570

Diseases of Coral, First Edition. Edited by Cheryl M. Woodley, Craig A. Downs, Andrew W. Bruckner, James W. Porter and Sylvia B. Galloway. © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Published 2016 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Note: entries in bold indicate the glossary.

abasic (apurinic/apyrimidinic) DNA sites/lesions 556chemiluminescent method of quantification in

scleractinians 547–54aboral part of polyp 86, 556, 566Acanthaster planci (crown of thorns sea star) 243,

252–3, 559acclimation and acclimatization to environmental

stressors 276–7accutase, cell dissociation using 492acetylcholine (ACH) 183, 184acidification of oceans

deep-sea corals and 422heterotrophic nutrition and 154–5

Acroporaskeletal eroding band and Halofolliculina ciliate

infections 368–9white syndrome (Indo-Pacific) 215, 216, 300, 301,

305, 307, 308, 309, 310, 311yellow-band disease 376, 378, 379

Acropora cervicornis, white syndromes 317, 319, 320, 321, 323, 327

Acropora millepora adherent cell culture 499Acropora palmata

acclimatization to environmental stressors 277black-band disease 346, 348growth anomalies 292, 293, 294, 295histology 97white syndromes 316, 317, 318, 319, 320, 321, 322,

323, 325, 327, 328white-patch disease see white-patch disease

acroporids (Acroporidae)acroporid serratiosis, 221–230growth anomalies 291, 292, 293, 294, 297serratiosis see white-patch diseaseskeletal eroding band and Halofolliculina ciliate

infections 362, 367–8white syndromes 300, 301

acrosphere 556, 568Actiniaria see sea anemonesactinopharynx (stomodeum) 89–90, 556, 557, 559,

561, 564, 565, 567deep-sea corals 422–3, 559hexacorals 96, 102, 557, 559, 562octocorals 103, 556–9, 561–3, 565–9

action potentials 175, 176–7, 178, 182, 566adenosine triphosphate see ATPadherent cell cultures 494, 497–8, 501

substrates for 496–7, 498, 499adrenaline (epinephrine; E) 184aerial exposure see desiccationAgariciidae, Halofolliculina ciliates 370age

deep-sea corals, determination 426–7sexual maturity and 111–12

AGGRA (Atlantic and Gulf Rapid Reef Assessment) Program 319

Aglantha digitale conducting system 177agreement, method of (deriving a hypothesis) 18Aiptasia

neuro-cnidocyte synapses 169symbiosis and endocrine-like signaling 131

air, exposure to see desiccationairborne (atmospheric) transmission 39

in aquatic research facilities 446, 451Alcyonacea, cell culture methods 497aldehyde reactive probe (ARP) 542, 543, 548,

549, 556algae

bleaching and 398, 400–1, 403defense system and 127, 132, 133lawn development 244, 248, 254overgrowth 62see also macroalgae; photosynthesis; zooxanthellae

American Samoa, natural resource management authorities 470

amido black 526, 527, 528, 531amino acids

in cell cultures 495–6dissolved free, as food source for tropical

corals 151–2oxidative damage 10

γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) 183, 184amoebocytes 556, 558, 561, 564

hexacorals 96–9, 557, 559, 562octocorals 102, 103, 556–9, 561–3, 565–9

amphiesmal structure 556analogy (deriving a hypothesis) 19analytical epidemiology 30, 556anatomy 85–107, 556

deep-sea corals 422–5, 559gross 86–93, 556, 563microscopic see histologypathology related to 5polyp, descriptors 86, 566

anchoring of platform 461–2Anemone viridis, viruses 286animals (marine/aquatic)

bleaching as animal response vs. algal stress response 403

holding facilities see holding facilitiessafety in disease research see biosafetytissue culture from various organisms, review

483–4annelids see polychaetesannual (interannual) variations in light and

temperature 272anthocodia 89, 556anthostele 89, 556, 558anthozoans

anatomy see anatomy

conducting system 172, 173, 175colonies 181, 182polyps 180–1

taxonomy 86antibodies (and immunomarkers)

in cell-type enrichment 494in functional assays of cultured cells 502

antimicrobial drugs (incl. antibiotics) resistance in humans 133

in cell/tissue culture 489–90antimicrobial peptides 129–31, 131, 556, 557antioxidants in cell culture methods 498Antipatharia 425, 556

anatomy 425, 556coral gardens 418, 559

antipathin 93, 556apoptosis (programmed cell death) 8, 556

as protective mechanism in cell defense 132, 133white syndromes and 307–8

application for permittingfocus 459–60knowledge and experience of applicant 460qualifications of applicant 459

apurinic/apyrimidinic DNA see abasic DNAaquaria 432–4

deep-sea/cold-water corals 432–3Halofolliculina infections 372white syndrome 214–15

aquatic containment levels (AQC1-3) 453, 556aquatic invasive species (AIS) issues 460, 462, 556

in site-to-site movement of organisms 464Arabian yellow-band disease 376–80, 385, 557aragonite 87, 198, 556, 557

deep-sea corals and 422, 559Arcobacter 347arminin 129, 131Arothron meleagris 257arthropods, as vectors of disease 37asexual reproduction 118, 425, 556, 561, 568aspergillosis 556association (in establishing cause)

statistical 22–3strength of 19

Asteroidea (sea stars) 251, 252–3Atlantic (western predominantly)

causative agents and associated micro- organisms 61

colored-band diseases 345–53black-band disease 53, 57, 58, 336, 345–53, 557red-band disease 61, 345, 350, 566yellow-band disease 378, 569

corallivory 243, 245, 246, 250, 253dark spots disease 53, 55, 61, 69, 354–60, 560stony coral diseases 53, 54, 55, 316–32

acroporid serratiosis see white-patch diseasegrowth anomalies 53, 57, 292

Index

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COPYRIG

HTED M

ATERIAL

Index 571

partially or incompletely characterized diseases and misdiagnosed conditions 54

predation and 246white plague type II see white plague type IIwhite syndromes (in general) 231–5,

316–32, 569see also Caribbean

Atlantic and Gulf Rapid Reef Assessment (AGGRA) Program 319

atmospheric transmission see airborne transmissionATP (adenosine triphosphate) 184

depletion 10skeletogenesis and 197, 567

atramentous necrosis (AN) 55, 72, 302, 309, 556atrophy 9, 556attack rate 33Aurantimonas coralicida 231–5, 557

Sphingomonas and later renamed 64, 326see also white plague type II

aurelin 131, 557Australian subtropical white syndrome (ASWS) 302,

309–10authority in acceptance of causal hypotheses 17autophagy 7, 131–2, 557autotrophs 557autozooids 91, 557axenic cultures 500axial polyp 89, 138, 557axial sheath 100–1, 557axis (axial skeleton) 93, 557axis epithelium 104, 560axons, giant 174, 177azooxanthellate deep-sea corals 416, 417, 426

bacteria 557in dark-spots disease etiology 69, 355emerging animal diseases caused by 45heterotrophic 60, 347molecular identification 432sulfur–oxidizing 60, 346see also microbes

bacterial bleaching 41, 396, 517vibrionic 55, 61, 206–8, 517

bacterial community see microbesbacteriophages 557, 565

applications 75, 208, 210Ballistidae (pufferfishes) 257barnacles 253–4basal body wall 86, 89, 93, 557basement membrane/lamina 85, 557, 561basic reproductive number/ratio/rate

(epidemics) 42basophilic compounds 557battery cell and battery cell complex 166, 170, 557Beggiatoa and black band disease 60, 346, 347, 350benign tumors 12benthic corals see deep-sea coralsbilayer (tissue) separation using reducing

agents 490–1biochemical response to bleaching from

environmental stressors 273–5, 402biocontainment see biosafetybioeroders 557biological factors

calcification affected by 194cell injury due to 9

biological gradient (in establishing cause) 19biological vector 568biomarkers

endocrine-like signaling 144–5in functional assays of cultured cells 502of health and stress 475

biomass, dark-adapted minimum fluorescence (F0) as proxy for 510

biomineralization see mineralizationbiopiracy 466bioprospecting 463, 466, 557biopsies 476–7

creating 476–7for explant production 492regeneration rate determination from 474

size/shape/depth/location of biopsy 478bioregulatory mechanisms

deep-sea corals 426, 559hormones in 139see also endocrine-like signaling

biosafety (incl. biocontainment and biosecurity) 442–58, 557

definition of biosecurity 442, 444, 451, 557in field studies 460in laboratory studies 442–58

black aggressive band 55black-band disease (BBD) 58–64, 336–41,

410–11, 557behavior and ecological physiology 62–3Indo-Pacific 54, 58, 336–41microbial consortium 60–2, 62–3, 341, 518octocorals 410–11, 565pulse amplitude modulated fluorometry 517, 518spatial distribution 62, 337Western Atlantic/Caribbean 53, 57, 58, 336,

345–53black overgrowing cyanobacteria 55blackwater discharge 461, 557blanching vs. bleaching 404blastema 5, 557bleach (sodium hypochlorite) 446, 557bleaching 266–83, 396–409, 516–17, 557

Briareum asbestinum becrosis-associated 411–12environmental factors/stressors 396–409

solar radiation 266–83, 400temperature 266–83, 396, 399tolerance 276–7, 396

heterotrophic nutrition and episodes of 154and lysis 208–10microbial hypothesis 126

see also bacterial bleachingoutbreaks following bleaching events 73photosynthesis and 398, 400–1, 403–4,

516–17, 565physiological recovery and mitigation 275–6tolerance 276–7

body wall 89–91, 557–9, 564, 567actinopharynx 89–90, 556, 557, 559, 561, 564,

565, 567basal 86, 89, 93, 556, 557surface 86, 89, 557, 567

bonds 466boot baths 448, 449boring invertebrates 242, 244boxfishes 257Briareum asbestinum necrosis, bleaching associated

with 411–12brown-band disease (BrBD) 61, 71, 333–6, 558

pulse amplitude modulated fluorometry 517, 518brown jelly syndrome (BJS) 336, 557browsers and grazers 242, 244, 255buffers in porphyrin quantification in

scleractinians 539, 541, 542, 543, 544, 545butterflyfishes (Chaetodonidae) 256–7, 339

calcification 193–5, 198–200, 558of attaching organisms in deep-sea corals 430centers of 192, 196, 200

endocrine-like signaling in 143, 560factors affecting 194light and 143, 150mechanisms 198–200methods of measuring 193photosynthesis and 198, 565symbiosis and 143, 150, 568

calcium uptake 194–5calicoblastic epithelioma 297calicoblastic epithelium (calicodermis) 94, 101–2,

194–5, 558immunomarkers to cells from 502

calicodermis see calicoblastic epitheliumCalvin cycle 509, 514, 515calyx (anthostele) 89, 556, 558Canada, biosafety 443, 453, 557cancer see malignant tumorscarbon

sources 74uptake (inorganic) 195–6

photosynthesis and 195–6, 197carbon dioxide

emissions (by human activity) and deep-sea corals 422

seawater, and bleaching 400, 404carbonic anhydrase 193, 195, 196, 199carbonyl formation 10–11CARD (caspase recruitment domain; DEATH)

129, 558Caribbean

aspergillosis of caribbean sea fan corals, gorgonia spp, 236–41

aspergillosis of sea fan corals 236–41, 556ciliate infection (CCI; skeletal eroding band and

Halofolliculina ciliate infections) 53, 57, 61, 70, 341–2, 361–75, 558

colored-band disease 345–53black-band disease 336, 345–53, 557red-band disease 61, 345, 350, 566yellow-band disease (CYBD) 53, 61, 67–9, 376,

377, 380–3, 384–5, 569dark spots disease 53, 55, 61, 69, 354–60, 560growth anomalies of sea fan corals 412–13, 561history of research 52–84National Wildlife Refuge 470parrotfish 245, 249, 559white-band disease, stony corals 53, 569white-patch disease (acroporid serratiosis) see

white-patch diseasewhite plague type II see white plague type II

Caribbean white syndromes (CWS) 231–5, 316–32, 558, 559

Caryophylliidae, Halofolliculina ciliates 370case fatality 35

pandemics 44, 565caspase recruitment domain (CARD; DEATH)

129, 558catecholamines 184causality (relationship between cause and effect)

16, 22–3acroporid serratiosis 223Evans’ rules and 21–2, 561see also etiology; hypotheses

cease and desist 466cell(s) 95

adaptations (in response to injury) 9, 556, 564counting see countingcryopreservation 499culture 482, 489–505, 558, 568

isolation of tissue for 489–4, 568methods 494–9zooxanthellae 531, 569

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572 Index

culture medium 495–7frequency of renewal/change 496, 498

death 7–8, 559defense role 132–3see also apoptosis; necroptosis; necrosis

diagnosis using 560white syndromes 308–9, 569

enrichment for specific cell types 493–4functional assays of cultured cells 502–3identification of specific cell types 502–3injury 9–11

cell adaptations to 9isolation see isolationmembrane disruption 10names and types, hexacorals vs. octocorals 95proliferation assays of cultured cells 500–2viability see viabilitysee also cytology

centralization of nervous system 175Chaetodonidae (butterflyfishes) 256–7, 339chaperone-mediated autophagy 7chemical(s)

damage relating to see injury; toxic chemicalsas disinfectants 446feeding behaviour activated by 153field use, regulation 463regeneration rates affected by 475signaling by see endocrine-like signaling

chemical synapses 168–9see also neurotransmitters

chemiluminescent method of abasic DNA quantification in scleractinians 547–54

chitinase, defensive, aspergillosis in sea fan corals 238chlorophyll

fluorometry in health assessment 506–23porphyrins in biosynthesis of 538

chloroplast, electron transport see electron transportchromophore cell 558chytrid 558

contamination of cell cultures 499–500ciliates

brown-band disease and 334, 335, 336Caribbean ciliate infection/CCI (skeletal eroding

band and Halofolliculina ciliate infections) 53, 57, 61, 70, 341–2, 361–75, 558

cilium (cilia) 90, 558cinclide 91, 558circumhypostomal nerve rings 173, 174CITES (Convention on International Trade for

Endangered Species) 431, 459, 460, 465, 558

civil penalties 467Clean Water Act (CWA) 478cleaning

in field studiesrequirement for assurance of clean gear/vessels/

equipment 461researcher movement from site to site and need

for clean gear 465in laboratory research facilities 449

life-support systems 446climate change (and global warming)

deep-sea corals and 422, 559island economies and 267–8

climbing shells and the conducting systems 180–1clinical course/natural history/progression

acquiring information on 29aspergillosis 239, 556black-band disease 410, 557bleaching-associated necrosis of Briareumas

bestinum 411

Eunicella verrucosa necrosis 411Gorgonia ventalina growth anomalies 413Halofolliculina ciliate infection 370–1Pseudoplexaura infected by Entocladia endozoica 414pulse amplitude modulated fluorometry in

monitoring of 518skeletal eroding disease 367–71, 566vibriosis 208, 209, 211, 212, 214, 215, 216virus-like particle infection 287white syndromes 311, 325, 569

clinical pathology 5cnida (cnidocyst) 85, 558cnidaria (phylum) 558

model species of endocrine-like signaling 141cnidocyst (cnida) 85, 558cnidocyte (nematocyte) 85, 96, 165, 166, 168, 558

deep-sea corals 422, 559see also neuro-cnidocyte synapses

cnidoglandular band/lobe 101, 558cobalamine 538cobalt crusts, mining 422coccolithophorids (coccolithophores) 558coelenteron see gastrovascular cavitycoenenchyme 87, 559coenosteum 91, 92, 192, 559, 561coherence (in establishing cause) 19cold-water corals 417–18, 427–9, 559

bleaching at cold temperatures 399, 401–2climate change and 422definition 416diseases 427–9

investigation methods 431–5feeding and digestions 426geographical distribution 416habitats formed by 417–18oil/gas/seabed mining and 421–2

collagenase, cell dissociation using 492, 493colonies

conducting systems 181–3light environment within 271in regeneration assays

selection and characteristics 476size 478

reproduction and size of 110–11sample size regulation 463

color change 563colored (pigmented) band diseases 59, 333–53

Atlantic/Caribbean see Atlantic; CaribbeanIndo-Pacific see Pacific and Indian Oceanspulse amplitude modulated fluorometry 518see also specific color

column 91, 559sphincter 91, 559

columnar epithelial (supporting) cells 166, 567hexacorals 94, 557, 562

commensals, deep-sea corals 430commercial use of samples 466common-source epidemic 42Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands

(CNMI) 333, 470communication/gap junctions (electrical

synapses) 165, 169–71, 561community structure and corallivory 243concomitant variation, method of (deriving a

hypothesis) 19conducting systems 164–91

components 165–7electrophysiology 165–73junctions 168–70morphology 164, 165–75nervous 164–91non-nervous 165

confidence intervals for prevalence and cumulative incidence and incidence rate 34

conflicts (user), avoiding 462confounding 23connective tissue, hexacorals vs. octocorals 95, 564conservation 468

deep-sea coral 420–2, 559consistency (in establishing cause) 19containment see biosafetycontraction burst pulses 179control see managementConvention on Biological Diversity (CBD –

1993) 468Convention on International Trade for Endangered

Species (CITES) 431, 459, 460, 465, 558Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS –

1994) 468Convention on Wetlands (RAMSAR Convention –

1971) 468conversion dyes 525, 559Coomassie staining and destaining in porphyrin

quantification in scleractinians 540copepods 152

deep-sea corals 428, 430, 559copper 397–8, 403coral gardens/meadows 418–19, 559Coralliophila 245–50

C. abbreviata 41, 75, 222, 224, 226, 243, 245, 258C. violacea 245, 250

corallite 87, 92, 558, 559hypertrophied, deep-sea corals 428, 429–30shapes 89, 559

corallivory 242–65, 559complications and controversies 258data gaps and research needs 259history and geographic range 242, 568prey preference/prevalence/impact 242–3white syndromes differentiated from 327, 569

Coryne, neuro-cnidocyte synapses 169cost–benefit analysis, social 29Coulter counter, zooxanthellae viability assays 535counting (cell) in viability assays 527–31

alternatives to dyes 535crabs 253criminal penalties 467crown of thorns (COTs) sea star 251, 252–3, 559crustaceans 253–4

tissue culture 482, 568cryomill for scleractinian tissue preparation in abasic

DNA quantification 549–50cryopreservation of cultured cells 499cryptochrome 559cryptochromes 114, 142–3, 559cubozoan/cubomedusae, conducting system 172, 173,

178Culcita 252–3culture

cell/tissue see cells; tissuesorgan 483Serratia marcescens 226

cumulative effects of applicant’s proposed activities 461, 462

cumulative incidence 31–2confidence intervals for 34

cumulative mortality 34currents (water) and feeding, deep-sea corals 157–8cyanide (from fishing) 398, 401, 403cyanobacteria 559

black-band disease and 339, 345–53, 557black overgrowing 55pink-line syndrome and 72, 391, 566sulfate-reducing 60, 62, 346, 347, 348

cell(s) (cont’d )

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Index 573

cyanotoxin 64, 347, 348, 349, 351, 564cyclical trends 42–3cyclones see hurricanesCyphoma 251cytology

Aurantimonas coralicida (White Plague Type) II 233black-band disease 341, 557Indo-Pacific colored-band diseases 341reproductive 108–22, 568symbiosis bleaching 402, 568see also cells

damselfish 248, 254–5, 258dark spots disease (DSD) of Caribbean/Western

Atlantic 53, 55, 61, 69, 354–60, 560darkness/low-light

adaptation to, in chlorophyll fluorometry 509, 511, 514, 520

bleaching 400, 401, 557Darwin, Charles 6, 86Darwin Mounds 157DCMU (diuron) 118, 198, 199, 397, 401, 403dead animals in research facilities, biosafety

446–7, 450dead particulate organic matter as food source for

tropical corals 152dead zooxanthellae cells (nonviable cells) 524, 526,

527, 533–4, 535in cell culture 531, 558

death (mortality) 7, 34–5, 559cell see apoptosis; cell; necroptosis; necrosiscumulative 34dark-spots disease 355–7, 560growth anomalies and 293, 561“old” 476, 564rate 35, 559, 564“recent” 476, 564skeletal eroding band and Halofolliculina ciliate

infections 371, 566white syndromes 321, 569see also case fatality; dying; lethal injury

DEATH (caspase recruitment domain; CARD) 129, 558

decontamination facilities 452deductive reasoning 12, 17, 559deep-sea/deep water/benthic corals 416–41, 559

anatomy 422–5, 556classification 416conservation 420–2definition 416diseases 427–35

methods of investigating 431–4distribution and ecology 416–17habitat formation 417–20heterotrophic nutrition 156–8physiology 425–7V. coralliilyticus and disease in the Mediterranean

Sea 210–11see also cold-water corals

defense see immunity and defense; resistancedefensins 559degeneration 560denaturing buffers in porphyrin quantification in

scleractinians 539, 541, 542, 545Dendrophylliidae, Halofolliculina ciliates 369Department of Natural and Environmental Resources

(Puerto Rico) 471descriptive epidemiology 30, 561desiccation 399–400

bleaching with 399–400infectious agents 40, 562

desmocytes 560

Desulfovibrio and Desulfosarcina and Desulfobacter 347

developmentpathology related to 11, 565polyp 86–9, 566symbionts and early development 116

Diadema antillarum 251, 259diagnosis 560

acroporid serratiosis 226black band disease 349–50, 557bleaching 400, 557cellular see celldark-spots disease 359, 560differential 560growth anomalies 296, 561Porites trematodiasis 388–9, 566steps in 63white plague type II 233–4, 569white syndromes 308–9, 569

difference, method of (deriving a hypothesis) 18–19differential diagnosis 560diffuse nerve net 172, 175, 178digestion 101

deep-sea and cold-water corals 426digestive enzymes, cell dissociation using 492–3,

497–8digestive filament 101, 563–4digital image analysis in regeneration assays 477Diploastrea sp. (incl. D. heliopora) and yellow-band

disease 211, 376, 378, 383, 384Diploria xiii

black-band disease 346, 348, 557Dipsastraea xiiidiptericin 131discharge of materials by platform 461

blackwater 458, 461history of coral diseases, 52–84greywater 461, 562

disease (basic aspects) 2–3, 560definition 560minimizing range expansion 462–3new 67–76research see research

disinfection in research facilities 447, 448, 449, 463dispase, cell dissociation using 492–3disposal of samples 466dissolved organic matter as food source for tropical

corals 151–2distribution of disease, temporal trends 42–3diuron (DCMU) 118, 198, 199, 397, 401, 403dive gear, aquatic invasive species issues 464diving-PAM (pulse amplitude modulated)

fluorometry 509, 514DNA 547–55

damage 11, 547–55abasic sites see abasic DNAbleaching and 402, 557quantification in scleractinians 547–55repair 11

investigative (incl. diagnostic) methods usingAurantimonas coralicida 234deep-sea corals 432, 559Serratia marcescens 226

zooxanthelate scleractinian corals, isolation 550–1DNase with toluidine blue agar (DTC), Serratia

marcescens 226dropstones 560Drupella 250dyes see stains and dyesdying or sick/animals 7, 560

in research facilities, biosafety regarding 446–7, 479

Eagle medium, modified 495echinoderms 251–2Echinoidea (sea urchins) 129, 246, 251, 252Echinometra viridis 251ecology

deep-sea corals 416–17, 559of disease 44–5

acquiring information on 29acroporid serratiosis 221–3

microbial see microbessee also habitats

economic effects see socioeconomic effectsecosystem impact of site-to-site movement of

organisms 464ectoderm 93–4, 560

slow system 180educational credentials of applicants for

permitting 460effective contact 38egg see ovumeicosanoids 184El Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO) 272electrical synapses (gap junctions) 165, 169–71, 561electron microscopy (ultrastructure)

deep-sea and cold-water coral diseases 431polyp 424, 566Vibrio alginolyticus (yellow blotch/band) 213Vibrio shiloi (bacterial bleaching) 208virus-like particles 285, 286, 288white syndromes 305, 306, 569

electron transport and respiratory chainchloroplast 508–9

estimating rate 513mitochondrial 10

electrophysiology, conducting systems 165–73enabling factors in disease cause 21Endangered Species Act (ESA) 468–9endemic occurrence 35

cyclical (pulsations) 42endocoel 560endocrine-like (chemical) signaling 560

deep-sea corals 426, 559disruption 144

regeneration rates and 475evolutionary context 139–41reproduction and spawning and 114–15, 142–3terms and concepts 138–9see also hormones

endoderm (entoderm) 93–4, 560slow system 180

energetics (energy supply/metabolism)chloroplasts and photosynthesis 508–9endocrine-like signaling and 143–4regeneration 473, 566reproduction 116–17, 566skeletogenesis 197, 567

Entesis, Pseudoplexaura infected by 413–14entoderm see endodermentry

into closed area by applicant 461into countries see import

environmental factors 73–4bleaching see bleachingin calcification 194as dangers to infectious agents 40as drivers of disease 73–4

bleaching 266–83viruses 286white syndromes 310–11, 316–17, 321–2see also specific diseases

in epidemiology 20, 561pathology 11, 565

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574 Index

regeneration rates affected by 473–5in yellow-band disease 381, 569see also specific factors

enzymesdefensive, aspergillosis in sea fan corals 238digestive, cell dissociation using 492–4, 497–8

ephaptic conduction 176, 560epidemics 35–6, 41–2, 561

common-source 42epidemic curve 41–2propagating 42recurrent 42

epidemiology 28–51, 561analytical 30, 556definition 28, 561descriptive 30, 561epidemiological triad 20evolution of causal concepts in 20–3experimental 30, 556landscape 45reef science and 45scope 28theoretical 30, 556types of epidemiological investigation 30

epidermis 93–4, 561hexacorals 94–6, 562octocorals 95, 100, 565

epinephrine (E) 184epitheliomuscular cells (EMC) 96, 100, 166, 179, 561epithelium 85, 561

axis 104, 557calicoblastic see calicoblastic epitheliumcells 166–8

columnar see columnar epithelial cellselectrical conduction in hydrozoans 175–6hexacorals vs. octocorals 95

epizootics see outbreaksepizootiology 53–7, 561

history 53–7see also specific diseases

equipment and gear in animal researchin field studies

cleaning 465freezing of new gear 465placement onto bottom substrate 465zooxanthellae viability assay 526

porphyrin quantification in scleractinians 539preventive measures for mitigating pathogen

risk 448–50seizure 466–7

escape response, rapid 177estrogen 142ethical issues in field studies 455etiology (cause) 2, 4, 16–27, 72–3, 561

acroporid serratiosis 223black-band disease 60, 346–7, 557bleaching 397–400, 557brown-band disease 71, 558dark-spots disease 69, 355, 359, 560growth anomalies 67, 292, 561hypotheses see hypothesesidentifying 72–3known, determination of disease origin with 28pink-line syndrome 72, 566theories/laws/facts 16–17unknown/poorly understood, investigation and

control of disease origin with 29white syndromes 205–8, 327–8, 569

white-band disease 66, 67, 327–8, 569white plague 64–6, 231–2, 569white pox 70, 569

yellow-band disease, 569Caribbean 79, 381–2, 558

Arabian 379–80, 557Indo-Pacific 383, 566

Eucidaris thousarsii 251Eunice norvegicus 430Eunicella verrucosa, necrosis of 411Evans blue 526, 527, 561Evans’ rules 12, 21–2, 561evolution

endocrine-like signaling 139–41immunity/defense 125, 126, 129, 133

excavators 242, 244, 255–6, 559exclusion dyes 525, 526, 561Executive Order 13089: Coral Reef Protection 469exocoel 100, 561experimental epidemiology 30, 556explants (multicellular tissue aggregates)

production or micropropagation 482–4, 487, 490–3, 503

export permits 465–7extracellular matrix components, culture dishes

coated with 499eye 172, 174, 175, 178

false conclusions about cause 22–3fast repetition-rate fluorometer (FRRf) 516fatality 35Favia xiiifederal law/rules/regulation (US) 468–9feeding

behaviour, chemical activation 153deep-sea corals 426, 559mechanisms 153physiological effects 153–4water currents and, deep-sea corals 157–8see also digestion; nutrition

fertilization 112, 115, 118fiber optic selection in PAM chlorophyll

fluorometry 512–13field studies 458–71

biosafety considerations 454–5deep-sea 431manipulation issues 464–5permitting see permittingzooxanthellae viability assays 526–33

filefishes 257filopodia 561filtration of water (for tissue culture) 484fireworms (Hermodice carunculata) 75, 208, 245,

253, 258, 327fish, 561

coral associations with 419diseases, biocontainment 443predation 254–7

Fish and Wildlife Act (FWA) 469fishing

cyanide used in 398, 401, 403deep-sea 420–2

flagellin 128floating colonies of siphonophores, conducting

system 181Florida, laws and regulations 469, 470Florida Keys

acroporid serratiosis 221–30Montastraea annularis regeneration rates as

indicators of stress 473–4National Marine Sanctuary 465

flow cytometryviruses 287zooxanthellae viability assays 535, 569

flow-through aquaria 432

Flower Garden Banks National Marine Sanctuary, Gulf of Mexico 470

fluorescence-activated cell sorting 494fluorescence assay, porphyrin microplate 544fluorescence induction and relaxation (FIRe) 516fluorescence spectrometry cell-type enrichment 494fluorescence viability staining 531–4fluorometry

chlorophyll 506–23DNA quantification 548

FMRFamide-related peptides 172, 183, 185folliculinids and skeletal-eroding band 361–75fomite 37, 561

in aquatic research facilities, pathogen spread by 447–50, 452

food (nutrient)aspergillosis of sea fan corals (Caribbean) 237–8disease and effects of 74skeletogenesis and 198, 567sources

deep-sea corals 157, 559temperate corals 155, 156tropical corals 151–2

V. shiloi and bacterial bleaching 207see also feeding

Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) 445force of morbidity 32freezing of new unused gear 465frozen tissue preparations in porphyrin quantification

in scleractinians 542functional pathology 4fungal diseases

pink-line syndrome as 391, 566sea fan corals 236–41

fungal syndrome (FS) 55Fungia and Fungiidae

cell cultures 501, 558Halofolliculina ciliates 370yellow band disease 211, 569

GABA (ACH) 183, 184galaxins 143, 502, 561Galen 5galls, deep-sea corals 428–9gametes see germ cells; ovum; spermgametogenic region see gonadgamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) 183, 184ganglion (ganglia) 174–5

cells 166, 172, 177, 561gap junctions 165, 169–71, 561gas

in cell culture 498extraction in deep-sea 421–2

gastric cavity see gastrovascular cavitygastrodermis 93–4, 561

hexacorals 95, 100, 562octocorals 95, 103, 565

gastropods 245–51deep-sea corals 430, 559

gastrovascular canals 91, 561gastrovascular cavity (coelenteron; gastric cavity) 561

cell culture and the fluid composition in 496gastrozooid colonies, conducting system 181–2gear see equipment and geargenetic change in populations with site-to-site

movement of organisms 464genetic markers in cell cultures in prevention of

microbial contamination 500genetic pathology 11genetic response to light and temperature-induced

bleaching 273–5genome, viral 285

environmental factors (cont’d )

0002588212.indd 574 9/4/2015 6:39:36 PM

Index 575

genomic integrity 11geographical distribution see spatial distributiongerm cells (gametes) 109, 110, 112–15, 116, 119

endocrine-like signaling and 142, 143formation (gametogenesis) 112–15

endocrine-like signaling 142symbionts and 116

hexacorals 101, 562octocorals 104, 565see also ovum; sperm

giant axons 174, 177giant fiber network (motor nerve net) 172, 175, 178global warming see climate changeglycocalyx 561–2gonad (gametogenic region) 91, 562

hexacorals 101, 562octocorals 103–4, 565

gonadotropin-releasing hormone-like peptides 143gonochorism 101, 108, 109, 110, 112, 119, 562gorgonians (sea fans incl. Gorgonia) 410

Caribbeanaspergillosis 236–41, 556growth anomalies 412–13, 561

cell culture methods 497gorgonin 93, 562Gorgonophilus canadensis 428granular gland cell 96, 562grazers and browsers 242, 244, 255Great Barrier Reef (GBR)

atramentous necrosis 72, 556black-band disease 58, 59, 348, 557brown-band disease 333, 335, 336, 337, 338,

339, 558Halofolliculina ciliate infections (skeletal-eroding

band disease) 361, 366, 367, 369, 370Marine Park Authority 464Porites trematodiasis 387synchronous spawning 115white syndromes 71, 309, 310, 312, 569

greywater discharges 562gross (macroscopic) anatomy 86–93, 556gross (macroscopic) pathology/description of lesions

acroporid serratiosis 224–5, 556black-band disease 339–41, 557brown-band disease 335, 558corallivory 243–5dark-spots disease 357, 560growth anomalies 294–5, 561skeletal eroding band and Halofolliculina ciliate

infections 341–2, 363white syndromes 303–5, 322, 569yellow-band disease (Caribbean) 381, 559

Indo-Pacific 383, 566syndromes with similar gross signs 381

growth anomalies (GAs; skeletal anomalies) 61, 67, 291–9, 561

Caribbean sea fan corals 412–13deep-sea corals 428–30, 559Indo-Pacific stony corals 54, 292, 294Western Atlantic stony corals 53, 55, 292see also neoplasms

growth factors (vertebrate) in cell culture 495growth forms 89, 559growth rates of deep-sea corals 426–7Guam

Halofolliculina ciliates and skeletal eroding band 363, 368–70

laws and regulations 469–70, 471gynodioeceous species 109, 562

habitats formed by deep-sea corals 417–20haemocytometer 526, 528, 530–1, 533

Halofolliculina ciliates and skeletal-eroding band (Caribbean ciliate infection/CCI) 53, 55, 61, 70, 341–2, 361–75, 558

hand hygiene 449hard substrata for deep-sea corals 417, 418, 420harvesting, coral 421Hawai’i

Halofolliculina ciliates and skeletal eroding band 368–70

laws and regulations 469, 471Porites trematodiasis 387, 388

health 1–2, 562aquatic animals

international and national approaches to regulate 444–5

in preventive measures for mitigating pathogen risk 450

assessmentbiomarkers 475, 557chlorophyll fluorometry 506–23

heat dissipation in chloroplasts 509heat shock/heat stress proteins (hsps) 274, 275, 277heavy metals

porphyria and 538skeletal incorporation 196

helminthspopulation regulation by 44–5Porites infection 387–9

heme biosynthesis, disruption 538hemocytometer 526, 528, 530–1, 533herbicides 118, 397, 401, 403hermaphroditism 109–10, 562Hermodice carunculata (fireworms) 75, 208, 245,

253, 258, 327herpes viruses 288Herpolitha, yellow band disease 211heterotrophic nutrition/feeding

bacteria 60, 347, 557corals 150–63, 199, 559

hexacorals 89, 562cells identified in 95conducting systems 172

in colonies 182–3microscopic anatomy 94–100see also sea anemones

Hill’s criteria 19, 562Hippocrates 4, 20histology (microscopic anatomy) and

histopathology 93–104acroporid serratiosis 225–6, 556aspergillosis of Caribbean sea fan corals 239Aurantimonas coralicida (White Plague

Type II) 233black-band disease 341, 557bleaching 273, 557Briareum asbestinum necrosis 411brown-band disease 336, 558dark-spots disease 357, 560deep-sea and cold-water coral diseases 431–2Gorgonia ventalina growth anomalies 413growth anomalies 294–6, 561parrotfish lesions 256Porites trematodiasis 389, 393–4vibriosis 208, 209, 210, 213, 214, 215, 216white syndromes

Indo-Pacific 305, 565Western Atlantic 325

yellow-band disease (Caribbean) 381, 559historical perspectives

black-band diseases 336–7, 410, 557brown-band disease 313, 558Eunicella verrucosa necrosis 411

growth anomalies 291, 561pathology 4–6research 52–84skeletal eroding band and Halofolliculina ciliate

infections 361–2viruses 284white syndromes 300–1, 317–19, 569yellow-band disease

Arabian 378, 557Caribbean 380, 559Indo-Pacific 383, 565

zooxanthellae viability assays 524see also specific diseases

holdfast 93, 562holding facilities (animal) 452, 454

aquaria see aquariaholobiont 126, 269–70, 396, 562

environment 269–70homeostasis 562homeotic genes 562Homoscolymia xiiihorizontal transmission 37–9, 560hormones 138–9, 143, 144, 562

steroid see steroid hormonessee also endocrine-like signaling

host 37–8characteristics 37–8defense see immunity and defense; resistancein epidemiological triad 20holobiont response to temperature and light and

the role of 270infectious agents in

internal environment as danger to 40persistence 40–1

main types 37range/species

black-band disease 337, 338, 419, 557Briareum asbestinum necrosis 411brown-band disease 333, 334, 558Entocladia endozoica infection 413Eunicella verrucosa necrosis 411extension 41, 55growth anomalies 292–3, 412, 561Indo-Pacific stony corals 54, 61, 565for proposed causative agents and associated

micro-organisms 61skeletal-eroding disease 367viruses 285–6Western Atlantic stony corals 53, 54, 57, 61white syndromes 300–1, 320, 569

responses (in Evan’s rules) 21see also specific diseases

HSV-1 (herpes simplex virus) 288humans

diseasebiocontainment considerations 442coral studies in understanding of 133–4

microbiome 126, 564pathology, evolution 4–5reefs and their importance 1transmission to corals from 3

humoral pathology 4–5, 20hurricanes (cyclones) 2

Halofolliculina infections and 373white syndromes and 321, 328, 569

Hydraconducting systems 165–6, 168, 169, 170, 171, 173,

174, 178–81endocrine-like signaling 141immune system 125, 126–7, 128, 129–30, 131

Hydractinia symbiolongicarpus, endocrine-like signaling 141

0002588212.indd 575 9/4/2015 6:39:36 PM

576 Index

hydramacin 129–30hydranth 180, 181, 562Hydromedusa/hydromedusans, conducting

systems 171, 176–7colonies 181–2polyps 178–80

hydrostatic skeleton 91, 562hydrothermal vents 420, 422hydroxy(l)apatite 93, 562hydrozoans

cell culture methods 497nervous system 171–2, 175–6

hyperplasia 9, 562hypertrophy 9, 562

skeletal, deep-sea corals 428, 429–30hypotheses (of cause) 16–17

construction 18erroneous 23methods of acceptance 17–18methods of deriving 18–19

image analysis in regeneration assays 477imaging PAM (pulse amplitude modulated)

fluorometry 509, 513, 515, 516, 517, 518immunity and defense 125–37

aspergillosis in sea fan corals 238avoidance by infectious agents 40–1deep-sea corals 426, 559distinguishing friend from foe 127growth anomalies and 295, 561molecules 129–31natural/innate 75, 125–37yellow-band disease 383, 569

immunomarkers see antibodiesimmunosuppression by infectious agents 40impact (of disease on host/on ecology)

conceptual model of mechanisms 519on Indo-Pacific stony corals 54site-to-site movement of organisms 464on Western Atlantic stony corals 53

white syndromes 321, 328see also socioeconomic effects and specific diseases

imperforate corals 91, 562import (entry) regulations (incl. permits) 465–7

US regulations 468–70incidence 31–3, 562

accounting for sampling errors in estimates of 33–4cumulative see cumulative incidencerate 32–3

confidence intervals for 34temporal changes 43

incubation period 38dark-spots disease 355–7, 560

Indo–Pacific see Pacific and Indian Oceansinductive reasoning 17, 23, 562infections (and infectious diseases) 9

bleaching and 396, 557maintenance 40–1pathology 12pulse amplitude modulated fluorometry

and 517–18spread in populations 41–4transmission see transmissionsee also pathogens and specific (types of) pathogen

infectiousness 37–8, 562infectivity 562inflammation 563injury/trauma/damage (environmental/mechanical/

physical/chemical agents) 11, 472, 473brown-band disease and 334, maintenancecell see cell

lethal 7reproduction affected by 116–17sex allocation and 116–17sublethal 8–11see also lesions

innate immunity (natural defenses) 75, 125–37inspection (jurisdictional) of collected samples 463institutions, sample loans to 466integrins and adherent cell culture 499interannual variations in light and temperature 272International Council for the Exploration of the Sea

(ICES) 445international regulations

aquatic animal health 444–5US reefs and 468

International Union for Conservation of Nature 454interneuronal synapses 169intuition in acceptance of causal hypotheses 18invertebrate corallivores 242, 243, 245–54investigation methods with deep-sea and cold-water

coral diseases 431–4iodine (as disinfectant) 446ion(s)

channels 176, 177skeletal incorporation 196

Irgarol 1051 397, 401iron, skeletal incorporation 196island economies and climate change 267–8isolation (cells/tissues for use)

for culture 489–4for zooxanthellae viability assays 526–7

isolation (containment) of animals in research facilities 448

Isophyllia rigida (formerly Isophyllastrea rigida) xiii

jellyfish conducting systems 176–8Jenneria 250–1jurisdictional inspection of collected samples 463juvenile oyster disease and Roseovarius

crassostraea 60, 66, 347–8

Kendall’s threshold theorem 42Koch’s postulates 12, 20, 563

aquatic animal disease studies and 444inadequacy 21

laboratory studies, biosafety in 442–58Labrichthys unilineatus (tubelip wrasse) 254, 257,

303, 311lacerations see woundsLacey Act 469landscape epidemiology 45large tentacle axons 174latency, viral 287, 288lateral (horizontal) transmission 36, 560laws see regulations and lawsLEDs in PAM fluorometers 509lesions 563

biopsies see biopsiesdistribution 563gross see gross pathologygrowth anomaly-related 294, 563from predators 243–5

asteroids 253butterflyfish 257crustaceans 254damselfish 254–5echinoids 252gastropods 251parrotfish 255–6polychaetes 253

severity 563shapes 563in white syndromes 303–5, 322–4, 325–6, 569

distinguished from other lesions 303see also injury

lethal injury 7life cycle (of infectious agent) 36, 37

Halofolliculina ciliates 364, 371Porites trematodes 387

life-support systems, maintenance and cleaning 446light

black-band disease and 337, 557bleaching and 266–78, 557calcification and effects of 143, 150cell culture regime 498impulses evoked by 177symbiosis and 143, 150see also darkness/low-light; rapid light curves;

steady-state light curveslight source for PAM fluorometers 509lipid (content/composition)

eggs 113heterotrophic nutrition/feeding and its effects on

deep-sea corals 157temperate corals 156tropical corals 153

liquid effluent (research facilities) 451, 454liquid nitrogen (for frozen tissue preparations) in

porphyrin quantification in scleractinians 542

live particulate organic matter as food source for tropical corals 152

location (place)biopsy, in regeneration rate determination 116–17cause and 18

loculus 563long-distance transmission of infection 38–9long-term trends 43Lophelia pertusa 157, 416, 417, 418, 419, 420, 421,

423, 424, 425, 426, 429, 430, 431, 432, 435lysis

bleaching and 208–10, 557sunscreen-induced viral lytic cycle 288

lysogeny 287

MacKonkey sorbitol agar (MCSA), Serratia marcescens 226

macroalgae 74, 563macroautophagy 7macroparasites 563

epidemic curve 42population regulation by 44

magnesium, skeletal incorporation 196Magnuson–Stevens Fisheries Act 469malignant tumors (cancer) 296

pathology 12management (incl. prevention/control and treatment/

therapy) 29in aquatic research facilities 445–51bacterial bleaching (V. shiloi) 208black band disease 351dark-spots disease 359economic effects, assessing 29–30growth anomalies 297options 75programs, planning/monitoring/assessment 29in unknown or poorly understood cause 29white plague type II 234

Manicina areolata, histology 99mariculture 482marine protected areas (MPAs) 463, 464, 470

0002588212.indd 576 9/4/2015 6:39:37 PM

Index 577

massesneoplastic see neoplasmsnon-neoplastic 296

Mauritius, Halofolliculina ciliates and skeletal eroding band 368–70

mechanical fragmentation of tissues and cells (for culture) 490

mechanical injury see injury; lesionsmechanical vector 568medical applications of coral defense studies 133–4Mediterranean sea, V. coralliilyticus and disease in

benthic communities of 210–11melanin 563membrane (cell), disruption 10Merulinidae, Halofolliculina ciliates 369mesenterial filament 91, 558–60, 563

hexacorals 101octocorals 103

mesentery (mesenteries) 90, 91, 558, 563, 563, 564, 567, 568

complete 90, 91, 100, 564directive and nondirective 100hexacorals 100–1incomplete 91, 564octocorals 103

mesoglea 556, 557, 559–61, 564, 566–8adherence cell cultures and 496hexacorals 95, 96–9octocorals 95, 100

mesogleal pleats 100, 103, 560, 564mesoplankton for tropical corals 152metabolic adenoid staining 525metabolic respiration 195, 196, 197, 198metabolites in host resistance to aspergillosis in sea

fan corals 238metals

heavy see heavy metalsporphyrin binding of 538

metaplasia 9, 564metazoan endocrine signaling 139–41Metridium, viruses 285miasmatic theory 20, 23microautophagy 7microbes

consortium/community (incl. bacteria) 125–7, 419–20

black-band disease 60–2, 62–3, 341, 518brown-band disease 336deep-sea corals 419–20tissue-associated 126, 126–7white-band disease type II 67white syndromes (in general) 309

contamination of cell cultures 495identification and prevention 499–500

infection by see infectionprobiotic hypothesis 126, 396, 559

microclimates, light and temperature 270–2microcystin (cyanobacterial toxin) 64, 347, 348, 349,

351, 564microfiber PAM (pulse amplitude modulated)

fluorometry 509, 512, 514microparasites 564

epidemic curve 42population regulation by 44

microplate fluorescence assay, porphyrin 544micropropagation and production of explants 483,

487, 490–2, 503, 564microscopic anatomy see histologymicroscopy-PAM (pulse amplitude modulated)

fluorometry 509, 518Microspathadon chrysurus 255, 258

Mill, John Stuart 17, 18mineral(s)

seabed extraction (mining) 421–2trace, cell culture methods 498

mineralization (biomineralization) 193, 195, 200, 557early mineralization zone (=centers of

calcification) 192, 196, 200mining, seabed 421–2mini-PAM (pulse amplitude modulated)

fluorometry 509mitochondria

in cell type identification after cell-type enrichment 494

damage 10oxidative phosphorylation 10, 197

molecular identification of possible pathogens and coral-associated bacteria 432

see also DNAmollusks 245

tissue culture 482monitoring of control programs 29Montastraea xiiiMontastraea annularis

dark-spots disease 69, 354, 355, 356, 357, 359regeneration rates as indicators of stress 473–4seasonal variation in oxidative damage 273–4white plague-like disease 65yellow band disease 211, 212, 376, 378, 380,

382, 383Montastraea cavernosa, histology 99Montastraea faveolata

histology 97, 98yellow band disease 211, 212, 376, 378, 380,

381, 382, 383Montipora aequituberculata, Indo-Pacific white

syndrome 215, 216, 302morbidity

dark-spots disease 355–7force of 32growth anomalies 293

morphology (shape)bleaching, diagnostic value 400conducting systems 164, 165–75lesion/wound 563

biopsy (for regeneration assays) and 478growth anomalies 294pathology bases on (=morphological

pathology) 4white syndromes 304

Porites trematodiasis, diagnostic value 388reproduction and 108, 112

morphotype and regeneration assays 478, 564mortality see deathmortar and pestle method of scleractinian tissue

preparation in abasic DNA quantification 549–50

motor giant axons 174motor nerve net 172, 175, 178, 565movement (of aquatic) animals in research

in field studiessite-to-site of organisms 464site-to-site of researchers 465

in laboratories 448mucocyte 94, 564mucus 75, 94, 564

feeders 244, 254, 257, 303, 311stress (in aquaria) and production of 432–3

mucus net 564multicellular tissue aggregates see explantsmultifactorial diseases 20–1muscle, hexacorals vs. octocorals 95

muscle cells 165, 168, 169, 170, 492Mussidae, Halofolliculina ciliates 370mutation 11Mycetophyllia ferox, white plague 64mycoplasmas in deep-sea corals 419MyD88 129myonemes 96, 166, 168, 561, 564

nanoplankton for tropical corals 152–3Narella 430national approaches to regulation of aquatic animal

health 444–5National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) 469National Marine Sanctuary Act (NMSA) 469National Park Service Act (NPSA) 469National Wildlife Refuge Act (NWRA) 469natural defenses (innate immunity) 75, 125–37natural history see clinical course and specific

diseasesnatural resource trustees (NRTs) 458–68, 470–1, 565neck pulses 181necroptosis 8, 564necrosis (of lesions) 8, 556, 564, 566–8

atramentous (AN) 55, 72, 302, 309of Briareum asbestinum, bleaching associated

with 411–12in deep-sea corals 427–8of Eunicella verrucosa 411rapid tissue (shut-down reaction) 54, 214, 303, 316,

319, 320white pox 225

nematocyst 96, 564–5deep-sea corals 422

nematocyte see cnidocyteNematostella vectensis, endocrine-like signaling 141neoplasms (tumors) 12, 296–7, 565

deep-sea corals 428malignant see malignant tumorspulse amplitude modulated fluorometry 518see also growth anomalies

nerve fibers and cells see axons; neuronsnerve nets 171, 171–2

diffuse 172, 175, 178motor 172, 175, 178through-conducting 180, 181, 182

nerve ring (ring nerve) 173–4, 175, 177, 178, 567nerve tracts 172–3nervous system 164–91

centralization 176deep-sea corals 426electrophysiology 165–73morphology 165–75

neural system see nervous systemneuro-cnidocyte synapses (NCS) 169neurohormones (neuropeptides) 143, 184

model cnidarians for studies of 141neuromodulators 183–5neuromuscular junction, synapses 169neurons (nerve cells) 94–6, 165–6, 561, 565, 566

deep-sea corals 426hexacorals vs. octocorals 95synapses connecting 169

neuropeptides see neurohormones; neuromodulatorsneuro-spirocyte synapses 169neurotransmitters 164, 183–5

spawning and 115new diseases 67–76nidality 45nitric oxide (NO) 184NOD-like receptors 128–9non-native species introduction, avoidance 462

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578 Index

nonphotochemical quenching (NPQ) 510, 511, 513, 514, 517, 518, 569

norepinephrine (NE) 184North East Atlantic Fisheries Commission

(NEAFC) 421Northern Mariana Islands, Commonwealth of

(CNMI) 333, 470notification by applicant of proposed activities 461nuclear receptors 139, 142nucleic acid stains in viability assays 533–4nudibranch 251nurse cells 565nutrients see foodnutrition

in aquatic research facilities (in mitigation of pathogen risk) 450

heterotrophic 150–63, 199

occurrence of disease 31–6ecological factors affecting 45measures 31–5patterns 35–6

ocean acidification and heterotrophic nutrition 154–5

ocelli 165, 171, 565octocorals 89, 410–15, 556–9, 561–3, 565–569

anatomy 425conducting systems in colonies 182coral gardens 418deep-sea 325

skeleton deposition and growth 426zoanthid diseases 430

diseases 182microscopic anatomy 100–4

names and types of cells and tissues 95reproduction 425

Oculina patagonica, bacterial bleaching 206, 207, 517Oculina varicosa 155, 416–17, 418Oculinidae, Halofolliculina ciliates 369–70Office Internationale des Epizooties (OPI) 443oil

deep-sea drilling/extraction 421–2pollution 398, 403

oocyte see ovumoogenesis 112–13, 113, 117, 118opportunistic pathogen 24, 565

Halofolliculina ciliates as 371optical geometry of PAM fluorometers 512oral disc 89, 91, 565oral part of polyp 86, 565, 566oral sphincter 89, 565Orbicella xiiiorgan culture 483organic matrix of skeleton, synthesis and

transport 197organic matter as food source

deep-sea corals 156, 157temperate corals 155, 156tropical corals 151–2

Ostraciidae (boxfishes) 257outbreaks (epizootics) 28, 36, 45

bleaching events and 73white plague type II 231

overgrowth 244algal 62black overgrowing cyanobacteria 55

ovum (egg and oocyte) 86, 565disinfection in research facilities 448formation (oogenesis) 112–13, 113, 117, 118hexacorals (incl. scleractinians) 101, 111, 113,

114, 115

transmission via (=transovarial transmission) 39, 560

see also spawningoxidative phosphorylation 10, 197oxidative stress (and oxidative damage) 10–11, 269,

402, 404bleaching and 269, 273–4, 402cell culture and 496DNA and 548see also reactive oxygen species

oxygen, reactive species of see reactive oxygen speciesoyster disease and Roseovarius crassostraea 60, 66,

347–8

pacemaker system 175, 176, 177, 178colonies 181polyps 179–80

Pachyseris speciosa Indo-Pacific white syndrome 215, 216

Pacific and Indian Oceans 52–84, 300–32causative agents and associated

micro-organisms 61colored band diseases 333–44

black-band disease 54, 58, 336–41pink-line syndrome 55, 61, 72, 391–5yellow-band disease (PYBD) 55, 376, 377,

383–4, 384, 385corallivory 243, 245, 247, 250, 252, 254growth anomalies 54, 292, 294history of research 52–84localized diseases and incompletely characterized

syndromes 55skeletal eroding band and Halofolliculina ciliate

infections skeleton-eroding band (SEB) 54, 61, 71, 341–2, 361, 363, 364–6, 367, 370, 371, 372, 517

white syndrome 215–17, 300–32Pacific Remote Island Areas (PRIAs), natural resource

trustee authorities 471Pacific yellow-band disease (PYBD) 55Palau, Halofolliculina ciliates and skeletal eroding

band 366, 368–70palpon colonies, conducting system 182PAMPS (pathogen-associated molecular patterns) 8,

127–8, 129, 134, 565pandemics 36, 565Paramuricea clavata and V. coralliilyticus 210Parascolymia xiiiparasites in deep-sea corals 430

see also macroparasites; microparasites and specific (types of) parasites

parrotfish 245, 249, 255–6partially-open aquaria systems 432particulate organic matter as food source for tropical

corals 152–3pathogen(s) (infectious agents) 561, 565, 566

characteristics 38, 557dangers to 40–1defense and distinguishing friendly microbe from 127identity and origins, see specific diseasesmolecular identification 432opportunistic 24, 565primary 24, 566proposed, and associated micro-organisms in

Western Atlantic and Indo-Pacific 61in research facilities 446–54

consequences of release 451management (preventive measures/

containment) 447–54persistence 446–7

see also infections

pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) 8, 127–8, 129, 134, 565

pathology 4–15, 556, 558, 560, 565general 6–12

acroporid serratiosis 224–5black band disease 349white plague type II 233

gross see gross pathologyhistory 4–6morphological see morphology

Pavona, dark-spots disease 354, 355, 357, 358Pectinidae, Halofolliculina ciliates 370pennatulids (sea pens) 172, 410Percoll gradientsin cell viability assays 526for cell-type enrichment 493–4perforate corals 91, 565periculin 128, 129, 130, 131period prevalence 31periodicity, spawning 115permitting 458–71, 562

deep-sea corals 431revocation of permit 466US 468violations of conditions 466

peroxidases, defensive, aspergillosis in sea fan corals 238

personnel (researchers)in field studies, site-to-site movement of

researchers 465in research facilities, preventive measures in

pathogen risk mitigation relating to 448Petracha madreporae 428phages see bacteriophagesphagocytosis 132–3pheromones 139, 144Phestilla 251Philippines, Halofolliculina ciliates and skeletal

eroding band 368–70Phormidium valderianum 61, 72, 391, 392, 393, 394photoinhibition 565photoreceptors 115, 142, 177photosynthesis 506–23, 565

bleaching and 398, 400–1, 403–4, 516–17carbon uptake and 195–6, 197copper and 398health monitoring and 506–23heterotrophic nutrition and its effects on 153–4light and temperature effects 269, 272skeletogenesis/calcification and 197, 198see also algae

photosystem I 507, 508, 509, 511, 513photosystem II 508–11, 513–16, 565

bleaching and 269, 401, 402, 403excitation pressure 515–16photosynthetic efficiency 510–11

Phymastrea xiiiphysical barriers to aspergillosis in sea fan corals 238physical facility requirements for coral pathogen

containment 453–454physical injury see injuryphysical staining (viability assays) 525physiology

in bleaching, recovery 275–6deep-sea corals 425–7ecological, black-band disease 62–3endocrine-like signaling in regulation of 141–4feeding effects on 153–4pink-line syndrome and its effects 394reproduction 108–24scleractinian see scleractinia

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Index 579

physonectid siphonophores, nervous system 171–2picoplankton for tropical corals 152–3pigment cell 96, 558, 561, 565pigmented band diseases see colored (pigmented)

band diseasespink-blue spot syndrome 55pink-line syndrome (PLS) 55, 61, 72, 391–5, 566pinocytosis 565place see locationPlagioporus trematode infection 55plague type II see white plague type IIplanula 86, 565–7

Stylophora pistillata 113platform issues 461–2, 462Platygyra, growth anomalies 293, 294, 296, 297Plexaurella fusifera histology 98Pocillopora damicornis

aquarium white syndrome 214, 215predation 242, 250, 251, 252, 253, 254, 256, 257

Pocillopora damicornis cell culture 501Pocilloporidae, skeletal eroding band and

Halofolliculina ciliate infections 368Podocoryne carnea cell cultures 492, 497, 501, 502Podocotyloides stenometra 72, 387, 394pollution

International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL) 468

oil 398, 403polychaetes (annelids) 253

deep-sea corals 329, 430lesions 253

polygamodioeceous species 109–10polymerase chain reaction (PCR)

Aurantimonas coralicida 234deep-sea corals 432microbial contaminants and their distinction from

coral cells 500Serratia marcescens 226

Polyorchis penicillatus cell culture 501polyp 566

aboral part 86, 556, 566axial 89, 138, 557conducting systems 178–81development 87–9electron microscopy 424oral part 86, 565, 566size, reproduction and 110–12

polytrophy 150–1, 566polyvinylpolypyrrolidone (PVPP)

DNA isolation 549, 550porphyrin determination 540, 541

Pomacentridae (damselfish) 248, 254–5, 258populations

cause and 18disease as regulator of 44–5spread of infection in 41–4

Poritesgrowth anomalies 291, 292, 293, 294, 295, 296, 297P. astreoides histology 97pink-line syndrome 55, 61, 391–5porites trematodiasis, 387–390regeneration rates as indicators of stress 474–5trematodiasis 387–90ulcerative white spots 71–2, 302, 305, 566yellow-band disease 376, 378, 379, 380

poritids (Poritidae)growth anomalies 291, 292Halofolliculina ciliates 369

porphyria 538–40, 566porphyrin species in scleractinian tissue extracts,

quantification 538–46

precipitating factors in disease cause 21predation

on corals see corallivoryby corals on zooplankton 152–3on fish 419

predisposing factors in disease cause 21prevalence 31, 566

accounting for sampling errors in estimates of 33–4in Indo-Pacific stony corals 54temporal changes 43in Western Atlantic stony corals 53

prevention see managementprey see predationPrimnoa resedaeformis colonies colonized by

zoanthids 430probiotic hypothesis 126, 396, 559, 566programmed cell death see apoptosisprogression see clinical courseproof of concept 460–1propagating epidemics 42property, seizure of 466–7propidium iodide 533–5prosecution actions 467protandrous hermaphrodites 108, 110, 562proteases, cell dissociation using 492–3proteins

oxidative damage 10in porphyrin determination in scleractinians

extraction 542quantification 542

protogynous hermaphrodites 108, 110, 562protozoan infection 54pseudo eggs 115, 566Pseudodiploria xiiiPseudoplexaura infected by Entocladia

endozoica 413–14Pseudoptergorgia 251, 410Pseudoscillatoria 347psoriasin 131publications 466Puerto Rico law and regulations 470, 471pufferfishes 257pulse amplitude-modulated chlorophyll fluorometry

in health assessment 506–23purines 184

qualitative vs. quantitative epidemiological investigations 30

quarantine of animals in research facilities 448

rapid escape response 177rapid-in, rapid-out strategy 40rapid light curves in chlorophyll fluorometry 513–14rapid tissue necrosis (shut-down reaction) 54, 214,

313, 316, 319, 320rapid-wasting disease/syndrome (RPD) 54, 258reactive oxygen species (ROS) 10, 566

bleaching and 269, 517DNA damage and 11

reaggregation of cells into tissue balls 491–2reasoning

deductive 12, 17, 23, 559inductive 17, 23, 562

receptors 139, 566nuclear 139, 142see also specific (types of) receptors

recirculation systems in aquaria 432–3record-keeping in aquatic research facilities 450, 452red-band disease (RBD)

Indo-Pacific 55Western Atlantic 61, 345, 350

Red Seablack band disease (Atlantic/Caribbean) 347Halofolliculina ciliates and skeletal eroding

band 368–70invertebrate corallivores 247white plague-like disease 302yellow-band disease 378

reducing agents for tissue bilayer separation 490–1reef(s)

epidemiology and the science of 45–6importance 1United States regulations governing reefs and

importation of reef products 468–70Reef Assessment and Monitoring Program (RAMP)

surveys 391, 392re-enforcing factors in disease cause 21refutedness of theory 16regeneration and repair (wound/lesion) 9, 472–81, 569

rates 473–81as stress indicators 473–5

rates, assays 472–81analysis 477–8caveats 478–9protocol 476–7theory 475–6

regulations and laws in animal disease research 442–3, 458–71

coral diseases specifically 468–71field studies 454US 468–70violation consequences 459who/what/why/how of 458–9

Renaissance 5Renilla kollikeri

endocrine-like signaling 141, 142nervous system 182

reproduction 425–6asexual 118, 425, 556deep-sea corals 425–6effort 110–11

disruption 116–17feeding increasing 156

endocrine-like signaling 114–15, 142–3physiology see physiologyscleractinians 108–24, 425

impaired 547–8sexual see sexual reproductionsee also basic reproductive number

researchbiosafety in see biosafetydeep-sea/cold-water coral, methods 431–4history of 52–84need for

bleaching 277–8corallivory 258dark-spots disease 359growth anomalies 297pink-line syndrome 394white syndromes 328

prevention of unintentional disease introduction and spread in aquatic research facilities 445–51

regulatory dimensions see permitting; regulations and laws

reservoirs of disease 74–5resistance

of host 75aspergillosis of sea fan corals 238V. shiloi and bacterial bleaching 207–8, 208see also host

of infectious agents 40

0002588212.indd 579 9/4/2015 6:39:37 PM

580 Index

respirationcalcification and 198carbon uptake and 195–6metabolic 195, 196, 197, 198

respiratory chain see electron transportrhopalium 172, 174, 175, 176, 178, 566rhythmic potential system 179–80ridge mortality disease (RMD) 54ring nerve (nerve ring) 173–4, 175, 177, 178risk (in aquatic research facilities)

assessment/analysis/establishing 451–3levels/groups 447, 452mitigation measures 448–50, 454

rootlets 177, 559, 566Roseofilum reptotaenium 346, 347, 348Roseovarius crassostraea 60, 66, 347–8

salinity and bleaching 397, 402, 403, 404, 405Samoa, American, natural resource management

authorities 470samples

biopsy see biopsiescollection (sampling)

in estimates of incidence and prevalence, accounting for errors 33–4

regulating 463–4commercial use 466end use of collected materials 466entry/exit from a country 466loans to institutions 466seizure 466–7undeclared uses 461

Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures Agreement of the World Trade Organization 444–5

Scarus 255, 260scientific inquiry in acceptance of causal

hypotheses 18scientific issues in deliberate disease exposure

studies 455scientific method 17Scleractinia (stony corals) 423–4

abasic DNA lesions, chemiluminescent method of quantification 547–54

anatomy 423–4Caribbean 52cell culture methods 497, 499deep-sea 413–14, 416, 417, 418, 419, 422, 423–4histology 94–100Indo–Pacific 54physiology

reproduction see reproductionskeleton see skeleton

porphyrin species in tissue extracts, quantification 538–46

Western Atlantic see Atlanticsclerites 89, 566scleroblast 100, 566Scolymia xiiiscrapers 242, 244, 255scyphozoan/scyphomedusae conducting systems

172, 178sea anemones (Actiniaria)

nervous system 172, 173, 180, 181, 182viruses 285–6zoanthid 430

sea fans see gorgonianssea pens (pennatulids) 172, 410sea stars (Asteroidea) 251, 252–3, 559sea urchin (Echinoidea) 129, 246, 251, 252sea water see waterseabed mining 421–2

seamount 417, 421, 425, 566seasonal trends 43

light and temperature 272oxidative damage 273–4

secondary effects of applicant’s proposed activities 461

secondary messengers see signal transductionsection 558, 561, 566, 567secular trends over time 43sediment decontamination 452sedimentation

black-band disease and 337–9bleaching and 399, 401, 404

self-fertilization 115sensory cells 166, 171, 177, 567septate junction 166–8, 567septo-costae 92, 567, 568septum (septa) 91, 93, 567serine protease inhibitors 131Serratia marcescens 70, 221–6, 223–4, 227, 325

see also white-patch diseaseserum supplements for cell culture 495, 498settlement cues 144sewage and white pox/acroporid serratiosis 223,

224, 227, 322sex allocation 110, 116–17sex steroids 114, 142sexual reproduction 108–18, 425

modes 108, 109–10shape see morphologysharing of sampled organisms between

researchers 463shell-climbing and the conducting systems 180–1shrimps 253shut-down reaction (rapid tissue necrosis) 54, 214,

308, 316, 317, 319, 320Siderastrea (incl. S. siderea), dark-spots disease 69,

354, 357Siderastreidae, Halofolliculina ciliates 370signal transduction (and secondary messenger

systems) 139, 560, 567PAMP-triggered immunity and 129

signs of diseases 4Sikes Act 469single-cell dissociation methods 492–3siphonoglyph 90, 556, 563, 567siphonophore conducting system 171–2

in colonies 181siphonozooids 91, 567size (dimensions)

of predator-made lesions 244–5in regeneration assays, of colonies and biopsy/

laceration 478reproduction and 110–12in sample collection, of individual fragments and

colonies 463skeleton 91–3, 192–205

axial 93, 557formation and growth (skeletogenesis) 192–200

anomalies see growth anomaliesdeep-sea corals 426–7endocrine-like signaling in 143heterotrophic nutrition and its effects on 154

hydrostatic 91, 562structure 192–3

skeleton-eroding band (SEB) 361–75, 566Indo-Pacific 54, 61, 71, 341–2, 361, 363, 364–6,

367, 370, 371, 372, 517pulse amplitude modulated fluorometry 517

slow system, ectodermal and endodermal 180snails see gastropods

social cost–benefit analysis 29socioeconomic effects (of disease and its control)

acroporid serratiosis 223assessing 29climate change and island economies 267–8in site-to-site movement of organisms 464

sodium hypochlorite 446soft corals, orders 410solar radiation and bleaching 266–83, 400

see also light; sunscreens; ultraviolet radiationsolenium 91, 567Solenosmilia variabilis 416, 418sources of disease 74–5Sparisoma 255spatial considerations in PAM chlorophyll

fluorometry 512–13spatial distribution (geographical distribution)

43–4cause and 18deep-sea and cold-water corals 416–17see also specific diseases

spawning 101, 113–16, 118endocrine-like signaling and 114–15, 142–3timing 113–14

speciesaquatic invasive see aquatic invasive speciesEndangered Species Act 468–9host see hostnon-native, avoiding introduction 462in regeneration assays 478

sperm (spermatozoa) 86, 112, 115, 567formation (spermatogenesis) 112hexacorals 101octocorals 104see also spawning

spermary 101, 567spheroidal tissue explants 492Sphingomonas species later renamed Aurantimonas

coralicida 64, 326spicule 567spirocyst 96, 567spirocyte 567

see also neuro-spirocyte synapsessponge explants, in vitro culture 482–3sporadic occurrence/outbreaks 36Squires D (on coral pathology) 6stains and dyes

basophilic 557conversion 525, 559exclusion 525, 526, 561in porphyrin quantification in

scleractinians 538–40vital/viability 523–6, 527

alternatives to 535fluorescent 530–3

State and Territorial Law, rules and regulations 468–9

statistical association 22–3statocyst 567steady-state light curves in chlorophyll

fluorometry 514Stegastes planifrons 248, 254, 255, 258stem cell 567, 568Stephanocoenia intersepta and dark-spots disease 69,

354, 357steroid hormones 142

regeneration rates and 475sex 114, 142

stocking density 446stomodeum see actinopharynxstony corals see Scleractinia

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Index 581

stress 1–2, 518, 558, 568bleaching and see bleachingbrown-band disease and 333deep-sea corals in aquaria 432–3DNA damage due to 547effects of specific stressors 74energy stores in response to 144minimization in aquatic research facilities 450monitoring/indicators 505–7

biomarkers 475fluorometry 507, 518regeneration rates 472–4

oxidative see oxidative stressstrobilation 567strontium, skeletal incorporation 196stylasterids 425

anatomy 425deep-sea 416, 417, 418, 425, 430

Stylophora pistillataplanula 113stressors and bleaching and 397, 403, 404

substrata/substratesfor adherent cell cultures 497–8, 498, 499gear and equipment placement onto 465hard, for deep-sea corals 417, 418, 420

sulcus (siphonoglyph) 90, 567sulfate-reducing cyanobacteria 60, 62, 346, 347, 348sulfur-oxidizing bacteria 346, 347sulfuretum, black band disease (Atlantic/

Caribbean) 345sun see solar radiation; ultraviolet radiationsunscreens 398–9

viral lytic cycle induced by 288superoxide dismutases (SODs) in response to light

and temperature 273, 274, 275, 277supporting cells see columnar epithelial (supporting)

cellssurface body wall 86, 89, 557, 559, 567surveillance (and surveillance systems/programs)

29, 567–8survival measures 35susceptibility of host 37–8suspended cell cultures 493–4, 495–6swimming and the conducting systems 173, 176,

177, 178, 180–1, 181backward 181

Symbiodinium see zooxanthellaesymbionts 568

bleaching and 403–4, 404recovery from 276

calcium carbonate deposition and 143in cell cultures, and prevention of microbial

contamination 500defense system 127, 129, 132, 133gametogenesis and early development and 116heterotrophic nutrition and its effects on

temperate corals 155tropical corals 153

temperature and light responses and the role of 269, 270

see also specific (types of) symbiontssymbiosis 562, 568

bleaching and 403–4calcification and 143, 150endocrine-like signaling and 141light and 143, 150yellow-band disease and 381–3

synapses 568chemical 168–9electrical (gap junctions) 165, 169–71, 560, 561,

565, 566, 568

synchrony of reproductive effort 115–16synergistic effects of applicant’s proposed activities

461, 462syngameon 568SYTOX® Green 524, 533, 534

taurine 184in cell cultures 495

taxonomy and classification 86Anthozoan corals 86deep-sea corals 416defense system and taxonomically-restricted

genes 131revision (2001-) xiii

temperate corals/coral reefsheterotrophic nutrition 155–6white syndromes 302

temperaturecell culture 498water 74aspergillosis of sea fan corals (Caribbean) 237–8black-band disease and 337bleaching and 266–83, 396, 399cold see cold-water coralsdeep-sea coral diseases and 427–8serratiosis of acroporids 224V. Alginolyticus, and yellow band disease 212V. coralliilyticus, and bleaching and lysis 209V. shiloi and bacterial bleaching 206white syndromes and 310–11yellow-band disease and 381see also climate change

temporal dimensions see timetenacity in acceptance of causal hypotheses 17Tenericutes 419, 420tentacles 86, 89–91, 556, 557, 561–3, 565, 566, 568

deep-sea corals 422number 89

see also hexacorals; octocoralsrapid escape response 177see also large tentacle axons

test animal sources in research facilities 446testedness of theory 16testes 112, 113, 116–17, 118testosterone 142Tetraodontidae (pufferfishes) 257Thalassomonas loyana 302, 307, 312

phage therapy 75theoretical epidemiology 30, 556theories (of cause) 16–17therapy see managementThiomicrospira 347thraustochytrids (labryinthulids) 568threshold level in epidemics 42through-conducting system/nerve net 180, 181, 182time (temporal dimensions)

cause and 18distribution of disease over 42–3

and space 44gametogenesis and spawning 113–14from infection to shedding of agent 37occurrence of disease over (=period prevalence) 31PAM chlorophyll fluorometry 513regeneration assays 478–9tissue culture 486see also periodicity; synchrony

tissuesin abasic DNA quantification in scleractinians,

preparation 549–1anomalies in deep-sea corals 428–30culture 481–8, 489–505, 558

anticipated results 486critical parameters and troubleshooting 483–5importance and applications 482isolation of tissue for 488–505limitations 483merits 483protocols/methods 484, 494–499review wit various marine organisms 481–2theory 483time considerations 486

heterotrophic nutrition/feeding and its effects ondeep-sea corals 157temperate corals 156tropical corals 153

loss (and its rate) with white syndromesIndo-Pacific 300–2, 303, 304, 305, 307, 308,

309, 311Western Atlantic 320–1

loss (and its rate) with yellow-band disease (Caribbean) 380

microbial community associations with 126, 126–7

names and types, hexacorals vs. octocorals 95porphyrin species in scleractinians extracted from,

quantification 538–46regeneration and repair see regeneration

and repairviruses associated with 286

tolerance to bleaching induced by environmental stressors 276–7, 396

Toll-like receptors 128, 129, 134toluidine blue DNase agar (DTC), Serratia

marcescens 226toxic chemicals 11

porphyrias due to 538–9toxin, cyanobacterial (microcystin) 64, 347, 348, 349,

351, 564trace elements and vitamins in cell culture

methods 498translocation (site-to-site movement) in field

studies 464transmission and spread (infectious disease) 36–40

definitions 560in field studies 465human to coral 3in laboratory research facilities

prevention 445–50routes 447–50

see also specific diseasestransovarial transmission 39, 560trans-stadial transmission 39, 560trauma see injurytreaties concerning US coral reefs 468treatment see managementtrematode infection

growth anomalies and 291Plagioporus (=parasite) 55

triggerfishes 257Tripedalia nervous system 169, 172, 173trophonema 568tropical corals, heterotrophic nutrition 151–5trypan blue 525, 526, 527, 531trypsin, cell dissociation using 492, 493tubelip wrasse (Labrichthys unilineatus) 254, 257,

303, 311tumors see neoplasmstyrosine and chloroplast electron transport 507–8

ulcerative white spots (UWS) 54, 302Porites 71–2, 302, 305, 566

ultrastructure see electron microscopy

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582 Index

ultraviolet (UV) radiation/light 400bleaching and 400as hazard to infectious agents 40see also solar radiation

United Nations (UN)Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS –

1994) 468General Assembly Resolution (UNGA)

61/105 420–1United States (US)

Natural Resource Trustee Authorities over Waters and Submerged Lands with Coral Reefs 470

regulations governing reefs and importation of reef products 468–70

UV see ultraviolet radiation

Vaughan, Thomas 6vectors 74–5, 568

main types 37in research facilities in pathogen risk

mitigation 449, 450vertebrate growth factors in cell culture 495vertical transmission 39, 560Vesalius 5veterinary pathology 5–6viability (cell) 558

assays 523–35cultured cells 499–1zooxanthellae 523–32

VibrioV. alginolyticus (and other Vibrio) and yellow band

disease 211–12, 383V. carchariae

and dark-spots disease 69, 355and white band disease 213–14, 327

V. coralliilyticusand bleaching and lysis 208–10and disease in benthic communities of

Mediterranean Sea 210–11and white syndrome 307

V. harveyiand aquarium white disease 214–15and white band 213–14

V. shiloi, and bleaching 55, 61, 206–8, 517Vibriosis, 206–220Virchow, Rodulf 5Virgin Islands (US) state law and regulations

470, 471virulence 568

acroporid serratiosis 224viruses 284–90, 568–9

bacterial see bacteriophagescoral (and virus-like particles) 284–89

emerging diseases 45historical studies 284properties 284–5

visas, research 468visitors to research facilities, preventive measures in

pathogen risk mitigation relating to 449vital stains see stainsvitamin(s), trace, in cell culture methods 498vitamin B12 538

waste management (research facilities) 433–4, 454, 461water (sea water)

aquatic research facility’squality 445–6, 479source 446, 450

for cell culture 495currents deep-sea coral feeding and 157–8filtration (for tissue culture) 484temperature see temperaturesee also Clean Water Act

water PAM (pulse amplitude modulated) fluorometry 509, 511, 512

waterborne routes of transmission in aquatic research facilities 447

Western Atlantic see Atlanticwhite-band disease (WBD) 66, 316–38

epizootiology 319–21gross pathology 322history and geographical range 317type I 53, 57, 61, 66, 316, 320, 321, 322, 323, 324,

325, 326, 327, 329type II 53, 57, 61, 66–7, 316, 317, 319, 320, 321,

322, 323, 324, 325, 326, 327, 329Vibrio harveyi and V. carchariae and 213–14Western Atlantic stony corals (type I and II) 53,

57, 61white-blotch disease, Indo-Pacific 55white-patch disease (white pox; WPD; acroporid

serratiosis -in Western Atlantic/Caribbean) 53, 57, 61, 69–70, 221–27, 316–38, 567

diagnostic criteria 226distribution 224, 317epizootiology 223–4, 319–21etiology 223, 325–6future directions 226gross pathology 322history 317impact 221–3pathogenesis 224–6pathology 224–6, 322, 325–6pulse amplitude modulated fluorometry 518

white-patch syndrome, Indo-Pacific 55white plague (WP) 64–6, 326

causes/etiology 64–6disease resembling (White plague-like disease)

61, 65, 302epizootiology 319–21gross pathology 322history and geographical range 317–19Red Sea coral disease resembling 302Western Atlantic stony corals 57, 316–29

white plague (WP) type I 64Western Atlantic 53, 57, 61, 64

white plague (WP) type II (plague type II) of Western Atlantic/Caribbean 53, 54, 57, 61, 64, 231–5, 316–29

diagnostic criteria 233–4epizootiology 223–4, 319–21etiology 221–2, 326histology and cytopathology 233–4, 326pathogenesis 233pathology 233, 322

white pox see white-patch diseasewhite spot(s), ulcerative see ulcerative white spotswhite spot syndrome

Indo-Pacific 55Western Atlantic 54

white syndromes (WS) 61, 70–1, 300–32, 569aquarium 214–15Atlantic/Caribbean 231–5, 316–32, 558identification and differentiation in the field

326–7Pacific 215–17, 300–15pulse amplitude modulated fluorometry 517, 518

windborne transmission 39World Trade Organization, Sanitary and

Phytosanitary Measures Agreement 444–5wounds (lacerations)

biopsies see biopsiesmonitoring 477regeneration and repair see regeneration

xanthophyll cycle 569xenophagy 132, 569

year-to-year variations in light and temperature 272yellow-band disease (YBD) 57, 211–12, 376–86

Arabian yellow-band disease (AYBD) 376–80, 385Caribbean (CYBD) 53, 61, 67–9, 376, 377, 380–3,

384, 385Pacific (PYBD) 55, 376, 377, 383–4, 384, 385V. alginolyticus and 211–12, 383

Z scheme of electron transport, photosynthesis and 508–9

zinc, skeletal incorporation 196zoanthid diseases of deep-sea corals 430zoonoses 28, 569

reverse 3zooplankton for tropical corals 150, 152–3zooxanthellae (Symbiodinium) 100, 558, 561, 562,

566, 569bleaching and 276, 400, 402calcification and 143in cell cultures, and prevention of microbial

contamination 500copper and 398deep-sea corals without (azooxanthellate) 416,

417, 426gametogenesis and early development and 116heterotrophic nutrition and its effects on

temperate corals 155tropical corals 153

PAM chlorophyll fluorometry 507, 509, 510, 514, 529

pink-line syndrome and 394temperature and light responses and the role of

269, 270viability assays 523–37viral infection 286, 287yellow-band disease and

Caribbean 381–3Indo-Pacific 383

see also algaezymogen cell 96, 558, 562, 569

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