in latin american and asian cultures...factors that affect learning 2 abstract school systems in the...

FACTORSTHATAFFECTLEARNING

FactorsthatAffectLearningInLatinAmericanandAsianCultures

TESL Program Carson-Newman College

Fall 2010

FACTORS THAT AFFECT LEARNING 2

ABSTRACT

School systems in the United States tend to reflect traditional Anglo-Saxon values and are not culturally sensitive to the values and multiple factors that affect student learning. The purpose of this paper is to educate teachers about the cultural values and factors that affect the learning of Latin American and Asian students. Furthermore, the paper presents research that shows ways students from these cultures learn best and provides suggestions for teaching to preferred learning styles.


FACTORS THAT AFFECT LEARNING IN LATIN AMERICAN AND ASIAN CULTURES

Minority children are placed disproportionately in special education programs with an overrepresentation of Asian students in gifted programs (Garguilo, 2009).

Latin American students and American students receive different lessons in the classroom by the same instruction because the expectations and the interactions between the students and teachers promote different school cultures. Studies show that Latino students receive academically less competitive classes than other students, especially in middle school and high school (Portales, 2005). The United States encompasses a diverse population of people and immigrants

from all parts of the world. While our society claims to be culturally pluralistic, our

schools lack to reflect this ideal. From the facts and observations above, one observes

that our public school systems are not effectively serving culturally diverse students.

“Schools are shaped by cultural practices and values and reflects the norms of the

society for which they have been developed” (Hollins, 2008). American schools were

built on the Anglo-Saxon practices of Protestantism, capitalism, and republicanism. They

reflect the American values of democracy, freedom, equality, justice, human rights,

competition, and success. Competition and success are based on an individual’s

achievement (Hollins, 2008). Since our schools are shaped by these practices and values,

the styles of teaching and learning reflect these values. However, are these teaching and

learning styles effective for enriching the education of students with opposing values

such as cooperation and collectivism?

“Teachers have no choice but to inquire into each student’s unique culture and

learning history, to determine what instructional materials might best be used, and

to determine when a student’s cultural and life experiences are compatible, or

potentially incompatible, with instruction. To do less is to build emotional blocks


to communication in an already complicated instructional situation.” -Berliner,

1986, p. 29 (Hollins, 2008).

The purpose of this paper is to inform teachers in United States school systems

about the cultural values and factors that affect the learning of Latin Americans and

Asians. Additionally, literature research and the results of an independent study discuss

popular learning styles that might identify with each culture and its values. Some

suggestions for teaching to culturally popular learning styles are provided to assist

teachers in catering lessons toward Latinos and/or Asians.

CULTURAL FACTORS THAT AFFECT LEARNING

Before discussing cultural values as they relate to learning, one must be aware of

some cultural factors that affect learning. Dr. Christine Bennett concluded that there are

five cultural factors that might influence learning: (1) childhood socialization, (2)

sociocultural tightness, (3) ecological adaptation, (4) biological effects, and (5) language

(Irvine, 1995).

Childhood socialization refers the common child-rearing practices of a culture.

The ways in which the caretakers in a culture raise their children influences the children’s

developmental skills. For example, Bennett found that African Americans might have

better motor proficiency skills because African American mothers tend to have more

physical contact with the babies than Euro-American mothers.

Sociocultural tightness is determined by whether a culture is a high-context or

low-context culture. High-context cultures regard time in a polychronic format, which

means schedules are based around people and events. People in these cultures gain


knowledge using intuition and spiral logic. Low-context cultures see time as linear with

tight schedules. Knowledge is believed to be gained through analytical reasoning.

The environments of particular cultures require the people to acquire skills or to

adapt in order to survive. This describes ecological adaptation. The environment may

include geography or social settings. Some environments lead to skills that are

beneficial. For example, Native Americans may have better perceptual skills because

they have been taught to recognize their families’ herds from a distance and to interpret

signs of dangerous weather and approaching predators. On the other hand, harmful

environments, such as impoverished areas, create problems that can be learning deficits

for children.

Biological effects like genetics, brain development, and physical development

impact how an individual processes information. Some scientists believe that persons

from different ethnicities or cultures have specific cognitive characteristics. Scientists

Pasteur and Toldson believe that Whites are more likely to be left-brain dominant and

African Americans are more right-brain dominant (Irvine, 1995). Although this can be

seen as stereotyping race, biological factors such as a person’s hereditable traits should be

considered when perceiving a person’s learning style.

Finally, a person’s language influences how a person learns, especially with a

second language. “Language reflects the worldviews, the thought processes, and the

lifestyles of its people” (DeCapua, 2004). The values of the culture are expressed

through language, whether it be communicated nonverbally or spoken in the words of the

culture’s primary language. Hence, one’s native language shapes how a person thinks

and perceives knowledge.


HISPANIC CULTURE

The values of Latin America are influenced by an Ibero-Catholic culture; that is

the culture established by Spanish Catholics (Harrison, 1998). The overall values of the

Latin American culture are best described by the Chadwick Center on

www.chadwickcenter.org. It defines eight set values: familismo, children, marianismo,

machismo, personalismo, respeto, simpatia, and religion/spirituality. Familismo is the

value that upholds family as the most important people group, and in some households,

children are treated with a lot of love and affection. Marianismo is the emphasis on

women to follow the Virgin Mary’s example in living a pure life. The women are to

follow the Virgin Mary’s example in being “spiritually strong, morally superior,

nurturing, and self-sacrificing” Her role is to role is to keep the house, rear the children,

and serve and take orders from her husband. Machismo refers to male dominance and

the role of the man to have responsibility in providing, protecting, and defending his

family. Respeto means respecting others, especially higher authorities. Latinos always

try to act with simpatia, or kindness, by being polite and pleasant towards others and by

avoiding any conflict. Lastly, religion and spirituality sets the rules for leading life; all

values are held together by their faith, which is predominantly rooted in Catholic beliefs.

Childhood Socialization

The values of family, personal relationships, respect, and trust and the sex-role

distinctions are reflected in Hispanic families’ childhood rearing practices. The father is

the head of the household, who is to be obeyed and respected. Latin American families

may differ in parenting styles; some might be more authoritarian and others may be more

permissive. However, most reviews describe parent-child relationships as warm and


nurturing (Julian, 1994). In fact, Hispanic parents generally nurture their children longer

than Anglo-Saxon Americans. Children in the deeply rooted Anglo-Saxon value-based

American school systems are expected to be self-reliant and independent by the fourth or

fifth grade. However, Hispanic parents do not rear their children to be self-reliant until

about the sixth or seventh grade (Portales, 2005).

The results from a survey conducted by Julian, McKenry, and McKelvey show

that Hispanic parents are more concerned with their children obeying, getting along with

others, and exhibiting self-control rather than performing well in school and

demonstrating creativity (1994). This data reflects the belief that socialization is more

important than “independent success” as defined by traditional Anglo-Saxon standards.

Additionally, Hispanic parents are less likely than Anglo parents to encourage self-

dependence and analytic skills (Irvine, 1995).

Sociocultural Tightness

Hispanic parents do no encourage analytic skills because Hispanic culture is a

high-context culture. They believe that knowledge is gained through spiral logic and

intuition. Time is viewed in relation to events, and schedules are loose. Present time has

a higher importance than future time, and Latinos focus more on meeting present needs

rather than long-term goals. Activities move at a relaxed pace without time constraints

(Enriquez).

Latinos tend to discourse in a higher context by expressing what they want to say

without many details or talking around the main point. The message is implied and is to

be understood through nonverbal behaviors and the understanding of cultural knowledge,

values, and background (DeCapua, 2004). High context communication is especially


used in confrontation; they try their best to maintain kindness (simpatia) and friendship

while confronting another about a certain argumentative matter.

Ecological Adaptation

Many social environment factors place young Latin Americans at risk for not

receiving a good education or dropping out of school. According to the World Bank’s

report from 2005, 8.2% of Latin Americans live on $1.25 a day and 17.1% live on $2 per

day. This extreme poverty hinders the learning of Latino students. Most Latin American

youth claim that they leave school because they have to get a job to help support

themselves and their family. A number of students also report that they do not have

enough money to buy school supplies or to pay for transportation.

Latin American countries lack schools that provide quality education to students.

A high percentage of Mexican females (40%) drop out of school because they do not feel

like they are getting a good education. Students from other countries, like Honduras and

Peru, state that schools are not equipping them with the necessary skills to obtain a good

job (Cunningham, 2008).

Biological Factors

In addition to environmental factors, many biological factors can affect the

learning and intelligence of Latinos. Since most Latin American countries are

underdeveloped and have high poverty rates, children probably do not receive the proper

nutrition and medical attention that they need. Furthermore, the mothers may not receive

prenatal care and good nutrition that can cause low birth rates or other problems that can

lead to mental retardation (Dunlap, 1997).


Language

Spanish is the official language in most Latin American countries. It originated in

Spain from the Vulgar Latin language. The language was introduced to the Americas

during the Spanish conquest that began in the 1400s (Accredited Language Services).

Like English, it is one of the romance languages that uses the Roman alphabet. Spanish

is syllable-stressed, and the intonation is similar to that of English (Avery, 2005).

Although many Latin Americans speak Spanish, Latinos from different countries

speak different dialects that are influenced by indigenous languages. Hundreds of these

languages are still spoken today. In fact, some who speak indigenous languages speak

solely the tribal language and no Spanish at all. However, many of these languages do

not have written literature and are endangered of becoming extinct (The Archive of

Indigenous Languages of Latin America).

ASIAN CULTURE

China, Japan, Korea, Vietnam, Taiwan, Hong-Kong, and Singapore are countries

identified with having “Confucian heritage cultures” (Mariani). Confucianism believes

that there’s a continuous, life-long learning process of becoming human and realizing

one’s full human potential. Although it defines learning as “learning for the sake of the

self,” it emphasizes community with the individual being the center of relationships

(Wei-ming). A person relates to another with respect to age, seniority, rank and family

background, so authority figures, including teachers, and elders are highly respected

(Mariani). The main values of Confucian cultures include family over the individual,

self-control to achieve goals, and cultural appreciation (Julian, 1994).


Childhood Socialization

Traditional Asian families teach children to be committed, dutiful, and self-

sacrificial to elders. The oldest son usually receives the family inheritance; therefore,

sex-roles are a key factor in childhood rearing practices as well.

Some researchers have found that the value systems of some Asian families are

similar to those of Middle Class Anglo-Saxon Americans. These families value hard

work, conformation, and cohesion within the family. However, other researchers, Lin

and Fu, say that Chinese parents are more controlling of their children than Caucasian

parents, and they push their children harder to achieve and to become independent

(Julian, 1994).

Social-cultural Tightness

Like Latin Americans, Asians typically live in a high-context culture. Therefore,

Asians do not directly communicate by completely expressing themselves with words

rather they equally rely on gestures, body language, eye contact, pitch, intonation, word

stress, and the use of silence to communicate messages. It is considered impolite to ask

very direct questions or give direct answers (Carteret, 2009). Asians value politeness and

maintaining “face.” Face can be best described as reflecting one’s pride, dignity, honor,

and self-esteem while maintaining group harmony and togetherness. Loss of face results

in shame and embarrassment for the individual and the group as a whole (DeCapua,

2004).

Being in a high-context culture, Asians follow a polychronic time format and

view time as something that cannot be controlled. Time is not seen as linear, rather many


events may be happening at one time. Asians might show up late for appointments or

meetings. On the other hand, the Japanese have a reputation for being very punctual

(Carteret, 2009).

Ecological Adaptation

The natural environment of native countries may have an effect on the cultural

values of Asian students. Some of the geographical regions, like the high mountains and

large seas in and around China and Japan, can influence cultural tightness. These

surroundings isolate the cultures from other cultures around them and reduce any outside

influence on cultural values and beliefs. These cultures have certain rules and

expectations of what is normal, and there are consequences for cultural deviation

(Triandis, 2002).

Confucian Asia consists of some of the world’s leading countries in terms of

academics (Adams, 2002). The high quality of academia may be related to the countries’

economic statuses. Japan is quickly becoming the most economically advanced country

in the world. China has been a rapidly developing economy since the 1980s. Other

newly industrialized countries like South Korea and Taiwan continue to positively

develop (Lee, 2005).

High economic growth leads to more job opportunities and greater incomes for

the head of the household. Since the family patriarchs receive good incomes, they are

able to support their families without other members of the household entering the

workforce (Morris, 2006). Therefore, in contrast to most Hispanic families, most Asian

youth do not drop out of school to help support their families.


Developing economies create more competitive jobs. For example, college

graduates in the Republic of China have to heavily compete to get good jobs upon

graduation. Hence, many Asians stay in school for long periods of time to receive the

training and skills they believe they need for the work force (Morris, 2006).

Biological Factors

Research has shown that East Asians have higher IQs than people from other

parts of the world. The data from survey conducted in 1991 by Lynn shows that East

Asians have an average IQ of 103 followed by European and American Caucasians with

IQs of 100. While IQ tests may be culturally biased, Jensen suggests that intelligence is

heritable, and therefore, Asians are naturally apt to learn. However, some

environmentalists suggest that other factors may contribute to high intelligence such as

the quality of education and nutrition (Irvine, 1995).

Language

Chinese is the most popular spoken and written language in the world. Its writing

system is the oldest manuscript. Chinese characters have influenced the spoken and

written languages of other Confucian languages such as Korean, Japanese, and

Vietnamese (Eastasianculture.com). Different variations of Chinese are spoken

throughout China, Hong Kong, Taiwan, and Singapore. Chinese is a tonal language,

which means the change in pitch can change the meaning of a word (Avery, 1992).

In some East Asian languages, there exist specific words that describe attitudes

toward education. For instance, the Japanese have a word, seishin, that describes the

attitude that helps one tackle a task. Gambaru, another Japanese word, refers to the

positive thought that motivates one to persevere in order to gain positive intrinsic


rewards. The Chinese also have a term pronounced hae-xue-xin that may be defined as

“one’s desire to learn.” In a study conducted by Jin Li, this Chinese term was understood

and recognized by 92 percent of Chinese students ages 10-18 (Li, 2001).

LEARNING STYLES

According to research, Hispanics tend to be field dependent learners. This means

that in the classroom, they usually prefer group learning activities opposed to individual

exercises, and they freely share objects and information with each other. They are

extrinsically motivated and are sensitive to others’ praise and remarks. They prefer

visual representations and remember content as it relates to people and the social context.

In addition, they learn by doing (Irvine, 1995).

Since Asians highly value collectivism and cooperation yet still hold an individual

outlook, Asians are probably more field dependent learners but can be field independent

as well. For example, Chinese children spend a lot of time memorizing and copying new

words and short stories. This kind of memorizing requires individual practice and shows

intrinsic motivation. However, Asian students are still perceived to be dependent upon

the teacher (Mariani). Research has shown that most students from Asian countries are

also visual, auditory, tactile, and kinesthetic learners (Reid, 1987).

Learning Styles Survey

An additional independent study was conducted to determine whether the above

research regarding Latino and Asian cultural learning preferences was accurate. To

conduct this study, 13 Latin Americans and 9 Asians took a learning style preference

questionnaire designed by Joy Reid (Appendix 1). The questionnaire included 30

statements with which the students had to strongly agree, agree, be undecided, disagree,


or strongly disagree. Each item was numerically scored and identified with one of six

learning styles: visual, tactile, auditory, kinesthetic, group, and individual. The

questionnaires were taken individually by each individual either on paper or on the

computer.

Each item accumulates points for its distinctive category. If the responder marks

strongly agree, the item receives five points; agree, four points; undecided, three points;

disagree, two points; and strongly disagree, one point. Each learning style category has

five items. After scoring all five items in a learning style category, the items are added

up and multiplied by two in order to calculate the total score for the learning style. The

maximum score that a learning style can receive is 50. Scores of 38-50 indicate a major

learning style preference; 25-37 a minor learning style preference; and 0-24 a negligible

learning style (Reid, 1984).

The Latin American subjects included 4 males and 9 females. Three males and

four females are from Mexico, two females are from Guatemala, one female is from

Honduras, one male is from Nicaragua, one female is from Uruguay, and one female is

from Argentina. All of them are Spanish speaking. A couple of Mexican females speak

indigenous languages such as Tarascan and Ztosil. The ages range from 12-25 with the

majority being in middle school and high school and a few with high school diplomas or

some college education.

The Asian subjects included 5 males and 5 females. Two males and one female

are from Korea, one male and one female are from China, one male and two females are

from Taiwan, and one male and one female are from Japan. The subjects from China and

Taiwan speak Chinese; one Taiwanese female speaks Taiwanese. All of the Koreans


speak Korean, and the Japanese speak Japanese. The ages range from 19-26, and all are

college undergraduate or graduate students.


Figure 1. Overall Collected Data from Learning-Style Preference Questionnaire

Results

By comparing the overall data of Latin American and Asian groups, one can tell

that there isn’t a large discrepancy among the average learning styles of Latin Americans

and Asians respectively. Latin Americans equally prefer visual, auditory, kinesthetic,

and individual learning styles as major learning styles with scores of 38 and 39. Asians

Country Gender Language Age Grade Visual Tactile Auditory Kinesthetic Group Individual

Mexico F Spanish/ Ztosil 16 10 46 36 38 38 44 44

Mexico F Spanish/Tarascan 16 11 40 34 42 40 38 32

Mexico F Spanish 11 6 38 36 40 34 36 26

Mexico F Spanish 15 9 38 36 44 42 38 34

Mexico M Spanish 16 10 42 44 42 50 44 34

Mexico M Spanish 16 10 46 24 30 36 34 46

Mexico M Spanish 21 College Jr. 26 26 46 30 30 34

Nicaragua M Spanish 25 HS Diploma 36 40 38 40 36 30

Honduras F Spanish 12 6 38 38 36 42 22 50

Guatemala F Spanish 15 9 44 46 46 42 44 46


Argentina F Spanish 24 College Fr. 36 36 38 38 18 46

Uruguay F Spanish 21 College So. 30 28 32 34 24 40

Average 38 34 39 38 33 39


South Korea M Korean 19 Level 2 ELI 42 38 40 32 40 24

South Korea M Korean 26 Level 2 ELI 42 34 36 36 42 28

South Korea F Korean 26 Graduate 44 36 30 24 26 24

China M Chinese 25 Graduate 36 42 44 48 40 38

China F Chinese 22 Graduate 28 38 36 44 30 36

Taiwan M Chinese 21 College Jr. 36 34 42 34 30 34

Taiwan F Chinese/ Taiwanese 26 Graduate 36 38 30 40 34 37

Taiwan F Chinese 26 Graduate 48 40 24 44 22 22

Japan M Japanese 23 College Jr. 34 28 40 32 14 50

Japan F Japanese 24 College Sr. 34 42 34 34 20 42

Average 38 37 36 37 30 34


prefer the visual learning style with a score of 38. Both groups chose group learning as

their least preferred learning style.

Figure 2. Disaggregated Data of Latin American Learning-Styles by Country/Region


Mexico F Spanish/ Ztosil 16 10 46 36 38 38 44 44

Mexico F Spanish/Tarascan 16 11 40 34 42 40 38 32

Mexico F Spanish 11 6 38 36 40 34 36 26

Mexico F Spanish 15 9 38 36 44 42 38 34

Mexico M Spanish 16 10 42 44 42 50 44 34

Mexico M Spanish 16 10 46 24 30 36 34 46

Mexico M Spanish 21 College Jr.

26 26 46 30 30 34

Average 39 34 40 39 38 36

Nicaragua M Spanish 25 HS Diploma

36 40 38 40 36 30

Honduras F Spanish 12 6 38 38 36 42 22 50



Argentina F Spanish 24 College Fr.

36 36 38 38 18 46

Uruguay F Spanish 21 College So.

30 28 32 34 24 40

Average 37 35 37 38 27 44

The above table displays the data from the Latin Americans that has been

disaggregated by country into two categories: Mexicans and Central/South Americans.

According to the data, Mexicans prefer visual, auditory, kinesthetic, and group learning.

Central and South Americans prefer kinesthetic and individual learning. The biggest

difference between the groups is that Mexicans highly prefer group learning and

somewhat prefer individual learning, while Central/South Americans highly prefer

individual learning and are negligible to group learning.


Figure 3. Disaggregated Data of Asian Learning-Styles by Country


South Korea

M Korean 19 Level 2 ELI

42 38 40 32 40 24

South Korea

M Korean 26 Level 2 ELI

42 34 36 36 42 28

South Korea

F Korean 26 Graduate 44 36 30 24 26 24

Average 43 36 35 31 36 25



Average 32 40 40 46 35 37

Taiwan M Chinese 21 College Jr.

36 34 42 34 30 34

Taiwan F Chinese/Taiwanese 26 Graduate 36 38 30 40 34 37

Taiwan F Chinese 26 Graduate 48 40 24 44 22 22

Average 40 37 32 39 29 31

Japan M Japanese 23 College Jr.

34 28 40 32 14 50

Japan F Japanese 24 College Sr.

34 42 34 34 20 42

Average 34 35 37 33 17 46

Figure 3 shows the scores of Asian learning styles that have been disaggregated

by country. Koreans mostly prefer visual learning and least prefer individual learning.

On the other hand, Chinese students most prefer tactile, auditory, and kinesthetic

learning and least prefer visual learning. Taiwanese students mostly prefer visual and

kinesthetic learning and least prefer group learning. Finally, Japanese students highly

prefer individual learning and least prefer group learning.

Discussion


The results of this survey support research’s claim that Hispanics prefer visual

and kinesthetic learning styles. Hispanics also benefit from auditory learning probably

because it involves interpersonal communication.

However, the data does not support the claim that Latin Americans are field

dependent learners. Most Mexicans are field dependent learners, but the Central and

South Americans are not. This result may have a couple of explanations. First of all, the

Central and South Americans are the minorities within the Hispanic culture group and

may not have others to identify with from their home country. Hispanics tend to be

collectivistic and collaborative, but they tend to mingle more with their fellow

countrymen and maintain boundaries between other Latin American countries. Secondly,

the split of independent and group learners may solely reflect personal preference without

any respect to a cultural norm.

Latinos as a whole least prefer the tactile learning style. In fact, only three Latino

individuals had this category as a major learning style. However, it is interesting to note

that the indigenous/Spanish speakers ranked tactile learning as their least preferred styles.

Tactile learning may not be favored among these students because they probably do not

know how to write in their native language. The low quality of education in Latin

American countries may affect one’s literacy levels and ability to write in Spanish or an

indigenous language. To write in English would be even more challenging without any

background knowledge of letter formation or written form. Nevertheless, as with group

learning, tactile learning may only be an individual preference that reflects one’s

personality.


Looking at the data as a whole, it appears that overall Asians do not have a

specific preference in the way that they learn. However, the disaggregated Asian scores

indicate major differences among the Asian countries. Koreans have a strong preference

for visual learning and are the most field dependent learners than any other group. On

the opposite spectrum, the Japanese do not like group learning, but work best as

individuals. They enjoy auditory learning over visual learning. The Chinese prefer

auditory over visual learning as well, but learn best through kinesthetic learning. Chinese

students rank high in tactile learning, which may relate to the copying and memorizing

text.

Like the Koreans, Taiwanese students prefer visual learning. They are also very

similar to Chinese learners in that they benefit from kinesthetic learning. Comparable to

Japanese students, Taiwanese students also least prefer working in groups. However,

Taiwanese students differ from all three groups in that they have a low rank for auditory

learning. This may be due to the fact that the Taiwanese speak not only Chinese but

Taiwanese as well. Having to audibly discern between two similar languages may be

difficult, but training one’s ear to hear a completely different language adds a different

level of difficulty that could create some barriers to learning.

TEACHING SUGGESTIONS

Considering that Hispanics learn best kinesthetically, visually, and audibly, a

variety of activities should be included when teaching. Total physical response activities

incorporate all three of these learning styles and are especially beneficial for ESL


beginners. Modeling also encompasses kinesthetic, visual, and auditory learning styles.

Teachers should give visual concrete examples that can be verbally explained and easily

mimicked. In reflecting on the high-context Hispanic culture, educators should try to

avoid abstract representations because Hispanic students do not typically think

analytically. Additionally, teachers should not assign long-term projects that require

students to think of time as linear. Short-term assignments would be favorable to long-

term projects since Latin American thinking is generally not future oriented.

Although our research has shown that not all Hispanic students are field

dependent learners, some collaborative activities along with individual activities would

benefit the group as a whole. Informal class discussions can be beneficial for all students

to work together to gain understanding. However, debating would cause friction among

the group, and Hispanics do not want to lose their group unity and lessen Hispanic values

of respect and kindness (Irvine, 1995).

Hispanic students are extrinsically motivated by family and the teacher-student

relationships. Therefore, personal rewards such as verbal praise, pats, and hugs would

encourage a student to continue learning. The teacher should ensure a positive school

environment to optimize learning for all students.

When teaching Asian students, teachers should also include a variety of visual,

auditory, tactile, and kinesthetic activities. Therefore, lectures, visual presentations,

hands-on activities, and TPR activities would also stimulate learning. In addition, since

Asians practice so much memorization, audio-linguistic methods that use memorization,

drills, and practice might be helpful with these learners.


Korean and Chinese students would benefit from cooperative group activities and

projects. Since Taiwanese and Japanese students prefer individual learning, individual

worksheets, activities, projects, and assignments would suffice. However, teachers

should be careful to not single out a student in the classroom. There’s a Japanese proverb

that says, “The nail that sticks up gets hammered down”. Focusing on the individual

rather than the group as a whole is looked down upon by this culture (Mariani).

CONCLUSION

In conclusion, the values of each culture affect the way a student from a culture

learns. One learns about the world and how to behave according to the rules and values

of one’s culture. The learner applies these rules in the same way in the classroom. It is

important for a teacher to be aware of these values and what kind of learners they create.

While taking into consideration the differences in cultural values is good, a

teacher must be careful to not overgeneralize or stereotype a student based on the cultural

norm of his/her ethnicity. Rather the teacher should get to know the student as an

individual to understand his or her background that can affect learning. Teachers should

also individually assess students to find out what ways he or she learns best. By knowing

the ways students learn best, a teacher can effectively plan lessons to promote optimal

learning for all students in the classroom.


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APPENDIX 1

Name: Country: Language: Age: Level of Education: For how many years have you been studying English?


Perceptual Learning-Style Preference Questionnaire

Directions

People learn in many different ways. For example, some people learn primarily with their eyes (visual learners) or with the ears (auditory learners); some people prefer to learn by experience and/or by "hands-on" tasks (kinesthetic or tactile learners); some people learn better when they work alone while others prefer to learn in groups.

This questionnaire has been designed to help you identify the way(s) you learn best--the way(s) you prefer to learn.

Read each statement on the following pages. Please respond to the statements AS THEY APPLY TO YOUR STUDY OF ENGLISH.

Decide whether you agree or disagree with each statement. For example, if you strongly agree, mark:

SA

Strongly agree

A

Agree

U

Undecided

D

Disagree

SD

Strongly Disagree

X

Please respond to each statement quickly, without too much thought. Try not to change your responses after you choose them. Please answer all the questions. Please use a pen to mark your choices.

Perceptual Learning-Style Preference Questionnaire

SA Strongly

agree

A Agree

U Undecided

D Disagree

SD Strongly Disagree

X


Item SA A U D SD

1. When the teacher tells me the instructions I understand better.

2. I prefer to learn by doing something in class.

3. I get more work done when I work with others.

4. I learn more when I study with a group.

5. In class, I learn best when I work with others.

6. I learn better by reading what the teacher writes on the chalkboard.

7. When someone tells me how to do something in class, I learn it better.

8. When I do things in class, I learn better.

9. I remember things I have heard in class better than things I have read.

10. When I read instructions, I remember them better.

11. I learn more when I can make a model of something.

12. I understand better when I read instructions.

13. When I study alone, I remember things better.

14. I learn more when I make something for a class project.

15. I enjoy learning in class by doing experiments.

16. I learn better when I make drawings as I study.

17. I learn better in class when the teacher gives a lecture.

18. When I work alone, I learn better.


19. I understand things better in class when I participate in role-playing.

20. I learn better in class when I listen to someone.

21. I enjoy working on an assignment with two or three classmates.

22. When I build something, I remember what I have learned better.

23. I prefer to study with others.

24. I learn better by reading than by listening to someone.

25. I enjoy making something for a class project.

26. I learn best in class when I can participate in related activities.

27. In class, I work better when I work alone.

28. I prefer working on projects by myself.

29. I learn more by reading textbooks than by listening to lectures.

30. I prefer to work by myself


Self-Scoring Sheet

Instructions

There are 5 questions for each learning category in this questionnaire. The questions are grouped below according to each learning style. Each question you answer has a numerical value.

SA

Strongly agree

A

Agree

U

Undecided

D

Disagree

SD

Strongly Disagree

5 4 3 2 1

Fill in the blanks below with the numerical value of each answer. For example, if answered Strongly Agree (SA) for question 6 (a visual question), write a number 5 (SA) on the blank next to question 6 below.

Visual

6 = 5

When you have completed all the numerical values for Visual, add the numbers. Multiply the answer by 2, and put the total in the appropriate blank.

Follow the process for each of the learning style categories. When you are finished, look at the scale at the bottom of the page; it will help you determine your major learning style preference(s), your minor learning style preference(s), and those learning style(s) that are negligible.

If you need help, please ask your teacher.

Visual

Question Score

6

10


12

24

29

Total

Score = Total x 2

Tactile

Question Score

11

14

16

22

25

Total

Score = Total x 2

Auditory

Question Score

1

7

9


17

20

Total

Score = Total x 2

Group

Question Score

3

4

5

21

23

Total

Score = Total x 2

Kinesthetic

Question Score

2

8

15

19

26


Total

Score = Total x 2

Individual

Question Score

13

18

27

28

30

Total

Score = Total x 2

Major learning Style Preference 38-50

Minor Learning Style Preference 25-37

Negligible 0-24

Explanation of Learning Style Preferences

Students learn in many different ways. The questionnaire you completed and scored showed which ways you prefer to learn English. In many cases, students' learning style preferences show how well students learn material in different situations.

The explanations of major learning style preferences below describe the characteristics of those learners. The descriptions will give you some information about ways in which you learn best.

Visual Major Learning Style Preference


You learn well from seeing words in books, on the chalkboard, and in workbooks. You remember and understand information and instructions better if you read them. You don't need as much oral explanation as an auditory learner, and you can often learn alone, with a book. You should take notes of lectures and oral directions if you want to remember the information.

Auditory Major Learning Style Preference

You learn from hearing words spoken and from oral explanations. You may remember information by reading aloud or moving your lips as you read, especially when you are learning new material. You benefit from hearing audio tapes, lectures, and class discussions. You benefit from making tapes to listen to, by teaching other students, and by conversing with your teacher.

Kinesthetic Major Learning Style Preference

You learn best by experience, by being involved physically in classroom experiences. You remember information well when you actively participate in activities, field trips, and role-playing in the classroom. A combination of stimuli--for example, an audiotape combined with an activity--will help you understand new material.

Tactile Major Learning Style Preference

You learn best when you have the opportunity to do "hands-on" experiences with materials. That is, working on experiments in a laboratory, handling and building models, and touching and working with materials provide you with the most successful learning situation. Writing notes or instructions can help you remember information, and physical involvement in class related activities may help you understand new information.

Group Major Learning Style Preference

You learn more easily when you study with at least one other student, and you will be more successful completing work well when you work with others. You value group interaction and class work with other students, and you remember information better when you work with two or three classmates. The stimulation you receive from group work helps you learn and understand new information.

Individual Major Learning Style Preference

You learn best when you work alone. You think better when you study alone, and you remember information you learn by yourself. You understand new material best when you learn it alone, and you make better progress in learning when you work by yourself.

Minor Learning Styles


In most cases, minor learning styles indicate areas where you can function well as a learner. Usually a very successful learner can learn in several different ways.

Negligible Learning Styles

Often, a negligible score indicates that you may have difficulty learning in that way. One solution may be to direct your learning to your stronger styles. Another solution might be to try to work on some of the skills to strengthen your learning style in the negligible area.

This explanation was adapted from the C.I.T.E. Learning Styles Instrument, Murdoch Teacher Center, Wichita, Kansas 67208.

Copyright 1984, by If you wish to use this questionnaire, contact