpose of promot ing the welfare

of the people of Pakistan and other developing

countries through the provision of health and

educational services. The I.E .D. s establish-

ment is seen by many as a timely intervention in

the attempt to address the acute and appalling

problems in the educational system of Pakistan,


8/12

180 YATF A KANU

w h i c h h a s b e e n d e s c r i b e d a s b e i n g ' in a s t a te o f

c r is is ' .5 T h e p r e d i c a m e n t o f t e a c h e r e d u c a t i o n ,

i n t h i s d i s m a l s c e na r i o , i s pa r t i c u l a r l y s e ve r e ,

r e q u i r in g i m m e d i a t e a t t e n t i o n t o n o t o n l y th e

t ra in i n g a n d d e p l o y m e n t o f n e w t e a ch e r s b u t

a l s o t h e i m p r o v e m e n t a n d d e v e l o p m e n t o f

t hos e a l r e a dy s e r v i ng i n t he na t i on ' s s c hoo l s .

T h e r a p i d l y e x p a n d i n g s y s t e m o f e d u c a t i o n

i n P a k i s t a n r e q u i r e s m o r e t r a i n e d t e a c h e r s

t h a n a r e c u r r e n t ly b e i n g p r o d u c e d b y t h e

f o r m a l t e a c h e r t r a i n i n g s y s t e m i n t h e c o u n t r y .

A c c o r d i n g t o r e c e n t e x t e r n a l a s s e s s m e n t , 6 t h e

g o v e r n m e n t ' s S e v e n t h P l a n , w h i c h c a m e i n t o

op e r a t i o n i n 1988 , c a ll s f o r 10 , 000 m or e t r a i ne d

t e a c h e r s e a c h y e a r ( i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e c u r r e n t

a n n u a l t h r o u g h p u t o f 2 5 , 0 0 0) t o m e e t c u r r e n t

e d u c a t i o n a l n e e d s i n P a k i s ta n . W i t h a n a t i o n a l

b u d g e t a l l o c a ti o n o f o n l y 1 . 6 % t o t e a c h e r

e d u c a t i o n o n e c a n s a y w i th a fa i r a m o u n t o f

c e r t a i n t y t h a t t h i s d e m a n d w i l l n o t b e m e t i n

t h e i m m e d i a t e f u t u r e .

A p a r t f r o m t h e q u a n t i t a t i v e d i m e n s i o n , t h e

qua l i t a t i ve d i m e ns i on i s a l s o s t a gge r i ng i n i t s

p r o p o r t i o n . A v e r y h ig h p r o p o r t i o n o f te a c h e r s

a t p r i m a r y a n d s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l l ev e l s h a v e

n o p r o f e s s i o n a l t e a c h i n g q u a l i f i c a t i o n , m a n y

o f t h e m n o t b e i n g e d u c a t e d b e y o n d s e c o n d a r y

s c hoo l le ve l . E x c e p t i n ye a r s o f f o r m a l t r a i n i ng ,

t h e r e is n o o b s e r v a b l e d i f f e re n c e i n q u a l i ty b e -

t w e e n t r a i n e d a n d u n t r a i n e d p r i m a r y t e a c h e r s

a nd , w i t h ve r y l ow s a l a r i e s pa i d t o t e a c he r s i n

P a k i s t a n , t h e r e i s n o i m m e d i a t e d e s i r e a m o n g

u n q u a l i f i e d t e a c h e r s t o i m p r o v e a n d u p g r a d e

t h e m s e l v e s a c a d e m i c a l l y o r p r o f e s si o n a l ly .

T h e c r i s i s i n e d u c a t i o n i s c o m p o u n d e d b y

a n a p p r o a c h t o c l a s s r o o m i n s t r u c t i o n t h a t c o n -

sp i re s to c r ipple l e a rne r s in te l l ec tua l ly . I t i s

a t e a c h e r - d o m i n a t e d a p p r o a c h t o c l a s s r o o m

t e a c h i ng w i t h i n w h i c h i n f o r m a t i on i s s i m p l y

t r a n s f e r r e d f r o m t h e t e a c h e r ' s h e a d t o t h e h e a d s

o f th e s t u d e n ts . T h i s a p p r o a c h , e m p l o y e d b o t h

i n th e e d u c a t i o n o f t e a c h e r s a n d s c h o o l p u p i ls ,

a s s u m e s t h a t k n o w l e d g e i s a n i n h e r e n t l y s t a t i c

a n d u n p r o b l em a t i c p h e n o m e n o n t o b e p o u r e d

i n t o l e a r n e r s t h r o u g h t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n m o d e o f

t e a c h in g . A s s u m p t i o n s o f t h is k i n d i g n o r e t h e

s o c ia l ly c o n s t r u c t e d n a t u r e o f k n o w l e d g e a n d

t h e r e a l i ty t h a t l e a r n e r s a r e c a p a b l e o f b o t h

i n t e r p r e t i n g k n o w l e d g e a n d c o n s t r u c t i n g t h e i r

o w n k n o w l e d g e a r o u n d t h e i r o w n e x p e r i e n c e s

a nd unde r s t a nd i ngs . I t a l s o de n i e s l e a r ne r s

t h e o p p o r t u n i t y t o p r o c e s s a n d e x a m i n e i n a

c r i ti c a l w a y t he i n f o r m a t i on de l i ve r e d a nd r a i s e

que s t i ons r e l a t i ng t o i t s r e l e va nc e , u s e f u l ne s s

a nd a pp l i c a t i on t o t he i r l i ve s . T he e duc a t i on

r e c e i v e d i s s o r e m o t e f r o m t h e i r e v e r y d a y

e x pe r i e nc e s a nd ne e ds t ha t i t i s s i m p l y f i l e d

a w a y i n t h e ir h e a d s , a n d i n t h e p r o c e s s t h e y

t h e m s e l v e s a r e f i l e d a w a y a s h u m a n b e i n g s

(Fre i re , 1990) .

F u r t he r , a s m e n t i o ne d e a r l i e r , t he r e is a

g e n e r a l l o w l e v el o f e d u c a t i o n a m o n g t e a c h e r s

t he m s e l ve s . I n t h is r e ga r d , P a k i s t a n i s s i m i l a r t o

m a n y d e v e l o p i n g c o u n tr i es w h e r e b o t h p r i m a r y

a n d s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l t e a c h e r s h a v e n o f u r t h e r

e d u c a t i o n b e y o n d s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l l e v e l . I n

a d d i t i o n t o t h e i r l a c k o f c o n t e n t k n o w l e d g e ,

m a n y o f th e t e a c h e r s h a v e n o t r e c e iv e d a n y

p r o f e s s i ona l t r a i n i ng i n t e a c h i ng t o e nha nc e

t h e i r q u a l i ty o f p e r f o r m a n c e i n s ch o o l s . A l -

t h o u g h t h e r e c r u it m e n t a n d d e p l o y m e n t o f s u c h

u n t r a i n e d a n d u n q u a l i f i e d t e a c h e r s h a s h e l p e d

t o a d d r e s s t h e p r o b l e m o f t e a c h e r s h o r t a g e i n

t h e r a p i d l y e x p a n d i n g e d u c a t i o n a l s y s t e m s i n

t he s e c o un t r i e s , t he a b i l i t y o f t he s e t e a c h e r s

t o b e c o m e m o r e a c t i v e l y i n v o l v e d i n t h e s u c -

c e s sf u l i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f c u rr i c u lu m c h a n g e

o r t o e m b a r k u p o n a l t e r n a t i v e i n s t r u c t i o n a l

r e s pons i b i l i t i e s i s s e ve r e l y ha nd i c a ppe d .

I n t he l i gh t o f a ll t he s e p r ob l e m s , t he r o l e

o f t h e I . E . D . is t o p r o v i d e p r a c t is i n g t e a c h e r s

w i t h a n e d u c a t i o n t h a t w i l l n o t o n l y m e e t

t h e i r n e e d s in th e e n h a n c e m e n t o f t h e c o n t e n t

k n o w l e d g e o f t h e v a r i o u s s u b j e c t s t h e y t e a c h ,

bu t w i l l a l s o i n t r oduc e t he m t o i nnova t i ve

a p p r o a c h e s t o t h e t e a c h i n g o f t h e s e s u b je c t s

t ha t w i l l r e s u l t i n t he pe r s ona l a nd i n t e l l e c t ua l

g r o w t h o f t h e s t u d e n t s a n d , c o n s e q u e n t l y , t h e

i m p r o v e m e n t o f t h e i r li v es t h r o u g h e d u c a t i o n .

T h e r e i s a m p l e e v i d e n c e i n t h e d e v e l o p i n g

c ou n t r i e s t ha t i f t he s k ill s a nd kn ow l e dge

o f t e a c h e r s a l r e a d y p r ac t is i n g a r e u p g r a d e d

c ons t a n t l y t h r ough i n - s e r v ic e tr a i n ing , t he qua l -

i t y o f e d u c a t i o n o f f e r e d i n s c h o o l s c a n b e

c ons i de r a b l y i nc r e a s e d a t r e l a t i ve l y m i n i m a l

c os t s ( B a c c h us , 1991 ). I n l ow - i nc om e c ou n t r i e s

s uc h a s P a k i s t a n e f f e c t i ve i n t e r ve n t i on l ie s i n

t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e s k i ll s o f t h e r e f l ec t iv e

p r a c t i ti o n e r a m o n g a l r e a d y p r a c ti s in g t e a c h e r s.

T h e e d u c a t i o n o f r e fl e ct iv e t e a c h e r s f o c u s e s n o t

o n l y o n t h e u p g r a d i n g o f c o n t e n t k n o w l e d g e

a nd t he t e a c h i ng s k i ll s o f t e a c he r s ; f oc us is

e q u a l l y o n . t h e r e c o g n i t i o n t h a t k n o w l e d g e

i t s e l f i s p r ob l e m a t i c be c a us e i t i s c ons t r uc t e d

a m o n g a c o m m u n i t y o f l e a r n e rs a n d s u b j e c t

t o c h a n g e i n th e l i g ht o f n e w e v i d e n c e . A s

w e l l a s e m pha s i z i ng t he t e c hn i c a l d i m e ns i ons

o f te a c h i n g , t e a c h e r e d u c a t i o n a i m e d a t t h e


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I M P R O V I N G B A S I C E D U C A T I O N I N D E V E L O P I N G C O U N T R I E S

181

preparat ion of reflective teachers also portrays

teaching as involving moral, ethical dimensions

requiring constant reflection upon the way one

carries out one s responsibilities as teacher. In

particular, reflection within such a programme

should focus on the purposes of education in

developing countries and whether curriculum

content and teaching approaches lead to the

achievement of these purposes. This is of

crucial importance because in many develop-

ing countries educational goals are in constant

clash with curriculum content and teaching

methods used in classrooms. For example, one

cannot have the development of responsible

decision-makers as an educational goal and

yet employ transmission modes of teaching.

Neither can educational content be based on

an academic education when one s goal is to

prepare students for life in rural areas.

The I .E.D. is currently working towards the

development of reflective practitioners with a

group of 22 primary and secondary school

teachers from various developing countries.

These teachers come from schools that see

value and purpose in the reflective approach

to teaching and are working in partnership with

the I.E.D. in this school improvement ven-

ture. The participating countries are Tanzania,

Kenya, Bangladesh, Tajikistan and Pakistan

(the host country for the programme). The

teachers go through two academic years of

intensive in-service training and will return to

their schools and play the role of teachers and

mentors or Master Teachers. During the pro-

gramme their content knowledge and teaching

methodologies are upgraded. The programme

also tries to foster in them new attitudes and

dispositions towards teaching that take into

account the active involvement of students in

their own learning as opposed to the passive

role they play in the teacher-dominated ap-

proach to teaching prevalent in developing

countries.

In implementing its reflective teacher educa-

tion programme, the I .E.D. emphasizes critical

reflection in teaching. For its purpose, the

I.E .D. s understanding of critical reflection

is guided by Smyth s (1989) articulation of

it as reflection, which involves a conscious

understanding of the material and ideological

conditions that create the problems we face as

educators. It involves not only reflection on

these conditions but also the political will to

embark upon alternatives and act to change

these constraining circumstances. For devel-

oping countries like Pakistan, such constraints

include the gross lack of educational resources

in many schools, the lack of equity in educa-

tional opportunities and a fatalistic disposition

towards life in the vast majority of the popu-

lation, which makes them see whatever lives

they live as predestined and the will of Allah,

which cannot be changed. The teachers in the

I.E.D. programme are encouraged to channel

their critical thoughts to focus on both their

classroom teaching and the wider contexts

of teaching in which the constraining condi-

tions occur. This is done in order to create

the awareness in them that teaching is not

a neutral act from which students emerge

unaffected and that teaching takes place in

broader social, economic, political and cultural

contexts that extend to, and have implications

for, their classrooms. For this purpose the first

three weeks of seminars at the I.E.D. include

reflective sessions during which the programme

participants reflect on their values and beliefs

about teaching (their teaching philosophies) to

find out if these are in consonance with their

teaching practices. If discrepanciesare found

to exist between beliefs about teaching and

practice, the participants are encouraged to

examine the sources of the discrepancies and

see how they can bring about change in more

desirable directions for themselves.

Critical reflection is also actively drawn upon

in the programme as a vehicle for embarking

upon alternative practices for the improvement

of education. The programme participants are

encouraged to visit different school systems in

Karachi for an extended period of time and

observe the school, paying particular attention

to the following areas: the overt curriculum

(content, teaching methodologies and assess-

ment processes); the hidden curriculum and

the types of messages contained in it; the

relations among the commonplaces of educa-

tion (the teachers, students, school subjects

and the general milieu in which the schools

operate); the administrative structure of the

schools and how these enhance or constrain

teaching; the community links that the school

has; and structures that erihance and inhibit

change. The intention guiding this exercise is

for the programme participants to reflect criti-

cally on their observations and think of viable

alternatives to those practices they find to be

in dissonance with their espoused philosophies


10/12

182

YATTA KANU

of education. In addition to their school ob-

servations, participants are also encouraged

to extend the reflective process to their own

schools and consider ways in which certain

practices could be improved to provide better

quality education for all.

Inquiry is a major vehicle for promoting criti-

cal reflection. In the I.E.D. teacher education

programme, inquiry is embarked upon at two

levels. The first level involves the development

of the programme participants as effective

professional teachers. They are encouraged

to inquire into their teaching through means

such as conducting action research into their

own teaching, journal writing, monitoring their

own teaching and reflecting on it and under-

taking curriculum analyses. At the second

level they learn how to plan and implement

inquiry-related teaching in classrooms. They

learn this approach to teaching mainly from

the way in which it is modelled by facul ty in the

teaching of their various disciplines. Research

by the programme participants on given topics

or topics chosen by them, class presentation

of research findings, project work, collabora-

tive assignments, cooperative learning , analysis

of textbook and classroom knowledge and

drawing on participants own experiences dur-

ing class discussions and seminars are some

of the activities in which faculty engages to

promote inquiry in the classroom as well as

actively involving the programme participants

in their own learning. Through the inquiry

method, participants are resocialized into a

new approach to teaching, which, as opposed

to knowledge transmission, recognizes that

knowledge is not something out there, fixed

to be given to students, but that students can

construct their own knowledge and recast and

recombine knowledge in new ways. As well, the

programme participants come to understand

that as teachers they need not have all the

answers and that the teaching/learning process

is a communal venture within which they and

their students learn together through inquiry.

In order to close the gap between the theory

learned in teacher education and the real world

of practice in the classrooms, the I.E.D. has

attempted to make the programme as field-

based as possible through a unique approach

that is worthy of emulation or consideration by

even those developed countries searching for

interventionist measures in teacher education.

The four curriculum courses of the programme

social studies, English, maths and science

are divided into modules each lasting for

six weeks. During each module, for two hours

each day, the course participants experience

seminars in the content and innovative teaching

methodologies of that course based on inquiry

and critical reflection. The seminars are fol-

lowed immediately by classroom teaching at the

professional development school designated for

that purpose. This way whatever is learned

in the seminars is applied immediately to

real practice and reflected upon to see what

works, what does not, the reasons for this and

what alternatives can be considered. During

such teaching, the regular curriculum of the

professional development school is used, but

the enhanced content knowledge of the course

participants and their innovative approaches to

teaching that content give the exercise more

meaning and usefulness than is usually the case.

This approach functions as an effective means

of relating theory to classroom practice, thus

addressing the theory/practice divide that per-

vades teacher education in both the developed

and developing countries.

In addition to the four core courses offered,

seminars are also offered on reflective practice

in teaching and teacher education, curricu-

lum and instruction, research in education,

issues related to education in Pakistan and

other developing countries and mentoring and

coaching. The idea behind these seminars is

to prepare the programme participants for

their future role as teacher educators and

to help them to understand that meaningful

teaching cannot be separated from reflection

and curriculum issues such as those relating

to curriculum goals and purposes, and cur-

riculum planning and implementation. The

seminars also bring them face to face with

persistent issues such as equity in education,

especially in countries where the education of

girls is neglected or where there is a distinct

difference in quality between the education

that the rich and the poor receive. Research

on how such issues can be addressed for the

improvement of education is also encouraged

among programme participants. In short, the

programme participants are resocialized into

looking at teaching that extends beyond the

confines of the classroom.

The programme participants conduct weekly

workshops for regular teachers of the four cur-

riculum courses so that these teachers benefit


11/12

IMPROVING BASIC EDUC ATIO N IN DEVEL OPING COUNTRIES 183

f r o m w h a t t h e p a r t ic i p a n t s h a v e l e a r n e d a t

t h e I . E . D . S e m i n a r s a r e a ls o r u n f o r t h e

h e a d t e a c h e r s a n d m a n a g e r s o f t h e p a r tn e r

s c h o o l s i n o r d e r t o h e l p t h e m d e v e l o p a n

a t m o s p h e r e s u p p o r t i v e t o c h a n g e a n d m a k e

t h e w o r k o f th e M a s t e r T e a c h e r s m o r e e f f e c t iv e

w h e n t h e y r e t u r n t o o f f e r i n - se r v ic e t e a c h e r

e d u c a t i o n .

E x a m i n a t i o n s y s t e m s a n y w h e r e i n f lu e n c e

c u r r i c u l u m p r a c t i c e s , b u t i n P a k i s t a n i n p a r -

t i c u la r , s o s t r o n g i s t h e s t r a n g l e h o l d o f t h e

e x a m i n a t i o n s y s t e m o n t h e c u r r i cu l a o f s c ho o l s

t h a t i t c o m p l e t e l y d e t e r m i n e s t h e w a y t e a c h e r s

t e a c h i n t h e s c h o o l s . S i n c e t h e e x a m i n a t i o n s

u s u a l l y s o l i c i t f a c t - o r i e n t e d r e c a l l a n s w e r s ,

c l a s s r o o m t e a c h i n g h a r d l y e v e r g o e s b e y o n d

t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n o f f a c t s t o s tu d e n t s . A n y

a t t e m p t a t a n i n n o v a t i v e a p p r o a c h t o t e a c h i n g

m u s t t a k e t h i s e x a m i n a t i o n r e a l i t y i n t o a c c o u n t

i f i t is t o s u c c e e d . T h e I . E . D . i s, t h e r e f o r e ,

w o r k i n g w i t h th e M i n i s t ry o f E d u c a t i o n a n d

t h e v a r i o u s p u b l i c e x a m i n a t i o n b o a r d s i n t h e

c o u n t r y t o c h a n g e t h e f o c u s o f t h e e x a m i n a t i o n s

*.o r e f le c t t h e a p p r o a c h e s t o t e a c h i n g t h a t a r e

e m b a r k e d u p o n a t t h e I . E . D . I f i t s u c c e e d s in

d o i n g t h i s, t h e I . E . D . w i ll h a v e a l s o s u c c e e d e d

in c u r b i n g t h e r a m p a n t c h e a t i n g t h a t p e r v a d e s

P a k i s t a n ' s e x a m i n a t i o n s s y s t e m , f o r s t u d e n t s

w i l l n o l o n g e r b e r e q u i r e d t o p r o v i d e r e c a l l

a n s w e r s ( a p r a c t i c e t h a t e n c o u r a g e s c h e a t in g ) .

R a t h e r , t h e y w i l l n o w b e r e q u i r e d t o h a r n e s s

t h e i r c r e a t i v e a n d c r it ic a l t h i n k i n g c a p a c i t i e s to

a n s w e r e x a m i n a t i o n q u e s t i o n s .

A t t h e e n d o f th e p r o g r a m m e a t t h e I . E . D .

t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s w i l l r e t u r n t o t h e i r s c h o o l s

w h e r e t h e y w il l c o n t i n u e t o t e a c h p a r t - t i m e

a n d w o r k a s M a s t e r T e a c h e r T r a i n e r s a t p r o f e s-

s i o n a l d e v e l o p m e n t c e n t r e s i n t h e i r c o u n t r i e s .

I n P a k i s t a n , i t is p l a n n e d t h a t 1 0 - 1 2 o f th e

g r a d u a t e s f ro m t h e I . E . D . p r o g r a m m e w i ll

f u n c t i o n i n t h i s d u a l c a p a c i t y , u t i l i z i n g t h e i r

n e w l y a c q u i r e d q u a l i f ic a t i o n to i m p r o v e te a c h -

i n g i n t h e i r s c h o o l s a n d t r a i n i n g o t h e r t e a c h e r s

a t i n - s e r v i c e l e v e l a t t h e p r o f e s s i o n a l d e v e l o p -

m e n t c e n t r e s . I t is e n v i s i o n e d t h a t d u r i n g t h e

f ir st y e a r f o u r d i f f e r e n t g r o u p s o f 3 0 v is i ti n g

t e a c h e r s w i ll e x p e r i e n c e s u c h t r a i n i n g a t t h e

p r o f e s s i o n a l d e v e l o p m e n t c e n t r e i n K a r a c h i f o r

e i g h t w e e k s a t a ti m e ( a t o ta l o f 1 2 0 t e a c h e r s i n

o n e y e a r ) . S i m i l a r c e n t r e s w i l l b e o p e n e d i n t h e

n o r t h e r n a r e a s o f P a k i s t a n b y 1 9 96 .

A s m e n t i o n e d e a r l ie r , t h e I . E . D . t e a c h e r

d e v e l o p m e n t p r o g r a m m e h a s j us t s ta r t e d , a n d

i t i s s t i l l i n i t s i n f a n t s t a g e s , b u t a l r e a d y

t h e g o v e r n m e n t o f P a k i s t a n is e n c o u r a g i n g

a n d a p p l a u d i n g i ts e f f o r t s , a n d a p r e l i m i n a r y

U N E S C O r e v i ew h a s g iv e n t he p r o g r a m m e

a p o s i t i v e r a t i n g b e c a u s e t h e c o n t i n u o u s i n -

s e r v i c e t e a c h e r e d u c a t i o n p r o v i d e d i n t h e p r o -

g r a m m e i s c o n s i d e r e d t o b e o n e o f t h e m o s t

e f f e c t i v e w a y s o f i m p r o v i n g t h e q u a l i t y o f

e d u c a t i o n a t m i n i m a l a d d i t i o n a l c o s t s . F o r

d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r ie s h a r d p r e s s e d f o r e d u c a -

t i o n a l f i n a n c i n g , t h i s i s a s t e p i n t h e r i g h t

d i r ec t io n . A n u m b e r o f m o d u l e s h a v e a l r e a d y

b e e n c o m p l e t e d a n d h a v e b e e n a p p r a i s e d a s

a r e m a r k a b l e s u c c e s s b y th e h e a d m i s t r e s s e s

a n d t e a c h e r s a t t h e p r o f e s si o n a l d e v e l o p m e n t

s c h o o l . A s o n e o f t h e t e a c h e r s s a i d a f t e r a

w e e k - e n d m a t h s w o r k s h o p o r g a n i z e d f o r t h e m

b y t h e p r o g r a m m e p a r ti c i p a n ts , ' F o r m e r l y , I

k n e w o n l y o n e w a y o f t e a c h i n g f r a c t i o n s t o

m y s t u d e n ts . N o w I k n o w t h r e e o t h e r w a y s

a n d I c a n u s e t h e s e t o c a t e r f o r t h e d i f f e r e n t

l e a r n i n g n e e d s o f d i f f e r e n t s t u d e n t s i n m y c l a s s . '

A l s o , i f t h e q u a l i t y o f m i n d t h a t c o m e s o u t i n

t h e w r i t i n g s a n d d i s c u s s i o n s e m i n a r s w i t h t h e

p r o g r a m m e p a r t i c ip a n t s a n d t h e c o n s tr u c t i v is t

a p p r o a c h t o m a t h e m a t i c s t e a c h i n g o b s e r v e d

a m o n g t h e m d u r in g t h e m a t h e m a t i c s m o d u l e i s

a n y t h i n g t o g o b y , t h e n t h e s e t e a c h e r s a r e w e l l

o n t h e i r w a y t o r e v o l u t i o n a l i z i n g t e a c h i n g i n

m a n y s c h o o l s in P a k i s t a n ; f o r th e c o n s t r u c t iv i s t

a p p r o a c h t o t e a c h i n g , b a s e d a s i t is o n s t u d e n t s

b r i n g in g t h e i r o w n e x p e r i e n c e s a n d p u r p o s e s t o

t h e l e a r n i n g t a s k i n t h e c l a s s r o o m i n o r d e r t o

m a k e s e n s e o f i t, g i v e s v o i c e t o s t u d e n t s i n th e

t e a c h i n g / l e a r n i n g p r o c e s s f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e .

A d m i t te d l y , t h e i m p r o v e m e n t o f t e a c h e r

e d u c a t i o n i n P a k i s t a n i n v o l v e s a l o n g h a u l , b u t

t h e I . E . D . ' s a p p r o a c h r e p r e s e n t s a b e g i n n i n g

e f f o r t i n t h i s c h a l l e n g i n g t a s k .

N O T E S

1. Three such conferences we re held in 1990 alone: the

W orld Conference on Educat ion for All (W CE FA ) held

in Jomt ien , Thai land; the W orld Summ it on Chi ldren

held in New York; and the Commonwealth Ministers of

Educat ion Con ference held in Barbados.

2. Both modernizat ion and hum an cap i tal theories of

development l ink educat ion w ith econom ic development .

Modernizat ion theory ho lds that a modern society is a

develop ed society and that all societies develop in a linear

manner from the t radi t ional s tag e to the modernized stage

where they develop modern insti tut ions such as schools

and factories whe re work st i lls and modern value s and

positive attitudes towa rd w ork are taught. Such skills and

attitudes lead to industrialization; an industrialized state

is a m odern s tate. Hum an c api tal theory pos i ts that the

most efficient way for a country to ach ieve economic


12/12

184

YATTA

K A N U

d e v e l o p m e n t i s b y i n v e s t i n g i n i t s h u m a n p o p u l a t i o n

t h r o u g h e d u c a t i o n . T h i s a p p r o a c h t o d e v e l o p m e n t h a s

l e d t o m a n y p r o b l e m s i n t h e d e v e l o p i n g w o r l d ( e . g .

t h e p r o b l e m o f t h e e d u c a t e d u n e m p l o y e d ) a n d i s n o w

b e i n g r e c o n s i d e r e d b y e d u c a t i o n p o l i c y p l a n n e r s i n t h e s e

coun t r i e s .

3 . A c c o r d i n g t o t h e W o r l d B a n k ' s Education Sector

Policy Paper

( 19 8 0a ), t h e r o l e o f e d u c a t io n i n o v e r c o m i n g

p o v e r t y i s ' i n c r e a s i n g i n c o m e s , i m p r o v i n g h e a l t h a n d

nu t r i t i on , r educ i ng f am i l y s i ze ' ( p . 46) . E du ca t i on i s

r e g a r d e d a s a ' b a s i c n e e d , a n i n s t ru m e n t t o h e l p m e e t

o t h e r bas i c nee ds ' ( p . 86) . T h i s i s t he r a t i ona l e p rov i d ed

by t he B ank fo r i t s p r i nc i p l e o f ' ba s i c educa t i on . . . f o r

a l l ch i l d r en and adu l t s ' ( p . 86) . T h i s p r i nc i p l e , a l ong

w i t h f o u r o t h e r s a l s o r o o t e d i n e c o n o m i c c o n s i d e r a t i o n s

r educ t i on o f educa t i ona l i nequa l i t i e s , cos t - e f f ec t i ve

t r a n s f e r o f k n o w l e d g e , p r o v i s i o n o f m a n p o w e r s k i l l s ,

a n d d e v e l o p m e n t o f n a t io n a l a n a l y ti c c a p a c i ti e s in m a n -

a g e m e n t , a d m i n i s t r a t io n a n d p l a n n i n g ( H a b t e , 1 9 8 3 ) - -

c o n s t i t u t e d t h e W o r l d B a n k p o l ic y f r a m e w o r k f o r l e n d i n g

i n t h e 1 9 8 0 s ( H e y n e m a n , 1 9 83 ).

4 . F o r f u l l e r e x p l a n a t io n s o f th e s e a p p r o a c h e s t o

r e f l ec t i ve p r ac t i ce and t he i r educa t i ona l i mpl i ca t i ons , s ee

Kanu (1993) .

5 . S e e f o r e x a m p l e , t h e p r o p o s a l f o r t h e I . E . D . , A g a

K h a n U n i v e r s i t y .

6 . R e a d t h e r e c e n t r e s e a r c h o n e d u c a t i o n i n P a k i s t a n

b y t h e U S A I D - f u n d e d p r o j e c t , B R I D G E S .

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Rural Children and Youths.

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E d u c a t i o n a l d e v e l o p m e n t , E s s e x, U . S . A .

D u m i n y , P . A . ( 1 9 7 3 ) African Pupils and Teaching Them.

D . L . V a n S c h a i k , P r e t o r i a .

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T h e H o l m e s G r o u p ( 1 9 8 6 ) Tomorrow s Teachers: A

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P h . D . d i s s e rt a t io n . U n i v e r s i t y o f A l b e r t a , E d m o n t o n ,

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