BREAD FROM STONES

A New and Rational System of

Land Fertilization and

Physical Regeneration

By Dr. Ju l ius Hensel(Agricultural Chemist)

Translated from the German (1894)

This scan was made by theSoil and Health Libraryin July, 2009.Further distribution of thispublic domain material is welcomed.

ISBN: 0-932298-85-0

Manufactured in the United States of America byTRI-STATE PRESS

Long Creek, South Carolina 29658

INTRODUCTIONBy Dr. Raymond Bernard (A.B., M.A., Ph.D.)

Dr. Julius Hensel was the greatest figure inthe history of agricultural chemistry even if hispowerful enemies, members of the octopus chemi-cal fertilizer trust, have succeeded in suppressinghis memory, destroying his books and getting hisStone Meal fertilizer off the market. But even-tually the truth comes to the fore, and itsenemies are vanquished. Julius Hensel's pioneerwork in opposing the use of chemicals in agricul-ture, a half a century later, found rebirth in theOrganic Movement which has swept through theworld. But Hensel is more modern than the mostmodern agricultural reformer, for he claimed, onthe basis of theoretical chemical considerations,and supported by practical tests, that his StoneMeal can replace not only chemical fertilizers butall animal ones as well.

It was the German agricultural chemistLiebig who first put forward the phosphorus-potash-nitrogen theory of chemical fertilization.This false doctrine Hensel bitterly attacked andin so doing, won the ire of the financial interestsbehind the sale of chemical fertilizers, which usedagricultural authorities and university professorsto denounce poor Hensel as a charlatan and hisStone Meal as worthless.

Though his fight against chemical fertilizerswas a losing battle and he died as a defeatedhero, it took a generation for Hensel's efforts tobear fruit in the modern Organic Movement,which has not given its founder the credit duehim.

3

Bread from StonesThe fight between Liebig, advocate and one-

sided chemical fertilization, and Hensel, who ad-vocated a more balanced form of plant nutrition,including the trace minerals which Liebig com-pletely overlooked, was a battle between an op-portunist, who sought to further the sales ofchemical fertilizers, and a true scientist, inter-ested in humanity's welfare. Though Liebig, withthe Chemical Trust behind him, won the battle,Hensel's ideas finally triumphed long severaldecades after his passing.

Liebig claimed that plants require three mainelements - nitrogen, phosphorus and potash - onthe basis of which conception chemical fertilizerswere manufactured that supplied these elements.On the other hand, Hensel claimed that plantsneed many more than these three major ele-ments, stressing the importance of the traceminerals, which at that time were ignored. Inplace of chemical fertilizers, supplying only threeelements in an unnatural, caustic form, Henselrecommended the bland minerals of pulverizedrocks, especially granite, a primordial rock whichcontains the many trace minerals that meet allneeds of plant nutrition.

Hensel first made his discovery of powderedrock fertilization when he was a miller. One day,while milling grain, he noticed that some stoneswere mixed with it and ground into a meal. Hesprinkled this stone meal over the soil of his gar-den and was surprised to note how the vegetablestook on a new, more vigorous growth. This ledhim to repeat the experiment by grinding morestones and applying the stone meal to fruit trees.Much to his surprise, apple trees that formerlybore wormy, imperfect fruit now produced finequality fruit free from worms. Also vegetables fer-

4

INTRODUCTIONtilized by stone meal were free from insect pestsand diseases. It seemed to be a complete plantfood, which produced fine vegetables even in thepoorest soil.

Encouraged by these results, Hensel put his"Stone Meal" on the market, and wrote extensive-ly on its superiority over chemical fertilizers,while at the same time opposing the use ofanimal manure, and the nitrogen theory onwhich it is based, claiming that when plants aresupplied with Stone Meal, plenty of water, airand sunshine they will grow healthfully even ifthe soil is poor in nitrogen, since it was his beliefthat plants derive their nitrogen from the soilthrough their lives, and do not depend on the soilfor this element.

In opposing this use of chemical fertilizer,Hensel awoke the ire of a powerful enemy, whichwas resolved to liquidate him - the ChemicalTrust. Through unfair competition, Hensel's"Stone Meal" business was destroyed and hisproduct was taken off the market. However, thechief object of attack was his book, "Bread fromStones", in which he expounded his new doctrinesof Liebig on which the chemical fertilizer busi-ness was based, as well as the "Liebig meat ex-tract". (For Hensel advocated vegetarianism, justas he advocated natural farming without chemi-cals or manure.) Accordingly, his enemies suc-ceeded in suppressing the further publication ofthis book and in removing it from libraries, untilit became extremely rare and difficult to obtain.It is more fortunate that a surviving copy cameinto the writer's possession.

Dr. Julius Hensel was not only a student ofagricultural chemistry, but also biochemistry andnutrition, and he related all these sciences, which

5

Bread from Stoneshe united into a composite science of life, whichhe called "Makrobiology". His theory was that thechemistry of life is basically determined by thechemistry of the soil, and that chemicals un-balance and pervert soil chemistry while pow-dered rocks help restore normal soil mineralbalance, producing foods favorable to health andlife. His discoveries concerning the value of pow-dered rocks as soil conditions and plant foods,though rejected and ridiculed when he firstproposed them, were adopted by agriculturalscience nearly a century later, when the applica-tion of powdered limestone, rock phosphate andother rocks became standard agricultural prac-tice. Granite, which Hensel recommended as themost balanced of all rocks as a source of soilminerals, was first rejected as worthless, butlater appreciated and used as a soil mineralizer.

During the course of his researches, Dr. Hen-sel found that in the primeval rocks, as granite,lie a potentially inexhaustible supply of allminerals required for the feeding and regenera-tion of the soil, plants, animals and man. All thatis required is to reduce them to a finely pul-verized form, so that their mineral elements maybe made available to plants. Hensel wrote a bookdescribing his discovery of a new method of creat-ing more perfect fruits and vegetables, rich in allnutritional elements and immune to disease andinsect pests, with the result that it producedworm-free fruit without the need of spraying. Thefoods so produced by rock-meal fertilization weretrue Organic Super Foods, far superior in flavorand value than those produced under the forcingaction of manure or chemical fertilizers.

Hensel was the first to put up a fight againstthe then growing new chemical fertilizer industry

6

INTRODUCTION- a struggle that was continued in the next cen-tury by Sir William Howard in England and J. I.Rodale in America. The use of chemical fer-tilizers, claimed Hensel, leads to the followingevil consequences:

(1) It poisons the soil, destroying beneficialsoil bacteria, earthworks and humus,

(2) It creates unhealthy, unbalanced, mineral-deficient plants, lacking resistance to disease andinsect pests, thus leading to the spraying menacein an effort to preserve these defective specimens,

(3) It leads to diseases among animals andmen who feed on these abnormal plants and theirproducts,

(4) It leads to a tremendous expense to thefarmer, because chemical fertilizers, being ex-tremely soluble, are quickly washed from the soilby rainfall and needs constant replacement.(Powdered rocks, on the other hand, being lesssoluble, are not so easily washed from the soil,but keep releasing minerals to it for many years).

The use of various pulverized rocks, asgranite, limestone, rock phosphate, etc., in placeof chemical fertilizers, will lead, claimed Hensel,to permanent restoration of even poor soils to thebalanced mineral content of the best virgin soils;and the rock dust thus applied will remain yearafter year and not be washed away by rains or ir-rigation water, as is the case with highly solublechemical fertilizers. This will be an economicsaving to the grower and enable him to sell foodsat a lower price than when he must spend largesums on chemical fertilizers. Also, since foodsthus mineralized are healthy and immune toplant diseases and insect pests (as Hensel ex-

7

Bread from Stonesperimentally demonstrated), there is no need forthe expense and dangers of spraying.

Foods raised by Hensel's followers, includingmany German gardeners and farmers, who wereenthusiastic in praise of his method, were foundto possess firmer tissue and better shipping andkeeping qualities than those raised with animalmanure or chemicals. And most important amongthe advantages of Hensel's agricultural discoveryis that foods grown on mineralized soil are higherboth in mineral and vitamin content and soproduce better health and greater immunity todisease than those grown by the use of chemicalfertilizer sprays.

To kill insects by poisons applied to plantsdoes not remove the cause of their infestation,and poisons both the insect as well as the humanconsumer of the sprayed plant. Only correct feed-ing of the soil, and consequently of plants bytrees, by proper methods of fertilization, therebykeeping them well-nourished, vigorous and freefrom disease, will accomplish this, for insects donot seem to attack healthy plants. It appears thatinsects, like scavengers, attack chiefly unhealthyand demineralized plants, not healthy ones. Dr.Charles Northern has performed experiments inwhich he raised two tomato plants, entwinedwith each other, in different pots, one being sup-plied with an abundance of trace minerals,derived from colloidal phosphate, and the otherjust chemical fertilizer. The tomato plant grownwith chemical fertilizer alone was attacked by in-sects, while the other one given trace mineralswas not.

Hensel pointed out that animal manure andchemical fertilizers produce a forced, unnaturallyrapid growth of large-sized produce which fail to

8

INTRODUCTIONacquire the minerals normally secured during aslower, longer development. The result is theproduction of demineralized, unbalanced plants,which are weakly and unhealthy, falling prey todisease and insect pests. This explains why, coin-cident with the increased use of chemical fer-tilizers, during the past century, insect pestssteadily increased. So did cancerous conditionsamong plants, animals and humans, as shown byKeens, an English soil chemist, who presentsstatistics to show that the increased use of chemi-cal fertilizers is a major cause of the greater in-cidence of cancer during that last hundred years.

The modern Organic Farming movement hasaccepted and propagated one of Hensel's theories- his opposition to chemical fertilizers and recom-mendation of powdered rocks in their place - buthas failed to appreciate his other main doctrine -his opposition to the use of animal excrements asplant foods. In this respect, Hensel, though helived in the last century, is far ahead of the Or-ganic Movement and more modern than the mostmodern agricultural reformer.

Hensel had a great admirer and disciple inEngland - Sampson Morgan, who founded his"Clean Culture" doctrine on Hensel's philosophyof soil and biological regeneration by theavoidance of chemical or animal fertilizers. WhileHensel was more of a theorist, Morgan was apractical farmer and agricultural experimenter,who proved the truth of Hensel's theories by win-ning the first prize at all agricultural exhibits atwhich his super-sized, super-quality, disease andblight- free rock-dust fertilized fruits andvegetables were displayed. In Sampson Morgan's"Clean Culture", Morgan's views are presented.In reality they are Hensel's doctrines

9

Bread from Stonestransplanted to English soil. The reading ofMorgan's book will be a valuable supplement tothat of this, to give one a thorough understandingof the subject of Natural Agriculture (i.e., a sys-tem of soil culture definitely in advance of Or-ganic Gardening by the compost method).

Practical experience with Hensel's Stone Mealand his non-animal method of soil regeneration,has proven the following:

1. That Stone Meal creates healthier, tastier,more vitaminized and mineralized foods.

2. That Stone Meal creates immunity to insectinfestation, worms, fungi and plant diseases of allkinds.

3. That Stone Meal improves the keeping andshipping quality of foods, so that they keep a longtime, in contrast to the rapid deterioration offoods given abundant animal manure.

4. That Stone Meal helps plants to resistdrought and frost, enabling them to survive whenthose fed on manure and chemicals perish.

5. That Stone Meal produces larger cropswhich are more profitable because the farmer issaved the expense of buying chemical fertilizerswhich are rapidly leached from the soil by rain-fall, whereas Stone Meal, being less soluble, isgradually released during the course of years andremain in the soil, being the most economical offertilizers.

6. That foods raised with Stone Meal are bet-ter for human health and the prevention of dis-ease than those grown with chemicals or animalmanure.

7. That use of Stone Meal, in place of chemi-cal or animal fertilizers, helps to end the spraying

10

INTRODUCTIONmenace (by removing its cause) is proven by thefact that plants and trees grown with Stone Mealare immune to pests and so require no spraying.

11

WHAT WILL FERTILIZINGWITH STONE DUST

ACCOMPLISH?

It will:1. Turn stones into bread and make barren

regions fruitful.2. Feed the hungry.3. Cause healthy cereals and provender to be

harvested and thus prevent epidemics amongmen and diseases among animals.

4. Make agriculture again profitable and savegreat sums of money which are now expended forfertilizers that in part are injurious and in partuseless.

5. Turn the unemployed to country life byrevealing the inexhaustible nutritive forceswhich, hitherto unrecognized, are stored up inthe rocks, the air and the water.

This it will accomplish.May this little book be intelligible enough that

men, who seem on the point of becoming beasts ofprey, may cease their war of all against all andinstead of hunting for gold, racing for fame orwasting productive forces in useless labors,choose the better part:

The peaceable emulation in the discovery anddirections of the natural forces for evolving nutri-tive products and the peaceable enjoyment of thefruits which the earth is able to provide in abun-dance for all. May man use the divine heritage ofreason to attain true happiness by discoveringthe sources whence all earthly blessings flow andthus put an end to self-seeking and greed, to the

12

INTRODUCTIONincreasing difficulties of making a living theanxieties for the daily bread, to distress andcrime - such is the aim of this little work, and inthis may God aid us!

Hermsdorf below KymastOctober 1, 1893

13

Table of Contents

Stone Meal as a Fertilizer 17Stone Meal Manure 26

Contributions from Hensel's FollowersStone Meal 37Stone Fertilizing 41Letter to Mr. Schmitt 43Letter by Mr. K. Utermohlen 45The Stone Meal of Dr. Hensel 48About Stone Meal Manure 52What help can be given to the Hard-Pressed

Farmers 55The Rheinischer Courier-June 6, 1893 57The Rheinischer Courier-June 29, 1893 58The Neus Mannheimer Volkblatt 60Iron Slag 61Neus Mannheimer Volksblatt 63Wiesbadener General Anzeiger 65Meeting of Farmers and Friends of Agriculture

Assembled on June 25, 1893 67Stone Meal Fertilization from Viewpoint of

Agricultural Chemistry 68A Chapter for Chemists 102Stone Meal as a Tobacco Fertilizer 109

15

STONE MEALAS A FERTILIZER

Articles and Reports by Henseland His Followers who Successfully

Applied his Theory of Stone MealFertilization, Using Stone Meal in Place ofChemical Fertilizers and Animal Manure

By Dr. Julius Hensel in "DeutschesAdelblatt", January 31, 1892

In cereals, in the seeds of the leguminousplants and of the oil- bearing plants, the mineralsubstances with which the cellular tissue and thevegetable albumen are combined constitute from17 to 50 thousand. After combustion of the planttissue, these mineral constituents remain behindas ashes, and the greater part of the ashes in theseeds consist of phosphoric acid and potassium,while soda, lime magnesium, hydrochloric acid,sulfuric and silica acid with manganese, iron andfluorine are comparatively less in quantity. Onlyin the oil-producing seeds (mustard, rapeseed,linseed, hempseed and poppyseed) lime and mag-nesium make a considerable part of the ashes.The following numerical proportion will give ageneral view:

• Winter wheat has on the average 16 8/10thousandths of ashes, of which phosphoricacid forms 7 9/10 thousandths and 5 2/10thof potassium.

• Field beans yield 31 thousandths of ashes,of which phosphoric acid forms 16 2/10ths,potassium 7, lime 18, and magnesium 5thousandths.

17

Bread from Stones• Poppy seed gives 51 5/10th thousandths of

ashes of which 16 2/10ths are phosphoricacid, potassium 17, lime 18 and magnesium5.

From the fact that phosphoric acid and potas-sium have such a prominence in nutritive crops,it was easy to draw this conclusion: "That potas-sium and phosphoric acid are the most necessaryfertilizers, and the more phosphoric acid the bet-ter." But this conclusion is erroneous and hascaused us much injury since Liebig made thisstatement.

Liebig and his successors have overlooked thefact, that phosphoric acid is so uniformly dis-tributed in the plant world that it does notamount in the average to more than one-tenth ofthe mineral constituents. If during the process ofripening phosphoric acid strongly accumulates inthe seeds, that it constitutes not merely 10 but 30to 50 per cent of the ashes, this is explained bythe fact that the acid passes from the stems,stalks and leaves into the seeds, leaving thestraw very poor in phosphoric acid, as may ap-pear from these proportions:

(a) The straw of winter wheat has in theaverage 46 thousandths of ashes, of which only 22/10ths thus about l/20th or 5 per cent, consistsof phosphoric acid. The rest consists of 6 potas-sium, 0.6 soda, 2.7 lime, 1.1 magnesium, 1.1 sul-furic acid, 0.8 hydrochloric acid and 31thousandths of silica acid. The latter (silicon)only amounts to 0.3 of one thousandth in thewinter grain thus in comparison with the strawonly one thousandth.

(b) The straw of field beans furnishes 45thousandths of ashes, of which only 2.9 are phos-phoric acid, thus l/15th or 6 1/2 per cent, while in

18

STONE MEALashes of the seeds it constitutes 36 per cent. Theother substances contained in bean straw are19.4 thousandth potassium, 0.8 soda, 12 lime, 2.6magnesium, 1.8 sulfuric acid, 2.0 hydrochloricacid and 3.2 silica acid. On account of this smallquantity of silica, bean straw is soft, while wheatstraw, rich in silica, is hard.

(c) The straw of poppy give about 48 1/2thousandths of ashes, of only 1.6 of phosphoricacid, in poppy straw phosphoric acid constitutesonly l/30th of the ashes, while in the seeds itamounts to l/3rd. So considerable, amounting tothe tenfold, if the difference. The rest of the ashesof the straw of poppy consists of 18.4 potassium,0.6 soda, 14.7 soda, 14.7 lime, 3.1 magnesium, 2.5sulfuric acid, 1.3 hydrochloric acid and 5.5 silicaacid.

These examples adduced are to a certain de-gree typical of cereals, leguminous plants and oil-yielding plants and they explain why leguminousand oily plants need more lime in the soil thancereals. On the whole, when we take the averageof 70 or 80 analyses of field crops, which also in-clude the roots, stems and leaves, we come to theconclusion that phosphoric acid constitutes aboutone-tenth of the mineral constituents, whilepotassium, soda, lime, magnesium, silica, sulfuricacid, chlorine and fluorine contribute to theremaining nine- tenths. Furthermore, potassiumand soda are present on the average in the sameamount of weight as lime and magnesium. Thesefour bases amount to about eight-tenths of thewhole quantity of the ashes, and it is found inpractice that these bases may to a considerabledegree act as substitutes for one another, withoutperceptibly varying the form and the organic con-stituents of these plants.

19

Bread from StonesAccording to these facts a fertilizer which

would satisfy the natural demand of supplyingthe minerals necessary for the construction ofplants should contain to one part of phosphoricacid eight parts of potassium, soda, lime andmagnesium, if we are willing to leave out of ourcount phosphoric, hydrochloric and silica acid.

Such a fertilizer, however, is found in everyprimitive rock. Primitive rocks do not, indeed,contain more than one per cent of phosphoricacid, but that is quite sufficient; it is, indeed, themeasure wisely appointed by the Creator of allthings, for the other constituents of granite, por-phyry, etc., which serve for the nourishment ofplants, consist of about six per cent of potassiumand soda and two per cent of lime and mag-nesium. The residue of the rock serves as a sub-stance dispersed between the basic substances tokeep them apart, and they are dissolved out oftheir combination with silica acid only as theyare applied to use. Thence we receive suchwholesome cereals from mountainous countries,e.g., from Hungary, encircled by the CarpathianMountains, in contrast with prevalence of dis-eases due to the composition of the blood of menand animals in the exhausted plains which aresupplied with stable manure.

If we wish to grasp quickly and completely thecorrectness and importance of mineral manure,we need only to consider the cases of Uruguayand Argentina or of Egypt; or, to mention an ex-ample from our proximate vicinity, that of theprincipality of Birkenfield.

In Uruguay and Argentina the live stock is es-timated at about thirty-two million (beef, sheepand horses). Of these they are now killed for ex-port each year about one and a quarter million

20

STONE MEALand the bones of these animals are carried by theshiploads to Hamburg, in order to be worked upinto bone-black to be used in the sugar refineries.It is self-evident that the animals take the phos-phate of lime for their bones from the grass theyeat. But the grass draws the necessary nitrogenfrom the air, for they use no fertilizers, and thephosphate of limes, which continually passesfrom the country in the form of bones, is receivedby the grass from the inexhaustible calcareousporphyritic mud which is carried down throughmillions of gorges from the Cordilleras by themountain streams and which flow as a primitivemanure into the eastern plains. In Egypt this iseffected by the Nile mud, which the mountainstreams bring down and which is conveyed by theNile in fructifying abundance to the Delta, whichthereby becomes the granary of Egypt.

But we need not go so far eve. The little prin-cipality of Birkenfield demonstrates the fertilityof the primary rocks which the mountains of theHundsruecken supplies in the form of argilleciousslate. It is a little Argentina. The trade in cattleplays an important part in Birkenfield. Besidesthis, oil factories, linen factories and beerbreweries prove that cereals and oil plants, richin phosphorus, and among them flax, rich inpotassium, find there good nutritive supplies. Theforests consist mainly of deciduous trees and har-bor much game. Trees need phosphoric acid fortheir roots, trunks and bark, and the game needsphosphate of lime for the bones. The ashes of oakwood and beech wood contain 6 per cent of phos-phoric acid, and that of the horse-chestnut con-tain 7 per cent. So richly does the argillaceousslate furnish the nutritive elements for the

21

Bread from Stonesgrowth of plants and especially the right quantityof phosphoric acid.

In contrast with these natural fertilizers whathas our prudent and learned fertilizing withphosphoric acid effected? It has brought it aboutthat we don't know how to save ourselves fromthe phylloxera, the nematodes, hay-worm, spring-worm and sourworm, nor from the fungi causingrust and blight. The more phosphoric protoplasmwhich accumulates in seeds and fruits as an es-sential condition of their existence. If we wish tolimit these plagues to a sufferable degree wemust supply our fields that have been delugedwith phosphoric acid with natural plant food,with pulverized rocks, with lime and gypsum.

Of many communications received, which con-firm the above, we would like to cite a few whichare especially instructive, as it shows that theseevils have become so great as to urgently demandrelief. The representative of a great vineyard es-tate on the upper Rhine writes as follows:

"For years I have seen clearly that we make agreat mistake in our cultivation of fields, gardensand vineyards, but only on reading your bookshave I seen that all our methods of fertilizinghitherto have been onesided, and that, therefore,they are ineffectual. Stable manure on some soilsand for some crops may be sufficient, but it is nota universal fertilizer. We see this plainly here inthe Rheingau, in the young vines, which aremanured every two or three years with cow dung,and indeed, great quantities of it. A gladsome,luxuriant growth and a rich yield of grapes arenot produced, though we furnish the grape vineswith the potassium, phosphoric acid and nitrogenin so great quantities that the shoots, the grapesand the leaves ought to display the utmost

22

STONE MEALluxuriance; but instead of this everything in thevineyards here looks sickly and poor. I should,therefore, be very glad and grateful to you if youwould give us your views about this. It would beof great benefit, not only to ourselves, but to thewhole of the Rheingau, and wherever grape vinesare cultivated, to be delivered from the miseriesof the spring-worm, hay-worm and sour-worm,the phylloxera and the Peronospora viticola,and if this can be done by your method all cul-tivators of the grapevine will exclaim: God bepraised!

I answered that the usual manure does notlack any necessary ingredient, but there is in ittoo much of some things, i.e., of nitrogen andphosphoric acid. Men must return to the originalmaterial, restore to the soil its natural originalqualities by bringing to the fields soil that hasnot been exhausted, which may be done in theform of powdered primitive rocks mingled withsulfates and carbonate of lime and magnesium.The correctness of such belief is attested by thefollowing correspondence with a landscape gar-dener and nursery man from the Rheinprovinz:

"We would like to ask you for some informa-tion as to what we had best use for manuring ournurseries. We have clayey, deep, light soil,formerly a forest. We cultivate roses, fruit treesand forest trees, also evergreen plants, firs andvarious kinds of cypresses. It is quite peculiarthat quinces and other fruits in the second yearafter grafting absolutely refuses to grow anymore despite the use of stable manure, iron slagand Chilean nitrate."

I answered that deep, clayey forest soil, whileretaining its clay and silica, has been deprived ofits basic constituents (potassium, soda, lime and

23

Bread from Stonesmagnesium) which in the process of time havepassed over into the wood of the roots and of thetrunks, and that the only thing promising relief isfresh rock meal. For are not the Balkan countriesthe home of the roses, and do not the HaemusMountains consist of porphyry, granite andgneiss, but not of stable manure and clay? Do notcypresses grow in the region of the Appennines,which furnish the nourishing material from theirgranite and gneiss. And do not firs grow on moun-tains of granite and porphyry? Finally fruit? TheBohemian Mountains furnish it in abundance,and indeed free from worms. This latter fact, thatthe use of Stone Meal causes worms tocease, was lately confirmed by Dr. Fischer, M.D.,of Westend, near Charlottenburg, who introducedStone Meal manure two years ago in his garden,situated on a sandy soil. He reported about it inthe January number of the Deutsche PomologenVerein. From a third letter I quote as follows:

"I am glad to see a chemist who has thecourage to openly oppose the swindle of the artifi-cial manures. Within a series of ten years Ibought at least $17,000 worth of artificial fer-tilizers, of which sum over $6,000 was paid forChilean nitrate. I harvest more every year, butwhat? Nothing but straw, lodged grain andcereals of low grade. For the last two years I havebought, in addition, animal manure and lime,and I find that at a slight expense, everything isbeing changed and that the field will again bringin what I lost in former years. When the Thomasphosphate was introduced, as it was cheap, I usedat once 2000 cwt. With 7 cwt. per acre an effectwas indeed seen, but what was it that acted?Surely only the lime. What you have affirmed Ihave long felt. That many of us agriculturists are

24

STONE MEALfaring so badly if for the most part owing to thisnuisance of our artificial, expensive and uselessfertilizers."

A fourth letter with an excerpt, but which Iwill conclude, contains the following:

"Twenty years ago, while in office in Alsatia, Iendeavored to make myself acquainted andfamiliar with all manner of subjects. I was less tothe idea of mineral fertilizers or manures, when Ihead and saw that in the intersecting valleys ofthe Vosges Mountains the winter torrents coveredthe lowlands with granite debris, which after afew years become very fruitful soil; but I had noopportunity or passion to follow out this idea anyfurther, which is now, however the case."

Every such letter contains new confirmatoryfacts. I have quite a collection of such correspon-dence, but will not weary you by quoting more.

25

STONE MEAL MANURE

by Dr. Julius Henselin Pioneer, July 22, 1892

"Bread from stones; and thus forsoothThe Bible words maintain their truth."

I have before this taken occasion, in the"Deutsche Adelblatt", to show that calling thestone dust "manure" is really not correct, as it issuperior to the so-called manures in this, that itrestores the natural conditions for thegrowth of crops, while manures only present anartificial help and thus a makeshift. The wholestate of the case is as follows:

In the beginning plants grew without any ar-tificial addition from the soil formed of disin-tegrated material from the mountains. Thecarbonic acid of the air combined with the basicconstituents, potassium, soda, lime, magnesium,iron and manganese, which were combined in thedisintegrated rock material with silicate acid,alumina, sulfur, phosphorus, chlorine andfluorine, and with the cooperation of moisture bythe operation of the heat and light of the sun, itproduced vegetable cell tissue.

The gaseous substances, carbonic acid (carbondioxide), watery vapor and the nitrogen of the airrequire the firm forms of vegetable cellular tissueand vegetable albumen solely through the basicfoundation of potassium, soda, lime and mag-nesium, without which no root, stalk, leaf or fruitis found; for whether we burn the leaves ofmaples or of beech trees, the roots of burdocks orof willows, grains of rye or wood, straw or linen,

26

STONE MEAL MANUREpears, cherries or rape seed, there always re-mains a residuum of ashes which, in variousproportions consists of potassium, soda, lime, sul-furic acid, fluorine and silica. With respect tonitrogen, this with watery vapor forms in thepresence of iron, which is present in all soils, be-coming ammonia according to the formula N2 H6O3 Fe2- N2 H6 Fe2 O3 (all iron rust that is formedin the nightly dew out of metallic iron, Fe2 O2,contains ammonia, as Eilard Mitscherlich hasproved.)

The solidification of the cellular tissue arisingfrom carbonic acid and water will be best under-stood by comparing it with the process of the for-mation of hard soap by the combination of oilwith soda, potassium, lime or any other basicsubstance, as, e.g., oxide of lead, quicksilver oriron. Ammonia also forms soap with oxidized oil,oleic acid. We can hardly find any better com-parison by which to explain the solidification ofthe atmospheric vapors (carbonic acid, water,nitrogen and oxygen) in combinations with ear-thy substances, or in substitution for the latterwith ammonia into vegetable substance, than onthe one side, this process of saonification and, onthe other hand, the soil substance which is thebasis of soap.

The production of oil substance consists inthis, that combustible substances (hydrocarbons)are generated from burned-up substances (car-bonic acid and water) and this characterizes inthe main the nature of the universal vegetation ofplants. A burning stearine candle is transformedinto carbonic acid gas and watery vapor, butthese aeriform products, in combination withearths, are again transmuted into combustiblewood, sugar, starch and oil by the operation of the

27

Bread from Stonessun. Wherever new earth comes into activity, asat the foot of mountains, there is found a vigorousgrowth of plants, especially when a sufficiency ofcarbonic acid clings to the rock as in the Juraregions.

The road from Basel to Biel is very instructivein this respect. On the contrary, it is seen that indensely populated regions, as, e.g., in China andin Japan, after a cultivation of many thousands ofyears, the earth, exhausted of the material thatforms cells, is of itself unwilling to produce asmany nutritive plans as men and animals usedfor their sustenance; but as had been perceivedthat the nourishment which has been consumed,in so far as it has not been used in the new for-mation of lymphatic fluid and blood, being there-fore superfluous, leaves the body through thedigestive canal although chemically disintegratedand putrefied, nevertheless produces new vegeta-tion when this material is brought on the fieldsand is mixed with earth; in China they collectwith great care not only whatever has passedthrough the intestinal canal, but also the productof the bodily substance which is consumed byrespiration, which is eliminated through thesecretion of the kidneys and which also gives animpulse to new growth.

One or the other must take place. Either un-exhausted new soil or the restoration of the nutri-tion consumed in the soil of the fields. Where thelatter has not been done, as by the first Europeansettlers in America, the crops decreased and thesettlers moved from the east further to the west,in order to gain enough cereals from these as yetunexhausted soil for export to Europe. Now theyhave also come to see in America that they cannotcontinue thus, as there are no more domains

28

STONE MEAL MANUREwithout owners into which they can immigratewithout let or hindrance.

But how is it with us in Germany in thisrespect? After the soil would not yield any more,despite deep plowing, the cycle instituted inChina was also put into practice. They had to seethat the solid and liquid manure of the domesticanimals, brought on the fields, produced a newgrowth, and the dungheaps began to be valued.By the aid of this dung the fields were kept fer-tile, although this was a mere makeshift. Thismakeshift has become a familiar one for severalcenturies, so that even in the time of our great-grandfathers, the saying was in vogue, "Wherethere is no manure nothing will grow".

So eventually what was a mere makeshift hasbecome the regular rule. As a consequence of thistraditional view, the conclusion followed: In orderto get a large quantity of manure we must keepas many cattle as practicable. In this it was over-looked that the cattle would require again asmuch acreage for their nutrition, and the groundthus used could not be used to raise grain, so thatin such an economy it was necessary to work thefields for the sake of the cattle, not for the sake ofthe men. but finally the thoughtful and bookkeep-ing farmers had to come to the conclusion thatthe raising of cattle only pays in mountainousdistricts, or in districts like the marshes ofHolstein, which are kept fruitful by the continualwashing down of Geest rocks.

I can only summarize here. As above said, thedungheap had been recognized as the augmenterof fertility and dungheaps were considered as thenatural condition, sin qua non, for the growth ofcrops, although this was by no means founded onthe natural order, but was only a makeshift.

29

Bread from StonesWhen once the rule was established that whenthe stable manure would no more suffice somepeople recommended artificial manure. As thesepeople gave themselves great airs of learning, thewell-educated large landowners fell into theirnet, even more than the simple peasants, andtherewirth the general retrocession of agricul-tural produce in the level regions was for sometime at least fixed and sealed.

It may easily be seen that oxen and cows, nomatter how high their cost, charged no salary forproducing their manure. It was otherwise withthe chemists and the dealers in artificial manure.These not only demanded to be nourished them-selves, but also desired from the gain produced bytheir business to educate their children, to buildtheir magazines, to pay their traveling agentsand to increase their capital. This business likeall those which supply necessaries proved soremunerative that one of the greatest housesdealing in artificial manures in a short time hasmade millions, which were paid them by thefarmers without receiving and equivalent; for inspite of the most energetic application of artificialmanures the crops steadily decreased. How couldit be otherwise? Plants need potassium, soda,lime, magnesium, iron, manganese, sulphur,phosphorus and fluorine, and in artificialfertilizers they only received expensivepotassium, phosphoric acid and nitrogen fortheir nourishment.

The consequence of this showed itself first ofall in frequent bankruptcies of agriculturists. Butbesides this, nitrogenous fertilizers in the form ofChilean nitrate have caused a predominance ofcattle diseases. That hares and deer have beenfound dead in numbers of places which have been

30

STONE MEAL MANUREfertilized with Chilean nitrate I have read in atleast twenty newspapers, and it has also beenreported to me by eye-witnesses. As in the openair so also in the stables. No normal animal bodi-ly substance can be formed from fodder manuredwith nitrogen, especially no wholesome milkequal to that from cows feeding on mountainherbs.

It is not to be computed how great an in-jury to health in men and animals has beencaused by stable manure. Milk produced fromammoniacal plants paved the way by which thedestructive spirit diphtheria has swooped downafter measles, scarlatina, scrofula, pneumoniahad become the familiar companions of the Ger-mans, who before were strong as bears. Artificialmanure at last put the crown on the work ofdestruction.

How could this happen? Very simply. Liebigwas the first agricultural chemist. He found thatthe ashes which remained from grain mainly con-sisted of phosphate of potassium. From this heconcluded that phosphate of potassium must berestored to the soil, and that was very one-sided.Liebig had forgotten to take the straw into ac-count, in which only small quantities of phos-phoric acid are found, because this substanceduring the process of maturing passes from thestalk into the grain. If he had not only calculatedthe seed, but also the roots and the stalks, hewould have found what we know at this day, thatin the whole plants there is as much lime andmagnesium as potassium and soda, and thatphosphoric acid forms only the tenth part of thesum of these basic constituents.

Unfortunately Liebig also was of the opinionthat potassium and phosphoric acid has to be res-

31

Bread from Stonestored to the soil as such, while anyone mighthave concluded that instead of the exhausted soil,we must supply earthy material from which noth-ing has been grown. Such untouched earthymaterial of primitive strength we get by pulveriz-ing rocks in which potassium, soda, lime, mag-nesium, manganese, and iron are combined withsilica, alumina, phosphoric acid, fluorine and sul-phur. Among these substances, fluorine, which isfound in all mica minerals, has been neglected byLiebig and by all his followers, and has neverbeen contained in any artificial manure. But weknow from later investigations that fluorine isregularly found even in the white and yellow ofbird's eggs, we must acknowledge it is somethingessential to the organism. Chickens get thisfluorine and the other earthy constituents whenthey have a chance to pick up little slivers ofgranite. Where this is denied them, as in awooden hen house, they succumb to chickencholera and chicken diphtheria.

We men are not as well off as the birds of theheavens. We must eat the soup prepared for us bythe dealers in artificial manures. Since these sellno fluorine our cereals suffer a lack of fluorine,and so no normal bony substance can be formedwithout fluorine. In the same degrees as thenumber of dealers in fertilizers increased, thearmy of dentists and the erection of orthopedic in-stitutes increased but the latter were unable toremove the curvature of the spine in ourchildren.. The enamel of the teeth needs fluorine,the albumen and the yolk of the eggs requirefluorine, the bones of the spine require fluorine.

How rich, how strong and how healthy will weGermans be when we make our mountainstributary to yield new soil from which new

32

STONE MEAL MANUREcereals may be formed. We need then no moresend our savings to Russia, to Hungary, toAmerica, but will make our way through life byour strong elbows and with German courage andshall keep off our adversaries.

The goal aimed at, of satisfying the hungry,and of preventing numerous maladies by restor-ing the natural condition for wholesome plantgrowth, seems to me one of the highest and mostnoble. Even six cwt. of prepared stone dust to thePrussian morgen (one fourth hectare, or about 10cwt. to the acre) will give sufficient nourishmentfor a satisfactory crop, if this amount is suppliedeach year. If more is used, the yield may be somuch the more increased.

I conclude these remarks, which were intro-duced with a motto that adorned the exhibit inLeipzig of the produce yielded by stone dust, byreproducing also the second rhyme which hadbeen introduced there, and which, like the motto,has a conscientious adherent of mineral manurefor its author:

"Art we love, but never can endureTo see the artificial in manure."

33

CONTRIBUTIONS

FROM

HENSEL'S

FOLLOWERS

STONE MEALby Herm. Fischer, M.D.

Westend, CharlottenburgFrom No. 1 of Pomologische

Monatschefte, 1892.Edited by Fredrich Lucas, Director of the

Pomological Institute in Reutlingen

Not only those who like to eat fruit andvegetables, but much more, those who raise fruitsand vegetables rejoice in the abundant andsavory produce of our gardens. To maintain thisproduce and, if possible, to increase it is the en-deavor of rational horticulture. This end isstriven for through careful cultivation, and moreespecially by abundant manuring, especially withnitrogenous compounds. It says this end isstriven for, but it is not always reached. The long-continued labors of a well-known investigator,Julius Hensel, have opened new prospects foragriculture, fruit raising and horticulture. Theyshow, in fact how we can "turn stones into bread."

Hensel's book, "Das Leben", has lately ap-peared in a second edition. Every thinking readerwill find a high enjoyment in the study of thisbook. For our present consideration I recommendespecially Chapter XXX, p.476, "Agriculture andForestry". Lately a little work, by the sameauthor, has appeared on "Mineral Manure theNatural Way of Solving the Social Question",published by the author at Hermsdorf untermKynast, Silesia. The first part of the pamphlet isdevoted to the defensive, for like all pioneers ourauthor meets with violent opposition from the or-

37

Bread from Stonesthodox teachers of agriculture, who cures andperiwigs have come into a great state of agitation.

After his defense the author passes to histheme proper. Earth, air, water and sunlightmust cooperate to produce a fruitful growth. Weentrust our seeds to the earth. What is earth?The earth or soil is disintegrated primitive rock(gneiss, granite, porphyry).

The soil of our fields is continually being in-creased by the disintegration of primitive rocks,and from this there grow up grasses, herbs,shrubs and trees; without mineral constituentsno plant can grow. Now, when in level plains theupper layer of the soil through long cultivationhas become exhausted of certain necessarymineral constituents, new rocky material must beprovided, from which nothing has as yet beengrown, which, therefore, still contains all itsstrength; this is not only the most natural, butalso the simplest and at the same time thecheapest way to increase and maintain the yieldof our fields.

This is not mere theory, thought out in thestudy; but experience and success havedemonstrated it. With Hensel there is no moreneed for experiments, but merely of demonstra-tion. A firm in the Rheuish- Palatinate hasproduced a variety of fertilizers, according to hisdirections, out of pulverized rocks, such as aremost suitable for the various plants. I will hereonly mention fertilizers for vineyards, meadowsand potato fields. Hundreds of advocates affirmthe favorable results of these fertilizers. The restshall be read in the pamphlet itself.

Since the spring of 1890 I have used StoneMeal manure in my garden, situated on our well-known sandy soil, and am extraordinarily well

38

STONE MEALpleased with the result. I have picked from a rowof raspberry bushes about twenty-three yardslong fifty quarts of the most delicious fruit, someof over one inch in length and three-fourths of aninch in diameter. The shoots this year, which willbear next year, are as thick as a finger, some asthick as a thumb, and up to eight feet high. Theyoung fruit trees planted about three years agoare bearing very well, and what is well to notice,they are set abundantly with buds for blossomingnext year. What is especially surprising is that Ihave found no worms at all, neither in myraspberries nor my early pears and apples. Thewinter apples also have so far not shown a singleworm-eaten fruit.

My vegetables I sowed in furrows, coveringfirst with mineral manure and leveling the fur-row with earth. The plants I took out totransplant have a mass of roots such as I havenever seen even in a manure bed. They, therefore,were easily transplanted; none withered. I willnot mention my asparagus because the varietyused of itself brings big shoots. I have cutasparagus weighing six to nine ounces; they werea foot long and their circumference at the middleof their length was four and one half inches; thetaste of this asparagus is excellent.

I would especially point to the quality, themost delicious savor of fruits, etc. grown with thismanure, in contradistinction to those grown withstable manure; this is also shown in thepamphlet mentioned above. With all these ad-vantages, mineral manure is even cheaper thanall other artificial manures. "We need no artifi-cial manure if we supply that which we an-nually draw from the soil in the form offruits, etc., by means of fresh, unexhausted

39

Bread from Stonespulverized granite, gneiss or porphyry asthe genuine strengthening and primitivefertilizer, mixed with gypsum and lime.

The fallacy of the supposition hitherto heldthat all cultivated plants must have especiallynitrogenous food in order that they may prosper,becomes more and more apparent. By experi-ments it has been indubitably proved, and Henselalways asserted, that plants, and especially theleafy leguminous fodder plants (clover, vetches,etc.) can take up and elaborate nitrogen throughtheir leaves out of the air, just as the carbonicacid taken up from the air is worked up intohydrocarbons under the operation of light. All weneed, therefore, is to furnish the soil with thenecessary mineral constituents. Mineral manureis the most profitable, most lasting and, what isnot to be overlooked, and entirely odorless fer-tilizer.

If I shall have succeeded in calling the atten-tion of the reader to the glorious effects of thismanure, the object of these lines are attained.When the use of this manure is then followed bysurprising results the beautiful fruits will, in themost literal sense, be my reward.

40

STONE FERTILIZINGby Dr. Emil Schlegal, Physician in Tubingen

From the Wegweiser zur GesundheitSeptember 15, 1891

This is a subject that does not immediatelyconcern the Wegweiser zur Gesundheit, butwhich nevertheless, on account of its far extendedimportance may have the greatest effect on thewell-being and wealth of our people. The chemist,Julius Hensel, of whom we have several timesbefore this spoken in earlier numbers of the Weg-weiser, and who is known to its readers by hisgenial book, "Das Leben", has lately publishedanother work which deserves particular mention.He therein sets forth that the loss of soil inmineral substances (lime, magnesium, etc.) is notsupplied by animal offal, though this produces astrong forcing of the plants, which makes theleaves and the products weakly and injurious, asthis is said to have developed in the irrigatedfields at Berlin, where the bones and muscles ofthe animals fed on their produce are sufferingand also the milk is not satisfactory for sucklings.

In a still higher degree these injurious forcingsubstances are found in artificial manures andespecially in Chilean nitrate, causing rapid,surprisingly luxuriant growth; but when the fruitor the seeds develop, there is a manifest fallingoff. Now, since every year millions of dollars aretransferred from the pockets of the farmers intothose of manufacturers of artificial manures, andof speculators and stockholders, this amounts toan impoverishment of the soil by parasites.

41

Bread from StonesThe true cure of an exhausted soil consists, ac-

cording to Hensel, in supplying it with com-minuted rocks, especially granite, gneiss,porphyry and lime. Thereby the plants receiveagain what they naturally demand. The Weg-weiser would here remark that the best proof ofthese views given on a great scale is thousands ofyears old, i.e., the fertility of Egypt. The mud ofthe Nile consists almost exclusively of finely com-minuted rocks, with very, very few organicnitrogenous constituents. But the flooded dis-tricts owe their unexampled fertility to just thisprecipitated stone dust. Hensel writes at the endof his book:

"Almost every field contains stones whichhave only been acted upon in part by the dissolv-ing moisture of the soil, and which therefore showa more or less rounded form. These stones, asthey injure the spade or plow, are usuallyremoved to the sides of the fields and thereheaped up, and are then sold at a cheap rate foruse on the highways. The farmer who acts thussells his birthright, so to say, for less than a pot-tage of lentils, for he removes the source of fer-tility from his fields. If such stones are heated inthe stove or on the hearth for half an hour andthen thrown into water they become so friablethat they may be broken into small pieces by thehands and may easily be pulverized with a ham-mer. It is to be wished that these developments ofHensel should find a wide diffusion."

42

Letter to Mr. SchmittOranienburg

August 17, 1893Highly Honored Sir:

I have just returned from my long tour for thestone dust, having been away five weeks, and Iherewith give you a brief report, so that you mayalso enjoy the victory which stone dust hasgained wherever it has been really put to a prac-tical test.

I have already written to you of the eminent,happy effects of stone dust on the estate of CountChamare. I have been able to see its good effectsalso in Upper Silesia, and have established theretwo more stations for the future, where normaltrials will be made. I saw exceedingly significantresults from stone dust on the field of ChiefBailiff Donner at Culmsee in West Prussia, i.e.,excellent wheat, showed after barley and oats,with only five cwt. of stone dust to the acre; alsosplendid rye in fourth succession on five cwt. ofstone dust, and sugar beets following sugar beetson merely six and a half cwt. to the acre, whichpromise a very good yield. Here it was found thatthe fields needed above all a good supply of lime,and this lime was the best support to the happyeffects of the stone meal demanded a simul-taneous application of lime of sixteen to thirtycwt. per acre.

So great a quantity will not be used in oneyear. For the Stone Meal made according toHensel's directions contains as much lime andmagnesium as the average crops call for.

The cultivation of sugar beets can be doubledby stone meal. This accomplishment would surelybe a great result from stone meal. Also in West

43

Bread from StonesPrussia I have established an experimental sta-tion for the proper use of stone meal on a largeestate near Braunsberg, belonging to a Herr vonBestroff. This gentleman called on me for thispurpose also before this in Oranienburg.

I hope that this, my first tour in behalf ofStone Meal, has not been in vain, and I intend,God willing, to repeat these tours annually, so asto benefit our great and important cause with allmy strength. I am quite confident that stone dustcombined in the proper way with lime will by itspractical success carry off the victory.

I shall do my best to carry out the stone-mealexperiments on the estate of Count Chamare inthe most conscientious manner, and hope thatGod's blessing may rest on this my labor, which Iperform gladly for my country.

Otto SchoenfeldDirector of the Agricultural

and Forestry School

44

Letter By Mr. K. Utermohlen,Teacher in Leinde, to the

Pomologieal Society "Heim-garten" in Bluelach

By means of the Stone Meal manure of Henselwe shall soon surpass all similar undertakings(cooperative Pomologieal Association). If the treehas a sufficiency of this primitive substanceunder its roots it is not only fruitful, but no moresensitive to frost and diseases. Nor will it be in-fested as much by insects, as it will be healthy,having a pure sap. With the usual treatment withmanure rich in nitrogen the trees are satiated torepletion, and then it is with them as with men.Their fibers are relaxed, their sap is checked, dis-eases develop, lice and other vermin infest them,and then we have to sprinkle them with mix-tures, cut out wounds, put on wax and pitch, etc.By well preparing the soil with this manure, weprevent all these troubles from the start, and thetrees become strong and hardened. It is just aswhen parents bring up healthy children withsolid food. They then have none of these troublesand cares encountered by parents who treat theirchildren perversely.

For the past two years I have been makingvarious experiments with stone-meal manure,and indeed with the different kinds. From my ex-perience with it, I have come to the firm convic-tion that we used no other manure at all but this.I wish I could speak with angels' tongues to makeclear to you its great importance for our cause. Itwould carry me too far to speak of all the various

45

Bread from Stonesexperiments. A radical reform in this directionwill have to be made. If we give the trees whenthey are first planted some of this manure beforetheir roots, with good irrigation, they will betrace as strong and vigorous as without it. We donot need any stable manure to loosen the ground,that is best effected by diligent hoeing and dig-ging. Where this should prove insufficient we callin peat moss to our aid, and this can be gottencheap here. That is what I did with my heavygarden soil, and then with the help of Stone MealI have raised the finest vegetables, though thegarden has seen no stable manure for eight years.And then how pleasant and cleanly is thismineral manure when compared with the smellof solid and liquid stable manure. Then we shouldconsider its great cheapness. Much can be donewith 1 cwt. If we had always to use stablemanure we would have to give out great sumsevery year, and even then we could not get a suf-ficient quantity.

But there must be manure, for "from nothingnothing comes", as the saying is. In this respectthe mineral manure is our best help. We cannotin this matter give any consideration to theauthorities in horticulture, as they are in errorwith respect to the nutrition of plants. I referespecially to their silly theories about nitrogen.Who brings to the strong oaks of one hundredyears growing on rocky soil, or to the other livelychildren of mother earth, out of free nature, liq-uid or solid manure or sewage? They grow andflourish and revel in their healthy growth just be-cause they are spared all these. So will be withour fruit trees when we shall nourish them in anatural manner. It is not a mere secondary ques-tion, but a most fundamental one, which is here

46

Letter By Mr. K. Utermohlen,involved. The question is whether we shall in thetreatment of our little trees follow the pervertedand worn out routine of the wisdom of the profes-sors of our state with their theories of albumen orwhether we will follow the path of nature. Wehave chosen for ourselves and our mode of livingthe latter course. It is then surely proper to dothe same with respect to our plantations.

If I only has a photographic apparatus Ishould like to send you a picture of some of ourstandard trees and some of our half standard towhich I have especially applied this manure.Such a multitude of the finest russets! It wouldhardly be thought possible in a small tree of fouryears. And then you should see how this little fel-low has increased in thickness! His coat has al-most become too narrow for him. The apples hangtwice as thick as in other years, and their flavorcan hardly be recognized; their aroma is reallyrefreshing. The same I have perceived this yearin our cherries and raspberries. When I come tosee you I shall bring a whole selection of applesfor trial.

I well manured a bed of several square yardsof ground and planted it with cucumbers. Aftergathering this summer a whole basket full Ithought I had a remarkably good crop; but no thebed is just as full again, although I have pickedsome from time to time. The same is the casewith the beans and onions which I have noticedparticularly, as we can only plant flat-rootedvegetables between the trees.

We cannot sufficiently express our satisfactionthat we have in this manner not only founda substitute for, but something far betterthan stable manure.

47

The STONE MEAL of DR.HENSEL

before the Committee on Fertilizersof the German Agricultural Society

From Dr. F. Schaper, in Nauen,in the "Osthavollaendishes Kreisblatt"

Most of the members evidently knew nothingabout the mineral manure through the abuse ofthe well-known Professor Wagner, in Darmstadt.It is a sad state of affairs, but it is true, thatthese institutions, founded for the use of agricul-ture, cannot act freely, but have to regard quitedifferent groups of interest, i.e., those of themanufacturers of manure. That their interestsand those of the farmers are directly opposed toeach other is manifest from this that the farmersdesire cheap fertilizers but the manufacturers ofmanure desire to keep them as high as possiblein order that they may make the more money.Now the agricultural experiment stations receivepart of their support from the manufacturers ofmanures, as they are paid for their controlanalyses, experiments, etc. In order that theymay not lose these contributions, these institu-tions must avoid whatever runs counter to the in-terests of their employers. It is often evenstipulated in the contracts between the manufac-turers of fertilizers and the agricultural experi-ment stations that they should obligatethemselves to protect these factories of artificialmanures from unfair competition.

But who is to decide who and what belongs to"unfair competition?" The manufacturer will be

48

The STONE MEAL of DR. HENSELapt to consider every one as an "unfair com-petitor" who threatens to diminish his profits,and he will therefore insist, and a certainplausibility cannot be denied to their demands,that the agricultural stations according to theircontract should in every case work for them. Thisenables us to explain the silence or the open hos-tility of the agricultural experiment stationstoward Stone Meal fertilizer. No intelligent manwill on this account consider this hostility of im-portance or take too serious view of it.

The opposition should even be of use to thecause, since no truth valuable in itself can be in-jured by the exercise of a criticism ever so sharp,if this is done in a scientific manner. But such anobjective criticism has not been exercised onHensel's theory, but certain directors of experi-ment stations, instead of combating it in a scien-tific manner, have descended to gross abuse andhave, therefore, been judicially punished.

Mr. Shulz-Lupitz, the chairman of the Com-mittee on Fertilizers, objects to Mr. Hensel in theseason of February 14 of this year (1893), that heis conducting his cause against acknowledgedmen of science in a rough manner, and that thiscould not be rebuked sufficiently - a peculiar ob-jection as coming from a man who, as far as thedirection of the proceedings and the form of theresolution offered by him and finally accepted goto show, has only a slight regard for the white-washed politeness of Europe. Mr. Hensel was notthe attacking party, but quite a different set ofpeople, the close friends of Mr. Shulz-Lupitz, andthe aim of the proceedings was evidently to getthem out of the scrape into which their ownprecipitation had brought them.

49

Bread from StonesThe well-known professor, Dr. Wagner, in

Darmstadt, director of the agricultural experi-ment station there, in his edict in the year 1889,has called the mineral manure a gross swindleand denied it any value. This edict had been pub-lished in Zimmer's factory in Mannheim in in-numerable pamphlets and in journals as asupplement. Thus it came that in far extendedagricultural circles which only heard of mineralmanure through journals of Wagnerian tendency,Mr. Hensel was accounted as a charlatan. When aman like Mr. Hensel who thinks he has dis-covered something useful for agriculture is thusshamefully reviled, and in the end deals with hisassailants in a somewhat doughty fashion, whowill account him reprehensible? Nor Mr. Shulz-Lupitz, in the proceedings, continues this kind ofpolemics against Mr. Hensel.

The resolution passed declares in its first part:"Hensel's Stone Meal is from the standpoint ofpractical and scientific knowledge to be desig-nated as a worthless fertilizing agent". Just thecontrary is the truth. From the standpoint ofpractical experience the Stone Meal has shown it-self a valuable fertilizer; surely enough, the menwho had some practical experience with themanure were not acknowledged by thesegentlemen of the fertilizer division but they werepresented by some learned men of this assemblyconscious of the infallible book learning, as menwho could easily be cheated, and who now alsocheat others, thus as cheating and cheated.

These learned gentlemen seem to forget thatin practical life a grain of common sense out-weighs a hundred weight of book learning.

In the second part of its resolution the fer-tilizer division rebukes the "impertinent bearing"

50

The STONE MEAL of DR. HENSELof the "so-called chemist", Hensel, with indigna-tion and "expresses" to Professor Wagner, inDarmstadt, the thanks of the practical agricul-turists for his appropriate designation of theStone Meal of Hensel. This latter gentleman hascalled it as above mentioned, a gross swindle. Thefertilizer division has cautiously avoided usingthis expression. For this expression has causedthe punishment of two editors who had copied theWagnerian production and its author. ProfessorWagner has escaped a probable judicial condem-nation only by the fact that the complaint owingto an oversight fell under the statute of limita-tion.

We who are convinced of the value of Hensel'smethod of improving the soil look trustingly intothe future, with the courageous and intelligentchampions.

I would, therefore, request all who have hadany practical experience with Stone Meal topublish their experiences for the good of thecause and of their fellowmen, and not to leave thefield to the sole occupancy of the opponents. Theword of the single man easily dies away, the mul-titude only make the full chorus, especially in ourdemocratic times, and this chorus alone can hushthe short-sighted insolence and the self-interestswhich oppose the new discovery.

51

ABOUT STONE MEALMANURE

(Land und Hauswirthschafliche-Rundschau, No. 11, 1893)

A short time ago we published an article onthe experiments with the new Stone Meal fer-tilizer; we also gave space to an objective presen-tation as to the causes which make Stone Mealsuitable for a manure. The new fertilizer and itsdiscoverer have suffered severe infestations. Itmay, therefore, interest our readers to see areport from our neighborhood as to some trialsmade of it. We have received the following:

Some time ago a burgomaster of the neighbor-hood called our attention to the splendid stand ofgrain manured with Stone Meal on the "Stein-heimer Hof", on the estates of the Grand Duke ofLuxembourg. A company of gentlemen who takean earnest interest in this matter (chemist Dr.Ebel, teacher Eeisenkopf, and the landedproprietor, Loeillot de Mars, from Wiesbaden;Director Spiethoff, editor of the Pioneer, fromBerlin; Mr. Forke, of Eltville and Dr. Dietrich andDr. Brockhues, from Oberwallauf) in a Whitsun-tide excursion verified these statements beyondall expectations.

In spite of the great drouth, the rye on 18 1/2acres of ground had stout stalks and long thickears, and the tenant, Mr. Heil, told us that littlemore than 5 cwt. to the acre, together with 1000cwt. had been used. Just as luxuriant with darkgreen stalks and leaves stood the oats, 1 1/2acres, right by the highway. This piece of groundhad not had any stable manure for many years,

52

ABOUT STONE MEAL MANUREand had only received 20 cwt. of Stone Meal withan addition of 6 cwt. of iron slag. The comparisonwith the neighboring fields which had been wellcultivated, but differently manured, was verymuch in favor of the manuring with Stone Meal.

Just as striking as was the success of Mr.Forke, with his rye, oats and clover, it was on hisfruit trees and grape vines. We would only men-tion that a clover field of which one half has beenmanured with stable manure and the other halfwith Stone Meal showed a dense growth of cloveron the latter half, while the former half showedmany weeds but hardly any clover. A cherry treeand a tree with Gravenstine apples, which formany years has yielded no fruit worth speakingof, this year, after having been well supplied withStone Meal, was covered over and over with fruit.

A neighboring farmer told him, on seeing hisfine oats, Here we can see clearly how yourmanure acts; it could not stand better if you hadput on 60 cartloads of stable manure per acre,which would have cost $125.00 to $150.00 peracre.

The condition of the grape vines afterrepeated manuring with Stone Meal was on com-parison with other grape vines found to be excel-lent, but we shall return to particulars, as withthe rye and oats, at the time of harvest. We invitethe farmers of the neighborhood to make theircomparisons and to convince themselves of thesolid results of manuring with Stone Meal. Thispossesses the quality of vigorously nourishingthe plants and making them strong to resistfrosts and drought. The above-mentionedgentlemen will bear record as to whether Henselis really the "false prophet" that he has been rep-resented to be.

53

Bread from StonesTo Director Spiethoff this investigating com-

mittee, in which he took part, was the morewished for, as the Pioneer has first called addi-tion to the scientist Hensel, and has also been thefirst to communicate last year the astonishingresults in the Agricultural School of Oranienburg.

54

What help can be given to theHARD-PRESSED FARMERS

(Badischer Volksbote, July 1, 1893)

Our land is not only being more heavily en-cumbered with mortgages every year, but is alsolosing some of its good qualities and fertility, andas the debt increases the value decreases.

We can improve the soil and can make it fer-tile by using Stone Meal as a fertilizer, as isshown by the experience of many practicalfarmers. In the "Neues Manaheimer Volksblatt",M. A. Heilig publishes the following declaration:

"The Landwirthshaftliche Blaetter", by Coun-cillar Nessler in Karlsruhe rejected a few monthsago Hensel's method of mineral manuring.Whoever wants to convince himself how Hensel'smethod acts in practice is invited to inspect mytwo and one-half acres of barley near the Isolat-ing Hospital. Despite the unusual drought, thebarley has attained an unusual height, andstands much fresher than the barley in otherfields. After the harvest I shall have the yielddetermined before witnesses to see the differencealso in the respect."

When practical experiments show such resultsthe farmer ought to give up his old prejudices andtry himself to see whether the new method ofmanuring is not better than the old. That thescientists and professors ignore the new source offertilizing need not astonish us. On the contrary,"the professors are opposed to it, therefore it isgood" may soon become a proverb, for hithertothe professors have always opposed everythinggood at its first appearance. We think Hensel's

55

Bread from Stonesmethod of manuring will likely make agricultureagain profitable, and we shall recommend it evenif all should oppose us on this account. When atsome future date, not too far removed, the Ger-man farmer and through him the German peopleshall enjoy the blessings of this improvement ofthe soil we shall yet receive thanks that wehelped to prepare the path for this new goodduring its hard times.

56

"THE RHEINISCHERCOURIER"

by L. Forke, Wiesbaden, June 6, 1893

We have received the following communica-tion: In No. 152 of your valued journal, amongthe Agricultural Communications), is a short, butfavorable, notice from the Fertilizer Division ofthe German Agricultural Society concerningStone Meal. With respect to this, permit me to in-vite you and everyone interested to examine thefields and vineyards of my friend FranzBrodtmann here, as also the rye fields of Mr.Heil, the tenant farmer at Hof-Steinheim, on theestates of the Grand Duke of Luxembourg, whichhad been manured with this material accordingto my directions, and they will be convinced thatcontrary to these views, Stone Meal is a most im-portant fertilizer of the very best quality, whichwhen rightly used yields the best results.

57

THE REINISCHERCOURIER

by L. Forke, June 29, 1893

Communication No. 175 of your morning edi-tion of June 26 contains an attack on Stone Mealas a manure, and an exaltation of the presentmethod of manuring with potassium., nitrogenand phosphoric acid. I was for many years an ad-herent of this latter method, but I have becomeconvinced by experience and practical trials thatthese artificial manures serve indeed to forcethe growth and may be used with effect forseveral years, but that they do not restore to thesoil what we withdraw from it in cultivation.Therefore the state of our soil unavoidlydeteriorates from year to year, and at last refusesits service. Nobody can stand partridges everyday, but he can his daily bread, and so it is withall plants, which not only need potassium,nitrogen and phosphoric acid for their nourish-ment, but in addition soda, lime, magnesium, sul-phuric acid, silicic acid, chlorine, iron, fluorine,carbonic acid etc. All these elements are found inmany rocks in greater or smaller quantities, andHensel cannot be sufficiently thanked that he haspointed out to us farmers these inexhaustiblesupplies.

When we return Stone Meal to the soil we re-store to it all that was in the soil from the begin-ning; and that our early ancestors did well withthe original material is manifest, as stablemanure has only been used for about twohundred years, and so-called artificial manure

58

THE REINISCHER COURIERonly about fifty years. Of course we cannot forcematters with Stone Meal; but if it is brought onthe fields in autumn and plowed under we maycount on success as may clearly be seen here andas I have already stated in No. 155 of your muchvalued paper. With all esteem for science, wefarmers cannot be contented with simply findingout how much potash, nitrogen and phosphoricacid the artificial fertilizer contain and how muchevery per cent thereof costs. We must ratherstrive to raise good crops on our fields with slightexpense, without at the same time causing oursoil to deteriorate by a one-sided system of fer-tilizing, and this is certainly done when we onlyapply potassium, nitrogen and phosphoric acid.

59

THE "NEUS MANNHEIMERVOLKSBLATT"

July 19, 1893

That the much-abused Stone Meal cannot bewithout its excellent points the results in thefields best show. Mr. Kircher here has raised onvarious fields manured with this material barleyand wheat, which must absolutely convince eventhe most skeptical of the usefulness of thismanure. First, not only are the stalks consider-ably higher and stronger than those from fieldsmanured with other material, but the ears are onthe average one-third longer and the grains con-siderably more perfect. (Mr. Kircher has left inthe editorial room of the "N.M.V." several wheatears and barley ears from his fields to show thedifference, also some from neighboring fieldswhich have not been manured with Hensel's fer-tilizer. Whoever is interested in this matter, andevery farmer should be so, may inspect the earsin our office.)

60

IRON SLAG

(Koelnische Volksveitung, April, 1893)

The supplement of the ThueringerLandboten brings a noteworthy article by thepractical farmer, A. Armstadt, under the heading,"The Future of Iron Slag". The author first notesthat iron slag has risen to be the most generallyused fertilizer containing phosphoric acid only inconsequence of an immense amount of advertis-ing, but now it seems to be about to lose much ofits reputation. Even the German AgriculturalSociety will earnestly declare against it in itsnext publication. "I myself, says A. Armstadt,"have never been enabled to feel any enthusiasmfor iron slag in consequence of my experimentswith it, and I have frequently on various oc-casions declared this, and it is a satisfaction tome that numerous reports are now appearingwhich confirm my observations. First of all, thefact that people come to doubt the theory of agradual enrichment of the soil, thereby will causeit to lose credit. Men of science, as is well known,gave out the notion that the soil must graduallybe enriched with phosphoric acid in order thatrich crops may be raised. Iron slag was said to bethe most suitable for this purpose, not only be-cause the phosphoric acid in it is cheapest, butalso because phosphoric acid in this form wouldin time become more soluble. But most farmershave waited probably in vain for the after effects.I myself have never found any after effects. Ac-cording to the latest experiments, it is not onlyprobable but pretty well established that everyenrichment of the soil with phosphoric acid in

61

Bread from Stonesmineral form is a waste, for it passes into a formdifficult of solution, so that it cannot any longerbe taken up by plants. Professor Liebscher (Goet-tingen) even found that with a manuring of 100cwt. of iron slag to three-fifth of an acre no aftereffects developed, though he waited for it forseven years.

62

"NEUS MANNHEIMERVOLKSBLATT"

by Dr. E. Schlegel (Physician),August 3, 1893

With a few potted plants or a small piece ofgarden anyone can make a trial of the value orworthlessness of Hensel's teachings, and no morepaper need to be wasted in their justification. Anincreasing number of farmers are experimentingsuccessfully with the new fertilizer and it willgradually but surely supersede the old. The oldmanures supplied plants with too much forcingmaterial and too much phosphoric acid, a sub-stance which surely causes plant-lice, caterpil-lars, snails and the like. The Stone Mealimproves the nutrition of the plants without forc-ing them, so that while their growth is slower,their leaves have a lesser amount of water, thefruits and stalks a greater amount of lime andare more wholesome and nourishing.

As the fruits mature the phosphorus passesmostly into the seeds and the silica into theleaves and stalks. When agriculture hithertobuilt its theory of manuring on the ashy con-stituents of the seeds with their high contents ofphosphorus, it did not consider that the wholegrowing plant before the separating processripening requires quite different proportions ofadmixture than what may be derived from seedsalone. A comparison of Hensel's views on thisdomain with the questions of human nutritionrises very naturally.

63

Bread from StonesExhausted men also are favored with allowing

them to eat heartily of the convenient meat, witheggs and milk, all nutriments fully prepared forassimilation. The consequence is an excitationand irritation of the whole organism, bad diges-tion, increased waterly contents of the bodyperspiration, thirst, exhaustion from slight exer-tions, debility.

A strong manuring with predominantlyanimal offal is for plants planted in a soil defi-cient in certain minerals what a predominantlyanimal diet is for men. If we look at men who livein the country almost altogether on food difficultof assimilation, of bread, vegetables and fruit, weobserve a far more quiet bodily activity, littleperspiration, little thirst, great and continuousmuscular power.

It is similar with plants when we offer themagain the original nutriments, direct them to theappropriation of mineral constituents and givethem organic manures or nitrogen only in smallquantities and as a secondary matter. In bothcases the results will be more normal, freer fromparasites (diseases). If we notice in agriculturejournals the enormous expenditures for advertis-ing artificial manures it may be known what again these factories yield, and the mind growssad at the wealth withdrawn from Germanfarmers, who even without this are so hard-pressed.

64

WIESBADENER GENERALANZEIGER

July 8, 1893

For diminishing the distress as to fodder, wedo not need as the troubled farmer is advised inanother journal to use artificial manure; super-phosphate and Chilean nitrate or superphosphateof nitrogen of potassium for the meadows; super-phosphate of nitre with acid phosphate or phos-phate of lime for the cloverfields; fresh stablemanure and liquid manure. Chilean nitrate, su-perphosphate of potassium or superphosphates ofnitre for Indian corn for the horses, etc. The penand compositors object to the twenty-fold repeti-tion of the wonderful compounded fertilizers. Werecommend for the meadows ashes of every kind,and for the root fields, street manure.

For five years I have been using Stone Mealmanure in my garden and fields. The results al-ways have been satisfactory in every respect, forthe soil becomes better every year by using thismanure. Especially this year during the extraor-dinary drought, the excellent effects of StoneMeal fully manifested themselves. The flower aswell as the different vegetables developed somagnificently that everyone who passed my gar-den stopped and admired the great growth, espe-cially of the kohlrabi. In the cabbage which Iplanted at the beginning of April in my cow pas-ture, the rich crop is the more astonishing as itwas not watered during the whole of its growth.This field has received for five years only StoneMeal manure (no solid or liquid stable manure).

65

Bread from StonesAlongside of the cabbage field is the potato patchand it shows a most luxuriant growth despite theabnormal drought. The above experience hasbrought me to the firm conviction that this fer-tilizer not only improves and augments the cul-tivated soil, but also keeps it moist and thereforeprevents the rapid drying up of plants during thedrought.

Bernh. WettengelHorticulturist and Truck Farmer

July 1, 1893

For two years I have used Stone Meal manurewith the greatest success, and especially thisyear, despite the extraoridnary drought. Theresults have been magnificient; the barleyshowed a much larger yield of grain than everbefore; the potatoes were very fine and to ourastonishment remained untouched by the heavyfrosts, though others that had received stablemanure suffered very severly. I was very muchpleased with the effects on oats and clover. Quiteastonishing also is the dark green, full leaved ap-pearance of the sugar beets, notwithstanding thegreat continuous drought. With the fruit trees,where I especially applied the new fertilizer, Ihave fully learned how extraordinary it acts. Iwould therefore urgently recommend everyfarmer to adopt the new method.

Peter HeilmanAgriculturist, Moersch, near Frankenstal

June 30, 1893

66

Meeting of Farmers andFriends of Agriculture

Assembled on June 25, 1893In order to determine the results of the new

method of fertilizing, farmers and friends ofagriculture assembled on June 25, 1893, early inthe morning at 7 o'clock sharp, for a common in-spection of the fields where Hensel's Stone Mealwas used. Nearly all taking part in the inspectionwere practical farmers, who are entirely familiarwith the local relations and quality of the fields.The result of the inspection may well be calledastonishing.

Though the summer has been abnormally dry,all the barley inspected distinguished by its darkgreen appearance when compared with otherfields not fertilized with Stone Meal. The earscompared with the others contained more rows.In a number of them we counted forty grains ex-traordinarily fine and well developed. The sameconditions existed with the rye. The potato fieldsshowed a surprisingly luxuriant stand. We mustespecially mention the full dark green ap-pearance of the sugar beets, which encourages usto look forward to a full development of the roots.With the cabbage the rich crop is the mostsurprising as it has not been watered during thewhole period of its growth.

67

STONE MEALFERTILIZATIONfrom Viewpoint of

Agricultural ChemistryThe Cause of the Decadence of Agriculture

The yield of the ground is steadily decreasing.Everywhere is distress. Our fields do not yieldsufficiently abundant crops to compete with thecheap lands of the Far West. To change this con-dition is the object of this book.

It is now 400 years since the second half of theworld was discovered, but the whole earth is onlynow discovered, so far as the knowledge is con-cerned, of how the inexhaustible treasures maybe utilized which are at our disposal in thenourishing forces of the rocks of the mountains.Instead of working this colossal mine men havebought the material for restoring the fertility ofthe exhausted soil in the form of medicine, i.e.,chemical fertilizers.

For the past fifty years a dogma has crept intoagriculture which calls itself "The Law of theMinimum", namely:

That one of the substances which the plant re-quires and which is contained in the minimumquantity in your fields, you must furnish to it inthe form of a fertilizer.

This false precept owes its reception solely tothe defective method of chemical investigationwhich prevailed fifty years ago.

As there was found a considerable quantity ofphosphoric acid and of potash in the ashes of all

68

STONE MEALseeds, and as these do not exist in the air andmust therefore be furnished by the soil, it wasvery natural that the inquiry was started, howmuch of these substances necessary for the rais-ing of plants is still at hand in the soil?

While the soil was then investigated and wastreated with muriatic acid, in order that the sub-stances contained might be dissolved, there wasfound only inconsiderable quantities of potashand of phosphoric acid in this solution, becausethe alkalies in the soil which are combined withsilicic acid are as little dissolved by muriatic acidas, e.g., powdered glass. In order to be able todefine the amount of potash, it is necessary firstto drive out the silicic acid by the use of fluoricacid after having converted it into volatilefluoride of silicum; this method was not used bythe former agricultural chemists. As a conse-quence thereof they overlooked the presence ofpotash, as also did they fail to notice the phos-phoric acid which is combined with alumina andiron in the silicates, because when the iron wasprecipitated from the solution the whole of thealumina and phosphoric acid was precipitatedwith it; the further examination of the fluid solu-tion therefore gave a negative result with respectto phosphoric acid, and this is also the case atthis day if we work according to the old method.

The teachers of agriculture therefore an-nounced:

"Of potash and of phosphoric acid, these mostimportant nutriments of plants, there is only aminimum left in the soil; therefore we must firstof all supply potash and phosphoric acid to ourfields."

To these two substances nitrogen was alsoadded. Nitrogen in the form of vegetable albumen

69

Bread from Stonesis on the average contained in such quantities inplants that its weight frequently exceeds that ofthe fixed constituents of the ashes. The followingmay serve to explain this: The affinity of the ear-thy substances (lime, magnesium and oxide ofiron) and of the fixed alkalies with respect tohydrocarbons is quite limited; its sphere of opera-tion is limited to eighteen molecules of hydrocar-bons, as may be seen in the soaps, which consistof combinations of potassium or soda with oleicacid or with stearic acid. Of like affinity withthese earths and the fixed alkalies is the volatilealkali Ammonia N.H.H.H. this explains whywhen there are not sufficient earths carried up bythe juice to complete the upbuilding of plants intheir stalks and leaves, their place is filled by am-monia, which, as before said, is formed from thenitrogen and watery vapor of the air. The wood inthe trunk of trees contains no nitrogen at all, butthe leaves of trees contain a quantity of nitrogen;the parenchyma of the leaves condenses it fromthe air because the sphere of action of the earths,which extends even into the veins of the leaves,does not reach to parenchyma.

Now, in view of the great quantity of nitrogenfound in the produce of the fields and of whichagriculturists presuppose that it is derived fromthe roots of plants from the earth, they came tothe same result as with respect to potash andphosphoric acid, i.e., they found only a vanishing"minimum" of it in the soil, and therefore theyconcluded: "Our crops have already consumed allthe potash, all the phosphoric acid, and all thenitrogen; these substances are, therefore, in"minimum" proportions in the soil. If we are notto miserably starve we must bring this minimum

70

STONE MEALin abundance to our fields in the form ofmanures."

The result is that the use of superphosphates,sulphate of ammonia, guano and Chilean nitratehas enormously increased, but agriculture hasentered into the sign of cancer (retrogression), forit may easily be seen that if the cost of fertilizersamounts to more than the harvest, the farmersmust emigrate.

It took a long while before the teachers ofagricultural economy, having the fact pointed outto them by practical farmers who judged withclear eyes and sound reason that crops of peasand beans rich in nitrogen prosper on soil entire-ly devoid of nitrogen, at least granted thatleguminous plants derive their whole supply ofnitrogen exclusively from the air, which consistsof four-fifths of nitrogen. It is difficult for them toadmit that other plants also do this, becausetheir reputation and their income is mainlyderived from the theory of potash, nitrogen andphosphoric acid. They explained this by assert-ing:

"There are producers of nitrogen and thereare consumers of nitrogen."

Or if we count the 0.6 of soda, 0.4 of lime and0.6 of magnesium equivalent with 1.65 of potash,then the entire quantity of potassium in thesugar beet, amounting to 3.85, would be at ourdisposal. This potassium we may consider ascombined with carbonic acid in the ashes, while itexists in the sugar beet in combination withsugar, cellular tissue and albumen. Besides, 3.8potassium, 1.6 of nitrogen, or in round numbers,1.9 of ammonia, is to be taken into account asbeing also an unsaturated basic constituent of thebeet root. From this it proximately follows: That

71

Bread from Stonesthe 3.8 potassium cannot result from the manur-ing with sulphate of potassium, for else it wouldneed the presence of 3.25 of sulphuric acid, whilethere is only 0.3 present, nor can the 1.9 of am-monia be due to the sulphate of ammonia, elsethey would call for 5.0 of sulphuric acid instead ofonly 0.3. If, therefore, we manure sugar beetswith sulphate of potassium and sulphate of am-monia, these substances are to be regarded, as al-ready stated, as largely wasted. As for the sourceof potash and the soda for the sugar beets we canonly consider the feldspar, which, thanks to God,is still contained in a certain degree in the soil,while the nitrogen is furnished by the atmos-phere.

A computation shows that to supply 0.3 sul-phuric acid, 0.6 gypsum, combined with water,will suffice; thus if the acre of land is to furnishtwo cwt. of beets it would need among otherthings only 13 1/2 lbs. of gypsum.

As a parallel we will now consider the carrot.The ashy constituents of one kilogram (2.206 lbs.)are according to Wolf's tables as follows:

PotashSodaLimeMagnesium

3.01.70.90.4

Phosphoric acidSulphuric acidSilicic acidMuriatic acid

1.10.50.20.4

A comparison with the sugar beet roots showthat the carrot contains somewhat less potashand magnesium, but somewhat more soda andlime; besides this, the carrot contains about one-third more of phosphoric, sulphuric and muriaticacid. These variations seem to be caused bymanuring with liquid stable manure; as to therest we recognize that for the basic requirements

72

STONE MEALof potassium, soda, lime and magnesium in thecarrots, the pulverized primary rocks of the soilare the natural source.

We find that all plants, as also all animalbodies (for these are built up from vegetable sub-stances), after combustion, leave behind asheswhich always consist of the same substances, al-though the proportions of admixture vary withthe different kinds of plants. We always find inthese ashes potash, soda, lime, magnesium, ironand manganese combined with carbonic, phos-phoric, sulphuric, muriatic, fluoric and silicicacids. These ashy constituents give their formand connection to the bodies of plants andanimals according to the manner indicated above.

Now, inasmuch as the plants spring from thesoil, it is manifest that the enumerated earthy orashy constituents must be furnished by the soil.And, as in the soil these substances are presentin combination with silica and alumina, theorigin of the soil thence becomes manifest. It hasarisen from the disintegrated primary rocks, allof which contain more or less potassium, soda,lime, magnesium, manganese and iron, besidesphosphoris sulphur, acids, chlorine, fluorine,silica and alumina. From such earthy materialfrom primary rocks, which have been associatedwith sediments of gypsum and lime, in combina-tion with water and the atmosphere, under theinfluence of the warmth and light of the sun, theplants which nourish man and beast originate.

Now, as all the enumerated earthy materialswith the exception of silica and alumina enterinto the crops that are taken away from the field,it is clear that they must be replaced. If we desirenormal and healthy crops, and that men andanimals living on them should find in them all

73

Bread from Stonesthat is necessary for their bodily sustenance(phosphate and fluorate of lime and magnesiumfor the formation of bones and teeth, potassium,iron and manganese for the muscles, chloride ofsodium for the serum of the blood, hydrocarbonsfor the nerve-fat), it will not suffice to merely re-store the potassium, phosphoric acid andnitrogen. Other things are imperativelydemanded.

With regard to this I shall adduce one instruc-tive example. The proprietor of an extensive es-tate wrote to me that he formerly manured withammonia, superphosphate and Chilean nitrate,and although there was a steady retrogression inthe yields, yet he continued to earn something. Oflate, however, when he had passed over tomanuring with iron slag and Chilean nitrate,with a steady retrogression, at last neither rye,nor barley, nor oats would prosper, only, strangeto say, wheat gave a tolerable yield. How could Iexplain this to him? To this question I gave thedesired answer by pointing to the ashy con-stituents. The ashes of barley and oats containfive times as much sulphuric acid as wheat. Thelatter could still find its small requisite of sul-phuric acid in the soil, but for oats, barley andrye these feeble remains did not suffice.

Now as we have seen that the primary rocksin the mountain ranges, porphyry, granite andgneiss, through the mellowing and crumbling in-fluence of thousands of years (and nothing else ismeant by "disintegration"), has produced the fer-tile soil which furnishes us with healthy nourish-ing plants, it may easily be seen that when such asoil has been almost exhausted of the elementsthat nourish plants through a cultivation ofseveral hundred of years and a yearly turning

74

STONE MEALover with the plough or the spade, the originalnatural strength cannot be restored by it bymeans of medicines and single chemicals, but thiscan only be effected by supplying new soil out ofwhich nothing has grown, and the strength ofwhich is therefore intact.

To gain such new soil we need not wait athousand years till wintry cold, snow and raincrumble the rocky material and bring it downinto the valleys. We have only to put our hands towork, and from the proper rocks obtain the neces-sary materials to rejuvenate the old and worn-outsoil and restore it again to virgin fertility.

HEALTHY AND UNHEALTHY PRODUCEAccording to the chemical examination of the

ashes which remain when plants are incinerated,the average result shows about as much potashand soda as lime and magnesium; silicic acidsomewhat more than one- fifth of the sum ofthese four bases; chlorine about one-twentieth ofthe whole; phosphoric acid one-sixth of the whole;but sulphuric acid only one-fourth in weight ofthe phosphoric acid.

Now, as granite rocks contain on an averagesix per cent of potassium and soda, while theircontents of phosphoric acid are more than one percent, granite by itself will readily fulfill thedemands for vegetable growth, as may be con-firmed by a report to the papers received whilewriting this. We read:

"In Deutmansdorf, Kreis Lowenberg, inSilesia, were found on the heap of refuse from thequarries there stalks of rye with ears containingninety to one hundred grains" (General Anzeigerfur Schlesien and Posen, October 1, 1893).

75

Bread from StonesAs to chlorine, this mostly reaches our cul-

tivated plants through manuring with liquidmanure containing salt, and has been proveddirectly injurious to the growth and quality ofmany plants; in this respect it is sufficient topoint to the evil effects of manuring tobacco withliquid manure. Chlorine is not found in wheat,rye, barley and oats, millet and buckwheat, lin-seed, apples and pears, plums and gooseberries,acorns and chestnuts, nor in the wood of anyforest trees. We need, therefore, not considerchlorine in fertilizing our fields.

Now, when I state that the given proportionsof the ashes have yielded this average in compar-ing more than eighty analyses of the ashes of thevarious parts of plants, it need not be concludedfrom this that any particular plant, or the par-ticular part of a plant, needs a quite definiteproportion of ashy constituental but it is found onthe contrary that the earthy constituents of thesame kind of plants differ in various ways.

This explains why we find the same species ofplants to flourish now on calcareous soil, now onsoil formed from granite, gneiss or porphyry, asan example of which I shall only mention sheep'syarrow (achillea millefolium). This is effected ingreat part by the fact that potassium and sodaare interchangeable, but these two alkalies mayalso be replaced in most plants to a considerablepart by the alkaline earths, lime and magnesium;but, of course, the nutritive value of the plantsand the other qualities cannot then remain thesame. Potassium and soda may even be whollylacking in a plant and they may be entirelyreplaced by lime and magnesium. As this fact isnot as yet found in any book, I cannot refuse achallenge as to proof. I name as my witness the

76

STONE MEALroyal mason, Wimmel, of Berlin, and engineerKlug, of Landshut. In company with thesegentlemen I visited, on June 25th of this year(1893) the loftily situated marble quarry nearRothenzechan. In the neighborhood of thismarble quarry the vegetation is always some-what behind in time to that of the valley, and sowe found the dandelions still wearing theirdowny crown, while in the valley, by the end ofMay, they have passed away.

We found such dandelions there growing im-mediately on the marble rock, where this hadwater flowing over it, and the flowerstalksreached the height of about a foot and a half.There was not, indeed, any great wealth ofleaves, and the thick and high flowerstalks them-selves could be broken like glass into pieces,which I did not weary in repeating before theeyes of my companions.

Now, this Silesian marble is a very whitedolomite, consisting, therefore, of carbonate oflime and carbonate of magnesium; but it mustalso surely contain besides this some phosphateand sulphate of lime, besides a tract of carbonateof protoxide of iron, the presence of which isdemonstrated in the moist clefts of the marble bya brown oxidation.

This extreme example convinces us that thealkaline earths (lime and magnesium) may reallyreplace the alkalies (potassium and soda) in thebuilding up of plants, and this also furnishes uswith the explanation why the iron slag, as apreeminently calcareous fertilizer unmistakablycauses an increase of crops on fields which aredeficient in lime. The same result might, indeed,have been reached more cheaply by directlyspreading the lime on them. But there is another

77

Bread from Stones"but" in the matter, for in harvests it is not mere-ly the quantity but much more the quality whichhas to be considered.

Even if the striking example cited makes itmanifest that lime may in great part replace thealkalies in the building up of plants, giving themthe same form, and, indeed, making them of im-posing size, nevertheless the quality and the in-ternal worth of the products of the soil isconsiderably influenced by the difference in itsbasic constituents. I, therefore, mentioned, notunintentionally, that the flower stalks of the dan-delion grown on marble could be broken like glassinto separate pieces, while on the contrary, dan-delion stalks, growing on soil containing potas-sium may be bent into rings and formed intochains, as is frequently done by children. Potas-sium makes pliable and soft, lime makes hardand brittle. Flax is a very good example of this.

Silesian linen made of the flax growing on ourgranite soil rich in potassium is celebrated for itssuppleness, softness and durability, while theSpanish and French linen produced on calcareoussoils is hard, of little strength of fiber and ofsmall value. What avails it then that the Spanishflax exceeds the Silesian by twice its length?

As with textile plants so with plants servingfor nourishment and for fodder. It is manifestthat where calcareous plants have not the samenutritive value as those in which alkalies andearth are harmoniously associated that theformer are not as healthy as the latter. With ref-erence to this, Dr. Stamm, who practiced inZurich (where, in 1884, I saw a whole mountainof lime dug away), states that he nowhere saw somany examples of ossification of the arteries ason the Swiss soil so rich in lime; the fact that the

78

STONE MEALdrinking water is correspondingly rich in limemay contribute to it. The strong bony frame ofthe Swiss strikes everyone, even those travelerswho visit Switzerland for only a short trip. Thiswas an essential reason why Winkelried in 1368at Sempach could with his strong-boned armshold a whole dozen of lances of the knights, and1400 Swiss could win the victory over 6000Austrians who were fed on meat, wine and flour,and this despite of their 4000 horsemen in armor.

How much influence nutrition exercises ontemperament and breed may be seen from thebreeders of fine horses. As Professor Marossycommunicated to me, Englishmen import the oatsfor their race horses from Hungary. Why? Be-cause the granite of the Carpathian Mountains isrich in potassium, but contains but little lime.Potassium makes supple, but lime makes toughand awkward. The counterpart of the world-renowned Hungarian saddle horses and carriagehorses is found in the strong-boned Normanbreed horse which derives its peculiarities fromthe French chalky soil, and could not be so easilyreplaced as draught horses before the heavystone wagons, the baggage wagons and thebrewer's wagons with their heavy loads of beerbarrels.

And is it possible that the human race shouldbe uninfluenced by its nutrition? Let us makesome comparisons. Wine contains almost onlyphosphate of potassium, for the calcareous in-gredients are precipitated during the fermenta-tion as tartar. Hence the Frence esprit, theAustrian good nature, the artistic inspiration ofthe wine-drinking Italians. But like a stone wallin the battle stands the Pommeranian potato-eating grenadiers. In the ashes remaining from

79

Bread from Stonespotatoes we find the following proportions: 44potassium, 4 soda, 64 lime, 33 magnesium, 16phosphoric acid and 13 sulphuric acid. Sulphur isindispensable in the formation of normal bile andof tendons. Also hair and wool require much sul-phur, about 5 per cent of their weight.

After some such hints as to nutrition it cannotbe indifferent what kind of crops we raise for ournourishment and with what substances our fieldsare fertilized. It cannot be all sufficient that greatquantities are harvested, but the great quantitymust also be of good quality. It is indisputablethat by merely fertilizing with marl, i.e., withcarbonate of lime, such a large yield may begained as to make a man inclined to always con-tent himself with marl, but with such a one-sidedfertilization slowly but surely evil effects ofvarious kinds will develop; these have given riseto the axiom of experience: "Manuring with limemakes rich fathers but poor sons."

Despite such experience, however, after a cer-tain time, when those who experienced thedamage have passed away, manuring with limealways again becomes a fashion. So even now, theharvests after manuring with lime are sofavorable that there are those who expect theirsalvation from fertilizing with lime. Not long agothe German Agricultural Society granted a prizeto a paper on "Fertilizing with Lime." But suchprizes do not prove anything. Also a paper onChilean nitrate as a fertilizer received a prize.But how has this substance, so poisonous forplants and animals, fallen into disgrace!

Lime, indeed, is not directly injurious to plantgrowth, but everything has its measure and itslimits. Lime can only produce wholesome cereals,

80

STONE MEALvegetables and forage when there is at the sametime a sufficiency of potassium and soda.

"Too much of a thing is good for nothing!" Inthis connection I have to add a few things more.In the same way as lime and magnesium canreplace potassium and soda in the structure ofplants so all these four constituents can in greatpart be replaced by basic ammonia, without anyresultant appreciable change in the form of theplants, except that this appears strikinglyluxuriant and rich in leaves, as the milfoil on andnear the mounds of cemeteries.

Such a substitution of ammonia for thealkalies and the alkaline earths corresponds insome degree to the relation between potassium-alum and ammonia-alum, which are so similar inform that they cannot be distinguished without achemical examination. In an analogous mannerthe muriate of ammonia has quite a similar tasteto the muriate of soda, and the sulphate of am-monia almost the same bitter taste as sulphate ofsoda (Glauber's salt) and sulphate of magnesium(Epsom salts), but the effects of these salts varyconsiderably.

A particularly interesting example of the factthat the appearance of plants in which ammoniahas largely taken the place of the fixed alkaliesand earths is found in tobacco leaves. Onlyspecialists can at once recognize their quality at aglance; the great majority only perceive the dif-ference when the leaves, made into cigars, arelighted. Then the one kind, grown on the Virginiasoil, rich in magnesium and lime, gives us light,loose ashes and a fine aroma, while the product ofvierraden (Prussia), manured with stable dungand liquid manure, in which ammonia takes the

81

Bread from Stonesplace of lime and magnesium, "coals" and diffusesunpleasant odor.

It is quite similar with plants raised fornourishment or for fodder. The inability of offer-ing resistance, as seen in the "lodgine" of grainafter manuring with dung and liquid manure,after a long rain, and, in accordance with this,the grain also which is harvested from such afield has no firmness; it becomes soft in grinding,smearing the mill-stones, so that no grain raisedwith stable manure can be ground withoutmixing it with Western or California grain, and ithas always a lesser value. So the barley raisedwith stable manure produces a malt which thebrewer refuses to buy, as it would spoil his beer.

Now, as these ammoniacal plants lack the in-ternal firmness and the ability of offering resis-tance, so also they cannot be healthy for animalswhen used as fodder, for the animal bodies haveno consistence without earths. But these earthsare subject to elimination owing to respiration.The ashy constituents of the blood corpuscles,which are oxidized by respiration, i.e., sulphateand phosphate of lime, magnesium and iron, areeliminated from the organism with the secretionsof the kidneys, as also the bases present in theflesh of the muscles, i.e., potassium and soda; forthe muscular substance also is oxidized throughthe oxygen of the arterial blood.

Now, as the earthy or ashy constituents,which are specifically necessary for the albumenof the blood, as well as for the flesh of the musclesand for the renewal of the bones (for all parts ofthe body are subject to this mutation of sub-stance), are not replaced by the substances in thefodder, it is an unavoidable sequence that arelaxation and loosening of the tissues, brittle-

82

STONE MEALness of the bones and every kind of disturbance ofhealth should take place with our cattle. I shallonly adduce one single very instructive examplein proof of this out of my neighborhood.

The hotel keeper in Carlstal, near Schreiber-hau, in the Riesengebirge, kept twelve beeves.The manure from the cattle he conveyed to aswampy meadow, which up to that time had onlyproduced sour grasses; but after the stablemanure was applied, it yielded so luxurious agrowth of grass that he used the abundance tofeed his twelve oxen and cows. It was not longhowever, before the cattle became decrepid andten of them died. The cause of this was the foddergrown from stable manure, in which ammoniasupplied the place of the fixed alkalies, potas-sium, soda, lime and magnesium. The other twobeeves were quickly sold, for they suffered fromlickerishness; i.e., they refused their food andgnawed instead the cribs and other wood in thestable. For all wood contains about three per centearthy substance, and the cattle craved these ear-thy substances in order to gain firm flesh andbones. The two oxen recovered when their newowner gave them a different fodder.

This same reason serves to explain other caseslately observed. It has been found that somekinds of pork do not bear pickling. While salt andnitrate of potassium insure the keeping of picklesmeat, the meat of certain hogs when lying inbrine very soon passes into putrefaction, but intoa decomposition different from the usual kind.The process that takes place is like what is calledthe "cheesy degeneration", which chemicallymeans that the connective and muscular tissuedecompose into peptones (leucin and tyrosin) asduring digestion.

83

Bread from StonesTo explain this phenomenon we must consider

the cheesy degeneration of the lung-tissue in con-sumptives. In their blood there is also always adeficit in lime and sulphur, which are absolutelynecessary in the formation of red blood cor-puscles.

Now, on inquiring why this port when pickledunderwent such a peculiar change, it was foundthat the animals had been fattened with FrayBentos Meat Powder. But the lean meat containsas its chief ashy constituent only phosphate ofpotassium with almost imperceptible traces oflime and sulphur. Lime, indeed, is not found inthe meat, but in the bones, which are devouredby the tiger and the dog, but not by man. There-fore we have to gain the calcareous supply for ourblood, our bones and our teeth from calcareouscorn and from vegetables rich in lime. As ourpresent fine flour, freed from bran, is furnishedus almost entirely devoid of sulphur and lime, weneed not wonder at the great number of modernmaladies.

Bow when hogs are fed with Fray BentonMeat Powder, devoid of lime, in place of vegetablefood, they cannot acquire a strong bony frame,and in consequence we need not wonder at theflaccidity, sponiness and easy putrefaction of themeat of such animals. If they had not beenslaughtered in good time these helpless animalswould have succumbed to some hog disease.

From this we may draw our conclusions withrespect to human health. Many a one considers ameat diet to be a godsend, but is plagued on thataccount with rheumatism, asthma and corpulen-cy, to cure which he is ordered to drink somemineral waters which contain lime, magnesiumand sulphate of soda.

84

STONE MEALTo return to agriculture and the feeding of cat-

tle. Nitrogenous foods are supposed to bestrength-givers; this is a theoretical error full offatal consequences for agriculture. We never havehad as many cattle plagues as we have had suchartificial fertilizers and "strong" foods have beenin vogue.

The theorists in nutrition who demand thatman should have so much hydrocarbons, so muchfat and so much albumen have evidently littleconception of the close relationship in whichthese substances stand to one another, by whichthe one may pass into the other, e.g., thehydrocarbon sugar, through the adjunction ofearths and ammonia, becomes albumen. But al-bumen easily undergoes a change into fat, as maybe seen in cheese, and also from the manner inwhich the meat of ham passes into fat. The sametransformation takes place in nutriments con-taining hydrocarbons, e.g., the malt sugar of beerdrinkers and the starch of grasses. Many an oxaccumulates a few hundred pounds of tallow andyet is not fed with fat or butter, but with grass,hay and grain.

The so-called "strong" food of cattle, therefore,amounts to nothing and ought rather to be calledpoison food. The truly strong food for cattle con-sists of mountain herbs rich in earth, when thesebesides alkalies also contain lime and mag-nesium. Just think of the dairy cows of the SwissAlps and of the cattle in Holstein that derivetheir strength from the grass of the marsheswhich are not fertilized with stable manure, butwhich are preserved in their lasting fertility bymanure, but which are preserved in their lastingfertility by the neighboring rocky highlands,which continually enables the rain to wash down

85

Bread from Stonesthe soluble rocky material which enriches themeadows.

As a counterpart to the pork raised from FrayBentos Meat Powder I will mention here an ex-ample from my own observations. Here (on theKynast) I kept two sheep. I once saw them eatinglime from the wall of the stable, as chickens dowhen they need lime for their egg shells. Fromthis I concluded that the grasses growing on mysoil, in which there is little lime, did not supplythem with sufficient sustenance for their bones. I,therefore, mixed some whiting with their cookedroots and this craving for lime ceased. When I atlast sold the animals to the butcher he was somuch pleased at their solid meat that he desiredto bespeak immediately some sheep for the nextyear.

Chemistry teaches us that the characteristicnature of the albumen rich in ammonia consistsin the easy interchangeableness of their atomicgroups; but just on this account muscular fiberand connective tissue can be built up from the al-bumen of the blood, but every case has two sides.The case with which the constituents of albumencan be shifted also favors their children decom-position. Need I mention here the savory smell offresh-laid eggs and the smell of rotten ones? In-telligent people have long since perceived thatfeeding with albumen does not do all thattheorists claim. It does not pay for its expenses.

The chemical "strong" food for the soil in theshape of Chilean nitrate, which containsnitrogen, and which has been awarded thepremium over all its competitors, has proven amiserable failure; but the theorists are in-defatigable. They now advocate chemical "strong"

86

STONE MEALfood for cattle, and there are many people whoput this latest theory into disastrous practice.

All of us have to bear the evil consequences ofthis. Does not stable- feeding cohere with this"strong" feeding and this forced fattening? Anddoes not the stable air so poor in oxygen causethe muttain of cattle? And does not the mortalityof our children spring from the cow-milk poor inearths? That in consequence of fertilizing withstable manure, crops poor in earths are producedis indubitable after what has been stated above.From these nutriments poor in earths again fol-lows a host of ills - nervous debility, nervous suf-ferings, decomposition of lymph and serum,which are continually becoming more prevalent.Among these diseases are anemia, chlorosis,scrofula, swelling of the lymphatic glands,cutaneous diseases, asthma, catarrhal states,nervousness, epilepsy, gout, rheumatism, cor-pulency, dropsy, consumption, diabetes, etc., as Ihave demonstrated anatomically and physiologi-cally in a manner easily comprehended in thebook "Makrobiotik", or "Our Diseases and OurRemedies". Fertilizing with stone meal will in thenear future give us normal and healthy crops andfodder.

WHAT SHALL WE DO WITH STABLE MANURE?So long as attention was not called to the fact

that new earth from pulverized primitive rock,together with the carbonate and the sulphate oflime (limestone and gypsum), forms the best andmost natural fertilizer for an exhausted soil, mendirected their attention to that part of the foodwhich cattle do not assimilate, but excrete, formanure. So men came pretty generally to theposition that we must bring dung to an exhausted

87

Bread from Stonesfield, else nothing can grow. Now in order to getmanure we must raise cattle; for these stablesand attendants are necessary, and a considerablearea of land must be devoted to provide thenecessary fodder. Now since it is said thatwithout manure nothing can grow, manure mustbe used to make fodder grow on which cattle feedin order to produce manure for more fodder.

In such a circle of life where does the ad-vantage of keeping cattle come in? The raising ofcattle only pays in mountainous regions, wherethe fructifying dew transforms the stones intoherbs, or in the marshes irrigated by canals, forhere the subsoil is naturally moist, and withoutwater nothing can grow. In marshy regions theraiser of cattle can put his hand in his pocketsand look on while the ox "eats money into hispocket"; and elsewhere the ox rather eats moneyout of the owner's pockets than into them.

But anyways, the production of milk, butter,cheese and wool, as well as the necessity ofhaving horses for driving, makes the raising ofcattle and horses a factor that must be taken intoconsideration.

Now, as all cattle produces manure, solid andliquid, the question arises: "What shall we dowith it?"

The fact that stable manure undoubtedlypromotes the growth of plants gives to it a certainvalue. This value does not depend upon thenitrogen but on the earthy or ashy constituentswhich it contains, and on the combinations ofhydrocarbons, i.e., these carbonate hydrocarbonsdo not need to be first produced by the sun, butmay be utilized by a simple change of groupingand may be compared to ready- made buildingstone that may at once be built into the plants

STONE MEALwith the result that their growth may take placein the cool springtime more quickly than wherethe warm sun must do the whole work of drawingthe carbon out of the carbonate rocks in conjunc-tion with water. Still this advantage will no morebe considered so decisive because the same result,yea, a result almost four times as great accordingto my experience, may be attained by a judiciousmixture of rocks in a finely powdered state. Thisstone meal is dry while manure is moist, and forthat reason the former is worth at least fourtimes as much because more condensed, while inaddition thereto the earthy constituents havemostly been eliminated out of the latter by pass-ing through the animal or human body, and thestone meal mixture contains these in abundance.But of course not all earthy constituents havebeen taken out of the dung, for of some a super-abundance may have been provided, part ofwhich is still contained therein.

Such manure, therefore, is by no meanswithout value; as animal bodies contain aboutfour-fifth water so there are also considerablequantities of water contained in crops. Dry hay,e.g., will in the kiln still lose 15 per cent of water;and green fodder and vegetables contain a fullthree-fourth of four-fifths of water; in some rootcrops the water amounts even to nine-tenths.Considering its properties of water, stablemanure is not to be valued so highly, becauseonly an equal weight of crops can be procuredtherefore. Still even this is sufficient to keep usfrom rejecting it. Only it should be deprived ofthe injurious qualities clinging to it owing to itsexcessive quantity of nitrogen. As far as the liq-uid manure is concerned, indeed, little damage isdone, for despite those erudite in manures, the

89

Bread from Stonessimple farmer spreads the liquid manure over thefields, where the ammonia is oxidized intonitrogen and water. Before this process is com-pleted, at least before the ammonia has been verymuch diluted, as on the irrigated fields, nothingwill grow from it. The most important point liesin this, that it is not the nitrogen which is com-bined organically with hydrocarbons as inleucine, tyrosin and hippurate of lime, which isthe most injurious factor of the dung, but the car-bonate of ammonia, which is formed from theurea of the liquid manure. Free ammonia is apoison to plants.

Ammonia is not only poisonous for plant roots,but is also poisonous for animals, producingparalysis, even when diluted in the blood to amere trace. In this respect I shall report a casefrom actual life respecting stable manure;wherever a similar state prevails a lesson may bedrawn from what I report.

In certain cavalry barracks was a rule that insummer the bedding from the horse stablesshould be spread in the morning on the openplace before the stables to dry, and then be usedagain in the evening. In the stables of these bar-racks a remarkable mortality of horses developed,and what was the cause? The liquid manure inthe straw became more or less concentrated andcarbonate of ammonia in excessive quantity wasthence generated, because urea in a moist state istransformed into this substance.

Urea (CO-2HHN) plus water (H2-O forms Car-boniate of Ammonia (COO-2HHHN)

Such ammoniacal vapors are indeed percep-tible in every horse stable, but in those militarystables this evil was extreme. In stepping nearthe cribs, the rising ammonia vapors irritating

90

STONE MEALthe mouth and nostrils, caused catarrh, and theeyes would gather tears. Now the heads of thehorses were bent down over the cribs, and theycontinually inhaled concentrated fumes of am-monia. This acted in a paralyzing manner on thenervus vagus and its branches in the respiratoryorgans and in the abdominal system. The horseswere seized with fever, stopped eating and died.The veterinary physician did not recognize thecarbonate of ammonia as the real cause of the ap-palling number of cases of disease and death, butaccording to his dictum the stables were infectedwith bacilli. A thorough disinfection with car-bolic acid was therefore ordered. For this pur-pose, of course, the bedding also with its "bacilli"was ordered out and the learned veterinaryphysician gained a brilliant scientific victory, forafter throwing out and burning the bedding andwhite washing the walls the mortality ceased forthe time being.

In my book "Das Leben", I have recommendedthe transformation of the carbonate of ammonia,which comes from the liquid manure into odorlesssulphate of ammonia and carbonate of lime bystrewing the stables with gypsum. Therefore thesolid and the liquid manure are freed from theirinjurious qualities, which are manifestedwherever the manure is heaped up a foot deepbefore it is removed and fresh bedding sub-stituted for it. Those who have hitherto given noheed to the warning fumes of carbonate of am-monia and its evil consequences may continue toconsult the veterinarians how to put a stop to theprevalence of cattle disease.

We have already shown how the carbonate ofammonia may be rendered harmless. Now, inorder to largely increase the value of the manure,

91

Bread from Stonesthe primitive rocks containing potassium andsoda, reduced to powder, should be scattered overthe fields before the manure is applied. Therebythe nitrogenous hydrocarbons of the solid and theliquid stable manure are prevented from enteringinto a decomposing fermentation, which give riseto unwholesome ammoniacal products of decom-position, which in part, through capillary action,rise into the plants without being transformedinto vegetable substance, such plants whencooked manifest an ill odor, as may be seen invegetables raised on fields irrigated withsewerage. Of late even roses are said to be cul-tivated on such irrigated field near Berlin, butthe home of the Bulgarian rose, that yields theattar of roses, lies at the foot of the Balkan moun-tains, which consist of granite, gneiss and por-phyry; i.e., the rose demands a soil ofdisintegrated primary rocks, or with us itdemands as a fertilizer pulverized rocks. All rosesfertilized with sewerage are infested with leaflice.Whoever undertakes rose culture on such fieldsneed not expect success.

In order to lay down once more the value ofstable manure, and of excrementous matter ingeneral, it is demonstrable that nitrogenous am-monia is injurious. What is effective consists ofthe combustible hydrocarbons, which are readybuilding material, and further of the earthy orashy constituents to which the hydrocarbonscling; for the hydrocarbons by themselves arerather injurious than useful in the growth ofplants. This may be seen when we pourpetroleum on the soil of potted plants, buthydrocarbons combined with bases of soluble inwater advance the formation of leaves. I sum-marize then as follows:

92

STONE MEAL1. Nitrogen in the form of carbonate of

ammonia is directly injurious to the growthof plants.

2. Nitrogen is unnecessary as a fertilizerfor the growth of plants if the soil contains asufficiency of fixed basic substances (alkaliesand alkaline earths). The proof of this is affordedby the fruitful calcareous soil in the Jura, whichis not manured with nitrogen, so also the il-limitable pasture grounds in America, as also thevegetation of our German mountains. If plantsfind at their disposal for their growth a suf-ficiency of fixed bases, they receive anample supply of the complementarynitrogen from the air, four-fifths of whichconsists of nitrogen.

3. The nitrogen of the solid and the liquidmanure may be used in the construction ofplants, but in order to produce crops useful tohealth it is necessary to add to it a sufficientquantity of alkalies and alkaline earths in theform of stone meal as a counterpoise. By so doingwe not only preserve but especially amend thenature of stable manure.

WILL FERTILIZING WITH STONE MEAL PAY?Some people say: "With such nonsense as

Hensel's Stone Meal, I shall never have anythingto do; noting can grow from it." "Useless dirt".This is the cry of men who have no chemicalknowledge, yet two hundred farmers in thePalatinate testified before court that fertilizingwith Stone Meal showed far better effects thanthose from the artificial manures used hitherto.

"What do you say to this?", asked the judge ofthe young man who declared the Stone Meal aswindle (being himself a dealer in artificial

93

Bread from Stonesmanures). "I don't say anything to it; the peopledeceive themselves", replied the young man, whowas fined for a too libelous tongue.

Since then persons who traffic in artificialmanures are good enough to allow: "We will notdeny that Hensel's Stone Meal may have a cer-tain effect, but this is far too slow and too small;for the silicate bases are almost quite insolubleand it will have to disintegrate for many years."These people also are deficient in chemicalknowledge.

The silicates have indeed little solubility inwater and hydrochloric acid, but they do notresist water and the forces of the sun.

Of course, in speaking of the solubility ofsilicic acid, we must not compare this with thesolubility of common salt or sugar, lime wouldsooner do for comparison, for of this one part dis-solves in 800 parts of water. Silicic acid is some-what less soluble, for little more than one-half ofa grain is dissolved in 1000 grains of water. Allhot springs contain silicic acid in solutiontogether with other substances from the primitiverocks.

Men who say that silicates of bases are in-soluble are contradicted by the trees of the forestas well as by every single straw. Oak leaves, oncombustion, leave 4 2/3 per cent of ashes, and ofthese fully one- third consists of silicic acid. Howcan this come into the leaves unless the ascend-ing sap conveyed it in solution?

The accumulation of the silicic acid in theleaves is the result of the evaporation of thewater which conveyed it.

From the forest tree to the straw! In the ashesof the straw of winter wheat, two-thirds consist ofsilicic acid. In the bread of the barley the propor-

94

STONE MEALtion is still greater. This yields nearly 12 per centof ashes, and 8 1/2 of this consists of silicic acid.

Still more striking is the solubility of silicicacid in the stems and leaves of plants which growin water or in wet soil. Reeds, on combustion,leave 3 1/3 per cent of ashes, more than two-thirds of which is silicic acid.

Sedge or reed-grass yields 6 per cent of ashes,of which one third is silicic acid. That sedge is atthe same time rich in potassium proves in themost striking manner that it needs only irriga-tion to make silicate of potassium available forplant growth. Shave-grass (horse-tail) leaves 20per cent of ashes, half of which consists of silicicacid. From this it may be seen that only in thoseparts of plants which rise above the water, so thatevaporation can take place, silicic acid is accumu-lated. But in the water itself this very solubilityof silicic acid stands in the way of its accumula-tion. The best proof of this we find in seaweed.This leaves behind it a greater proportion ofashes than most plants, namely, up to 14 2/3 percent, but only one-fiftieth of this is silicic acid.The remainder mainly consists of sulphate ofmuriate of potassium, soda, lime and magnesium;these the seaweed concentrates and combineswith its cellular tissue, for sea water has not 142.3 per cent, but only about 4 per cent of salineconstituents.

This is sufficient to prove that with respect tovegetation silicic acid and silicates are not in-soluble; on the contrary, they enter, like all othersaline combinations, into the most intimate com-bination with glycolic acid, C O O C H H, which isinteramolecularly present in the cellulose ofplants, so also with the ammonia of chlorophyll,so that the silicates cohere with the plants grow-

95

Bread from Stonesing from them as an organic whole. We may easi-ly convince ourselves of this by tearing a weedout by its roots. Then it is seen that the root-fibers of most of the plants are everywhereentwined around little stone which, dangling,still cleave to them and can only be torn awayfrom them by violence and by tearing off some ofthe fibers.

So the objection as to the insolubility of silicicacid is invalid, both theoretically and practically.

In reality we cannot find a root, a stem, a leafor a fruit which does not contain silicic acid. Thisfact must be known to every teacher of agricul-ture. How then can these teachers deny thesolubility of silicic acid in vegetation, as many ofthem who advocate artificial fertilizers do?

The men interested in artificial manures, whothought that they had attended to the funeral ofStone Meal as a fertilizer have learned nothingfrom history, or have at least forgotten that everynew truth has first to be killed and buried beforeit can celebrate its resurrection. Besides I do notstand as isolated as these people suppose, for Ihave the light of truth and of knowledge on myside -

He who sights for truth and rightE'en alone, has strength and might.I can also call to my aid a whole army of men

who understand something of chemistry and ofscientific farming, and of their number, at thisday, where science is making such giant stridesand hundreds of well edited agricultural papersare ready to supply the interests of the farmer,are daily on the increase.

What is lacking at present is that themanufacture of Stone Meal should be undertaken

96

STONE MEALby men of scientific attainments who at the sametime have sterling honesty, so as to make it cer-tain that farmers will actually receive what ispromised and what has proved itself so usefulhitherto. I have received innumerable requestsfrom farmers who asked for this mineral manure,but I had to answer them that with my advancedyears I could not actively engage in this manufac-ture. The whole subject is of such immense im-portance for the common welfare that it is mywish to see this work placed into hands that arethoroughly reliable. I but point the way for thebenefit of the human race.

The practical point to settle is how far fertiliz-ing with Stone Meal pays, what yield it will af-ford, thus whether it will be profitable for thefarmer to use it. I shall therefore treat this sub-ject as exhaustively as possible and give an exactaccount of the results obtained.

It must here be premised that the fineness ofthe fineness of the stamping or grinding and themost complete intermixture of the constituentparts are of the greatest importance for securingthe greatest benefit of stone-meal fertilizing. Amanufactured article of this kind has recentlybeen submitted to me which showed in a sieve ofmoderate fineness three-fourths of the weight incoarse residuum. But as the solubility of StoneMeal, and thus its efficiency, increases in propor-tion with its fineness, the greatest possible cir-cumspection is required in grinding it. The finerthe stone dust the more energetically can the dis-solving moisture of the soil and the oxygen andnitrogen of the air act upon it. A grain of stonedust of moderate fineness may be reduced in amortar of agate perhaps into twenty little par-ticles, and then every little particle may be

97

Bread from Stonesrendered accessible to the water and the air, andcan, therefore, be used as plant food.

Thence it follows that one single load of thevery finest Stone Meal will do as much as twentyloads of a coarser product, so that by reducing tothe finest dust the cost for freight and carriageand the use of horse and cart would amount toonly one-twentieth. Therefore we can afford topay unhesitantly a higher price for the finestStone Meal that has passed through a sieve thanfor an article that may be not so much a fine pow-der but rather a kind of coarse sand.

The average contents of ash in cereals is aboutthree per cent. Thence, from three pounds of purevegetable ashes we could raise a hundred poundsof crops. Now, as Stone Meal properly made con-tains an abundance of plant food in assimilableform, it may be calculated to produce four cwt. ofcereals, or that an annual use of six cwt. to theacre will produce twenty-four cwt. of grain. Onthis basis every farmer can calculate whether itwill pay. But in reality the harvest will be fargreater, because even without the Stone Mealmost fields still possess some supply of mineralnutriment for plants which will become effectivein addition thereto.

Such being the case, we need not consider thefact that not all the Stone Meal is used up com-pletely in the first year, but yields nourishment toplants even in the first year, but shown by experi-ments. That no mistake would be made by usingdouble the quantity on an acre, or twelve cwt. in-stead of six, is manifest, for the prospects of astill greater yield would thereby be improved, butin applying twelve cwt. an abundance would besupplied; even five or six times that quantitywould be far from causing an injury to the soil,

98

STONE MEALbut we cannot force by excessive quantities ofStone Meal a correspondingly higher yield ofcrops for the reason that within a definite areaonly a definite quantity of sunlight can display itsactivity, and on this factor the growth of the cropmainly depends. There is, therefore, no use inpassing beyond a certain quantity of mineralmanure; it could only come into use in sub-sequent years, and it appears to be more practicalto supply the amount needed each year.

I will now present in summary form the quin-tessence of the significance of this natural fer-tilizer.

1. The point to be gained is not only a greaterquantity of produce, but also a better quality.Sugar beets gain thereby more sugar, this, ac-cording to experiments made, may amount to 75per cent more than hitherto. Potatoes and cerealsshow a greater proportion of starch. Oil crops (aspoppies, rape, etc.) show more seed-vessels and acorresponding increase in oil. Pulse, such asbeans, peas, etc., yields more lecithin (oil contain-ing phosphate of ammonia as the chemical baseof nerve-substance). Fruits and all vegetablesreceive a more delicate flavor. (The vegetables inmy garden have become famous with our neigh-bors and our guests, so that they ask, "How doyou manage that?") Meadows furnish grass andhay of more nutritive value. Vines form strongershoots, giving sweeter grapes and are not touchedby insects and fungus diseases.

2. The soil is steadily built up and improvedby this natural fertilizer, as it is progressively"normalized", i.e., shows gathered together potas-sium, soda, lime, magnesium, fluorine, and phos-phoric and sulphuric acid, etc., in the mostfavorable combination. There is hardly one cul-

99

Bread from Stonestivated field which by nature is normal at thepresent time. Either lime prevails or we have aclayey soil, which through its excess of clay,refuses to let the rain water pass, and by itstoughness obstructs the access of the atmosphericnitrogen and of the carbonic acid; or we have amere sandy soil (quartz), or again the soil hashumus in excess, like the moor-land soil. This lat-ter is characterized by a predominance of limeand magnesium on the one side, while sulphuricbases are two or three times in excess of phos-phoric bases, as is shown by the analysis of theashes of peat.

3. The value of the new fertilizer with respectto the whole-someness of nutritive plants andfodder depends in great part on the careful andintimate comixture of its several constituents, sothat with every little particle of dust of potassiumand soda, the other nutritive elements requiredto cooperate in the harmonious construction ofplants are at their disposal in the proximatevicinity. As a contrast to this, in a one-sided fer-tilizing with lime it may happen that the plantcontents itself with the lime, so that the otherconstituents of the soil are not drawn intocooperation for the growth of the produce, be-cause they are not within the nearest proximityof the root fibers. This is, of course, of great im-portance to the quality and the nutritive value ofthe plants.

4. For raising nutritive plants and fodderwhich may afford wholesome nourishment I deemit of the greatest importance that no substancesshould be used which lead to ammoniacal decom-position. By such additions we may indeedproduce a luxuriant, excessive growth that blindsthe eyes, and in which the abundant formation of

100

STONE MEALleaves by means of nitrogen forms the chief partbut no healthy growth is effected thereby. Fromthis point of view I would also depreciate the useof so-called fish guano. Everyone knows howquickly fish pass over into putrefaction; there isformed at the same time a considerable quantityof poropytamin (C3 H6, NH3) which is an am-moniacal base. The manure manufactured inSweden from fish guano and powdered feldspardoes not, therefore, merit the esteem that itclaims.

101

A CHAPTER FOR CHEMISTSThe Chemical Process in the

Growth of PlantsWhich are the Basis of our Nutrition

The sum and substance of the growth ofplants consists in creating out of burnt substan-ces through the electrically decomposing forces ofthe sun material which may again be burned.

To take an example: A stearine candle, consist-ing of hydrocarbons (C H H), in a twenty-four oldaggregation, is consumed by means of the oxygenof the air into carbonic acid or carbon dioxide (CO O) and water (H H O) and these same productsof combustion may through the vegetative proces-ses in plants be again wholly or partially changedback into hydrocarbons. This is effected byseparating from the carbonic acid dissolved inrain water or combined with the moisture in thesoil, water and together with this oxidized water(peroxide of hydrogen). In this way there arisesfrom two molecules of carbonic acid and two ofwater, first of all oxalic acid (C2 H2 O4) andperoxide of Hydrogen (O H H O).

The peroxide of hydrogen passes into the at-mosphere decomposed into watery vapor andoxygen, while oxalic acid arising from the firstproduct of the reduction of carbonic acid causedby the action of the sun is found combined withlime in all vegetable cells. Formerly this firstprocess of growth (for oxalic acid arises from thesecretion of two atoms of hydrogen to twomolecules of carbonic acid) was not at all under-stood. It is hardly four years ago that I heard ateacher of agricultural economy say: "Lime has no

102

A CHAPTER FOR CHEMISTSvalue in the growth of plants. It is rather in-jurious than beneficial. The plant knows not atall what to do with the lime. In order to rid itselfmore easily of it, it takes it up as oxalate of limein the cells."

Oxalic acid derives its name from the fact thatchemists first discovered it in wood-sorrel (oxalis)in the form of a combination of oxalic acid withlime. From the oxalic acid there proceeds in acontinual reduction sugar, the material of plantcells and starch.

The sugar that has been produced from a sym-metrical grouping of two molecules of hydrocar-bons, two of carbonic acid and two of water, andwhich therefore is not yet a complete product ofreduction, produces with the separation of car-bonic acid and of water, through a heaped upgrouping together of hydrocarbons, which remainyet combined with a molecule of formic acid, C 0O H H, (this second product of production orrather production of addition to carbonic acid)then the vegetable oils (olive oil, almond oil,poppy oil, rapeseed oil, linseed oil, etc.)

Furthermore, from sugar, which is exhibitedin all young plants during their sprouting, afterreceiving watery vapor and nitrogen from the air,and indeed, after again separating peroxide ofhydrogen, while ammonia arises, there areformed N2 H12 O6 N H6 H2 O6, the numerouskinds of vegetable albumen.

The simplest kind of vegetable albumen isfound in asparagus, in the juice of asparagus, acombination of ammonia with malic acid, whichis a step towards the formation of sugar or rathera product of splitting off of sugar.

This asparagin is found not only in asparagus,but to select an example which may be

103

Bread from Stonesdemonstrated also in the young roots of thistles(which are weeded out from asparagus beds) andwhich taste very much like raw asparagus, and itis also found in the sprouts of very many otherplants.

As the simplest of all kinds of vegetable al-bumen, asparagus is the best exemplification ofthe fact that in albumen intromolecular gelatinesugar is contained.

Of the latter, however, it is ascertained thaton account of its contents of carbonic acid it cancondense into an organic whole with itself basicsubstances (potash, soda, magnesium, oxide ofiron and oxide of manganese), and owing to itsbasic ammoniacal substratum, it also condensesacids, and accordingly also at the same time bothbases and acids (e.g., sulphate of magnesium,phosphate of limes, the silicates of potash and ofsoda, fluorate of lime), besides manganese andoxide of iron, and there arise indeed on account ofthe contents of the hydrocarbon in the form ofgelatine sugar from insoluble substances solublecombinations after the analogy of the insolublesulphate of baryta and the ethyl sulphate ofbaryta, which is soluble in water.

And so we may comprehend how from earthyelements in combination with sugar and nitrogenthere can arise in endless modifications the mostnumerous varieties of vegetable albumen, accord-ing as the soil furnished various substances.

In this the electrolytic force of the sun playsthe part of the architect. As in the galvanic bath,the atoms of the reduced metals apply themselvesinto a connected covering without a gap, so thesolar forces cement together the reduced ele-ments of the hydrocarbons with phosphates, sul-phates, muriates, fluorates, silicates and

104

A CHAPTER FOR CHEMISTScarbonates of lime, potash, soda, magnesium andof the oxides of manganese and iron, unitingthem together into the edifices which, as grasses,herbs, bushes and trees, refresh our eyes withtheir leaves and flowers, while their fruits serveto nourish men as well as the animal world.

But it is to be noticed that the above-men-tioned processes only take place under the sup-position that the carbonic acid, which lays thefoundation out of which the hydrocarbons arise,find basic substances (potash, soda, lime, mag-nesium, etc.) with which they may condensethemselves into firm combinations. Therefore thefirm earth is the absolute condition for allvegetable growth. There is no vegetation in theair alone, nor must water be lacking, for itshydrogen, being combustible in itself, renders thegroups of hydrocarbons combustible.

Now, as the process of our life representsnothing else than a continual combustion of ourbodily substance by means of the oxygenrespired, with the condition that to replace thesubstance consumed during the day by oxidation,during the night new combustible material mustbe supplied; by the contents rich in lymphaticvessels to the numerous nerve sheaths as the oilof life, and to the renewing blood new albuminoussubstance. Our life could not continue if weshould not renew so much of the bodily materialas is chemically consumed by the oxidizingrespiration by means of the periodic supply offood. Every disturbance in the regular supply offood has the most manifest effects on the state ofthe soil. The inexorable demand for new materialin place of the bodily stance which is breathedaway makes even men, who by nature are kindly,angry and regardless of others when their food is

105

Bread from Stoneskept back. And so cause and effect join themsel-ves into a mischievous chain.

As the means for procuring food consists in byfar the greater number of callings in coinedmoney, and this is only given as a reward forwork done, the question arises: What can theman do who has no opportunity and chance tofind paying work? He will and must eat. If we canassist everyone in getting a supply of food andmainspring for lying, deceit, stealing andnumerous crimes vanishes.

Food is supplied to us in the first place by theimmediate produce of the ground, and only in thesecond place by the fat, flesh and blood of domes-tic animals produced from grasses and herbs.

Now, as it is a primary chemical conditionthat earthy material, air, water and solar forcesmust be present in order that plants may grow, itis the all-mother Earth which, surrounded bywater and earth and fructified by sunshine,nourishes men and animals through the cropsproduced; and at the same time it clothesanimals, as their skin causes the hair to sproutforth, which contains sulphur and silica, and thehair by isolating keeps the bodily warmth andthe bodily electricity.

Man, whose producing spirit desires occupa-tion and to whom it is granted the wonderfulmechanism of the fingers, has the advantage thathe can weave his garments according to theseason, either of flax and cotton or of the wool ofsheep and the hair of goats, and can protect him-self from the wind, the weather and the cold byusing the wood from the forest to build his houseand to warm it.

Food, clothing and shelter are the fundamen-tal requirements to which everyone born has a

106

A CHAPTER FOR CHEMISTSclaim, and these can also be acquired by everyonewho has sound limbs. In the muscles of our armswe possess the fairy charm which can say, "Tablebe set!", for labor always finds its reward. Ofcourse, if people are foolish enough to leave theplaces where the muscles of their arms are indemand and paid for, if they leave the source ofall earthly riches, agriculture, and go where theirarms have no value, because many others thatare unemployed are waiting for employment,then distress, lack of food, of clothing and sheltermust give him the occasion to consider and turnback, returning to a life in the country, which iscontinually becoming more deprived of its in-habitants.

Every work brings its reward. Work is neces-sary for our bodily and mental well-being. Bycooperation it confirms us in the consciousness ofa common humanity, for in social life we see inevery fellow man an image of ourselves and thiscalls for mutual regard, charity, kindliness,mutual assistance. How different with the manwho is not working. His thoughts turn to layingnets and setting traps in which to catch his un-suspecting fellow men.

Further, when the knowledge will have spreadmore and more that the essential work of manconsists in allowing the sun to work for him, inorder that food, raiment and wood may grow upfrom the earth, water and air, then many foolishoutbirths of idle brains will lose their soil andfoundation.

There are, indeed, in these times some badcalculators who say: We will work less and getmore money. These do not consider that the moremoney is in circulation, so much more moneymust be paid for the materials of food, if these

107

Bread from Stonesremain the same in quantity, and this change willbe of indefinite limits. The real remedy can onlyconsist in producing more food. The more grain israised, the less money will be required to buy it.Here must apply our lever. What infatuationswhen men attack one another in order to compelthe supply of sufficient food? That can only befurnished by the earth. "Does a cornfield grow inmy palm?" God has created us rich enough insupplying us with an understanding. If we usethis, brother need not over-reach brother, but wecan in serene tranquillity of soul win the littlethat we need day by day from our all-motherEarth.

108

STONE MEAL AS ATOBACCO FERTILIZER

Of late years the general attention of tobaccogrowers centered in the query, "What is the bestmanure for obtaining a good tobacco?" For itstands to reason that, if for a number of yearstobacco is grown on the same fields, in the courseof time the soil must be rendered bare of the con-stituents entering into the remarkable quantityof ash which tobacco contains. There is no otherproduct of the soil which gives as much ashes asdoes tobacco, for the best dried leaves will yield14 to 27 per cent, while, for example, dried ash ofbirch leaves only yield 4 3/4 per cent, and mostother plants contain still less, dried pine needlesonly 1 1/4 per cent. In the ash of most plantsyielding 2 per cent or more silex predominates,and birch ashes contain over one-third, while theash of barley and oats consists one- half of silex.It is, however, quite different with tobacco ash,which contains only one-twentieth part of silex,the rest being lime, magnesium, potash, soda,phosphoric and sulphuric acid. There is no fixedrule in the proportion of these substances, butlime and potash always predominate in about theproportion of five to four parts.

German tobacco yields less ash than Virginialeaf, only about 14 per cent, and consists of aboutfive parts of lime, four of potash, one of mag-nesium, one-half of soda, two-thirds of phosphoricacid, four-fifths of sulphuric acid and four-fifths ofsilex and one part of muriatic acid.

The less of sulphuric and muriatic acid tobac-co contains the freer will it burn and the whiterits ashes will be. The best tobacco is raised with

109

Bread from Stonesnothing but wood ashes for manure, and be itnoted that the ashes of oak, beech, birch, pineand fir contain not a trace of muriatic acid andbut one-fiftieth per cent of sulphuric acid. We areforced, therefore, to the inevitable conclusion thatthe comparatively high percentage of sulphuricand muriatic acid which the ash of Germantobacco yields and which makes its presentquality so poor is owing to the persistent use ofstable manure, and it is plainly of the utmost im-portance to do without that altogether.

The question now arises what shall be used inits stead. Our answer is that inasmuch as foresttrees are grown on rocky soil which containspotash, soda, lime and magnesium in combina-tion with silica alumina and phosphoric acid, wemust, instead of burning the expensive trees forthe purpose of obtaining their ashes for tobaccomanure, go back to the original substances out ofwhich the trees were created, and these aresuitable minerals found in rocks. This is as plaina proposition as the egg of Columbus.

With regard to Virginia tobacco a study of thetopographical features of the tobacco lands will bein order. The best soil for the purpose is foundwhere the debris of the Alleghenies and theirfoothills, the blue mountains, has been washeddown into the plain. These mountains containgneis, granite, syenite, sepentin and horn blendslate. Hornblend is silica combined with lime,magnesium and iron. These lime and magnesiumsilicates are of far more importance for theproduction of a fine tobacco which will burn free-ly, making a white and firm ash, than the potashwhich is found in all primitive rocks, althoughpotash is necessary for the production of elasticleaf cells so much appreciated in good tobacco.

110

STONE MEAL AS ABut it is a great mistake to lay undue stress onan overabundance of potash. Neither theStrassfurt potash salts nor powdered iron slagwill produce good tobacco. For the potash con-tained in tobacco is not combined therein withsulphuric and muriatic acid, but enters intodirect combination with cell material, and it iseliminated out of silicated potash and soda by theaction of the carbonic acid of the air or of the soil.A healthy and fine quality of tobacco can there-fore only be grown by the use of a liberal supplyof a mineral mixture which yields in appropriateproportions silicate of potash and soda togetherwith carbonate of lime and magnesium and asmall proportion of phosphoric acid, such as waspresent originally in the virgin soil of the tobaccolands of Virginia.

In accordance with these principles suitablemixtures of the several kinds of rocks have beenprepared in the form of a very fine powder for theproduction of fine tobacco, and it is at presentbeing used with great success in the Palatinate inGermany.

111