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309

Academy for the Development of National Groups (Burma), 148

accommodation in Burma, 265in democracies, 6–7, 17–19,

276–278failure, 264–266in federalism, 2, 67in India, 3, 5, 103, 265, 279, 283mobilization vs., 26resistance against, general, 265, 278Soviet style, 164in Spain, 3state structures and, 274–278success in, partial, 17, 18–19Tamil resistance to, 4, 105, 264United States resistance to, 18

Aceh (Indonesian province) overview, 188–193alienation, 282autonomy, 29, 38–39, 41, 45, 166,

172, 265, 270, 277Dutch colonialism in, 38, 44–45,

172, 189GAM independence movement in,

31, 45, 47, 189–192, 192, 273Helsinki agreement, 46Indonesian invasion of, 190–191Indonesian parliament vs., 47Islam in, 172, 188–189Law on Aceh, (2006), 166, 191–193

majority cultural values imposed on, 282

military command of, 189military occupation of, 46natural resources of, 190, 191,

192New Order in, 189provincial status restored to, 41rebellions in, 31, 41, 43, 172,

179–180, 189–192, 265referendum in, 190as regional power, 23Republic supported by, 188Special Autonomy Law (2001),

191–192, 194Sumatra dominated by, 172tsunami in, 46, 191

“Achieving Independent Indonesia” (Sukarno), 34

Act of Free Choice (Papua/Irian Jaya), 183, 185

Afghanistan, 22, 89, 223, 273AFPFL (Anti-Fascist People’s Freedom

League) (Burma), 139, 143Aguinaldo, Emilio, 168Ahmad, Mirza Ghulam, 86Ahmadiyyas (Pakistani Muslim sect),

88, 100Akaev regime (Kyrgyzstan), 261Akha (Burmese ethnic group), 139,

157, 161

Index

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Index310

Aksai Qin (Chinese-Indian border territory), 272

Al Qaeda, 99, 273Ambon (South Maluku), 39–40Amir, Mohammed, 37Anderson, Benedict, 7, 280Andhra Pradesh (Indian state), 65anti-communism, 41, 43, 270Anti-Fascist People’s Freedom League

(AFPFL ) (Burma), 139, 143Antlov, Hans, 29Arakan (Burmese state/ethnic

group) arms for democracy program,

144autonomy, 139–140inter-tribal warfare, 138rebellion among, 143statehood, 136, 141, 142–143,

144, 145, 153Arakan National League for

Democracy (ANLD), 159Armenia, 247ARMM (Autonomous Region of

Muslim Mindanao), 178–179, 194

Arroyo, Maria Gloria Macapagal-, 179, 273

Arunachal Pradesh (Indian state), 71, 73, 272

Assam (Indian state), 66, 71, 73Association of Southeast Asian

Nations (ASEAN), 46Attlee, Clement, 72Aung San (Burmese nationalist), 139,

141, 150, 157Aung San Suu Kyi, 150Autonomous Region of Muslim

Mindanao (ARMM), 178–179, 194

autonomy, territorial, 2, 164–165, 193–195. See also Aceh; Bangladesh; Burman states; East Timor; Naga; Tibet

Awami League (AL) (East Pakistan political party), 92

Awami National Party (Pakistan), 100

Azad Kashmir (free Kashmir), 96

Bali, 32, 44Balsingham, Anton, 116, 121Baltic states, 247, 250–251Baluchistan (Pakistan province), 82,

83, 97–98, 270, 283Bangladesh, 19–20, 25, 90, 263, 264,

270, 283. See also East PakistanBangsa Moro. See Moro nationBasques, 15(B-C) Bandaranaike-Chelvanayakam

Pact (1957) (Sri Lanka), 107, 109Belgium, 2, 4, 17, 103Bengal/Bengalis, 58, 71, 83, 91–92,

264, 267, 281Hindu rule in, 92

Bertrand, Jacques, 1–28, 26, 27, 164–195, 263–285, 268, 277, 279, 282

Bhargava, Rajeev, 24, 51–80, 165, 216, 265, 267, 272, 276, 279, 281, 283

Bhutto, Z. A., 88, 90, 95, 98BIA (Burma Independence Army),

139Biafra War, 13Böba (bod pa) (Tibetan ethnic

designation), 222–223Body for the Investigation of

Indonesian Independence (Badan Penyelidik Kemerdekaan Indonesia) (BPKI), 36

Bombay, 66Bömi (bod mi) (Tibetan ethnic

designation), 222–223Bonifacio, Andreas, 168Börik (Bod rigs) (Tibetan ethnic

designation), 222Borneo, 36, 37–38Brass, Paul, 66Breshnev, Leonid, 247, 269British colonialism

in Burma, 24, 138–140, 142, 143, 162, 267






Index 311

in India, 24, 56, 71–72, 75, 83, 94, 267

in Indonesia, 32, 35in Malaysia, 35, 48–50in Pakistan, 24, 83in Sri Lanka, 24, 104, 113, 267

British Isles, 278Brubaker, Rogers, 16Brunei, 49Buddhism

in Burma, 138, 144, 147, 148, 150among the Han, 206in Nationalist/Republican China,

201in Sri Lanka, 282in Thailand, 165–166in Tibet, 227–229, 230–231,

240–242Bugti, Nawab Akhbar Kahn, 98Bukhara (Uzbekistan region), 252,

256Bunce, Valerie, 16Bureau of Lands (Philippines), 173Burma (pre-1988). See also Arakan;

Burman state/ethnic group; Chin; Kachin; Karen; Kayah; Mon; Shan

overviews, 25–26, 136–163AFPFL in, 139arms for democracy program, 144British colonialism in, 24, 138–140,

142, 143, 162, 267Buddhism in, 138, 144, 145, 148Burmese language in, 147Christians in, 147civil war in, 157communism in, 137, 139, 143, 146,

158, 270constitution (1947), 141–142, 143,

148, 153constitution (1974), 148democracy in, 141–145, 144Independence Army of, 139Japanese occupation, 139Ka Kwe Ye program in, 158military coup (1962), 136, 270multinational origins, 138–141

National Democratic Front, 147nationalism in, 145, 276–278Panlong agreement, 141, 144, 145Revolutionary Council of,

145–148Socialist Program Party of,

148–150vs. sub-nation states, 136vs. Thailand, 146Union, 142–143, 145

Burma Independence Army (BIA), 139

Burma/Myanmar (post-1988). See also Arakan; Burman state/ethnic group; Chin; Kachin; Karen; Kayah; Mon; Shan

accommodation by, 265Buddhism in, 150ceasefire in, 151–153, 154, 155,

158, 162–163China, cooperation with, 151civil war in, 157communism in, 150, 151, 152constitution alternatives, 161–162constitutions, 137, 156, 154cultural nationalism rejected by,

282democratic parties, 150, 159,

160as federal state, 277military government (post-1988),

137multinational policies, 164Muslims in, 153Naga in, 71, 73National Convention of, 154National Democratic Alliance Army

(Kokang), 155national unity dilemma, 157–161nation-building, 278NLD in, 150SLORC control of, 150–154SPDC control of, 151vs. sub-nation states, 136vs. sub-state nationalism, 136,

276–278Thailand vs., 151






Index312

Burman state/ethnic group, 138, 151, 282

Burmanization, 150Burmese Socialist Programme Party

(BSPP), 160

Cabinet Mission Plan (1946) (India), 57

Callahan, Mary, 153Cambodia, 20, 31, 145campaign Koteka (Philippines), 184Canada, 2, 3, 4, 17, 18, 103, 216Catalans/Catalonia, 15, 18, 164CCP. See Chinese Communist PartyCentral Asia

Leninism overview, 244–262already-mobilized states in,

245–247disebmedded elites in, 254–255ethnicity issues, 247–249, 250–255,

256–259Islam in, 249, 253–254, 259–260Leninist legacies in, 256–262Leninist proactive policy making in,

247–249, 261–262nation-building, 280reactive states, 245–247Soviet Union issues, 246–249,

250–255, 253, 256–259Central Sumatra, 41CFA (Cease Fire Agreement) (Sri

Lanka), 129–131Chaing Kaischek, 233Chaliha, B. P., 73Chattisgarh (Indian state), 65Chin (Burmese state/ethnic group)

autonomy sought by, 139–140British colonialism in, 138Burman population percentage, 138Burmese independence and, 141as Burmese state, 136as ceasefire group, 153democratic representation of, 141National Front, 152, 154, 156native tongue of, 147special division status, 142statehood, 148

China (Nationalist/Republican, 1912–1949) (ROC). See also Taiwan

Buddhism in, 201Christianity in, 201colonial rule in Taiwan and,

268communism in, 9, 35, 232vs. Japan, 280Kachin and, 145nationalism in, 7–8, 35, 199–202Tibet policies, 201, 219, 228–230,

229, 231–232, 240Warlord era in, 210

China (People’s Republic of China) (PRC). See also Hakka; Han; Taiwan

assimilation in, 22Burma and, 145, 146, 151as colonial power, 268constitution of, 204–205, 208, 226,

236, 237, 239–240cultural nationalism issues,

202–204, 206–208, 208–212, 217, 282

democracy issues, 208, 216, 217–218

Develop the West program, 224, 236–237

as ethnic nation, 204federalism, 214vs. India, 69, 271internationalism, 199vs. Japan, 198, 271Kachin and, 145language issues, 23, 206Mandarin as official language of,

205as multinational state, 4–5, 20, 164,

196nation building, 202–204nationalism, 207–212nationhood defined by, 199, 203Olympics in, 225, 226, 239post revolutionary models for, 31secularization policies, 226–229,

230sub-state consolidation, 165






Index 313

sub-state nationalism, 220, 276–278

Tibet, policies regarding, 22, 27, 196–197, 223, 225–226, 271

as unitary state, 277United States rapprochement, 270

China’s Destiny (Chiang Kaishek), 233

Chinese Communist Party (CCP) and Burma, 270vs. the Guomindang, 202nationhood defined by, 198–199vs. Taiwan, 196, 198, 209–218,

264, 268, 281Tibet and, 219, 232, 235

Chinese Federated Republic, 232Chinese National Alliance

(Tongmenghui) (China), 200Chinese United Alliance, 201Choudhry, Sujit, 25, 103–135, 267,

277Christians/Christianity

in Burma, 147in India, 52in Indonesia, 36, 39, 167in Nationalist/Republican China,

201in the Philippines, 170, 173, 176,

194, 268, 281, 282Civil Service of Pakistan (CSP), 91–92CNF (Chin National Front), 154, 156coalescent nationalism, 53–55, 56–68,

59, 67, 69, 70, 216Cold War, 6, 14, 263–266, 269–271colonel’s revolt (Indonesia), 41–42colonialism overview, 266Committee for the Preparation of

Indonesian Independence (PPKI), 37

communism/Communist Party. See also China (People’s Republic of China); Chinese Communist Party

in Burma, 137, 139, 143, 146, 150, 151, 152, 158

in Cambodia, 145Chinese (pre-PRC), 9, 35, 232

in Indonesia, 32, 34, 42, 171, 174, 175

in Laos, 145in Malaysia, 48in Philippines, 145Soviet, 8, 14, 16–17, 30in Thailand, 145, 146, 270in Vietnam, 145

Communist Party of China. See Chinese Communist Party

composite-culture nationalism, 53, 54–55, 67, 69, 70, 74

Confucianism, 201, 206, 207Connor, Walker, 245, 284Cordillera (Philippines province), 167,

270Cotabato (Philippines province), 173cultural nationalism

in Burma, 282in India, 282in the Philippines, 282PRC issues, 202–204, 206–208,

208–212, 217, 282in Sri Lanka, 282in Tibet, 207

Czechoslovakia/Czech Republic, 4, 8–9

Dalai Lama (13th), 228, 229–230Dalai Lama (14th), 235, 240, 241Daoism, 201, 206Dar commission on Indian provinces,

59Darul Islam Resistance (Indonesia),

172, 174, 188Daud Beureu’eh, Teungku, 38, 41, 43,

44–45de Silva, H. L., 118De Votta, Neil, 106democracy

accommodation in, 6–7, 17–19, 276–278

in Burma, 141–145, 144composite-culture nationalism in,

74federal states in settings of, 275Guided, 42–43, 174






Index314

in Hong Kong, 215, 216in India, 79, 276–277, 278in Indonesia, 34–35, 42–43, 174,

178, 265, 277in Malaysia, 50in Pakistan, 83, 84, 85–87, 100–101in the Philippines, 265PRC issues with, 208, 216, 217–218in Sri Lanka, 277statehood issues, 7sub-state nationalism in, 15–16in Taiwan, 196, 199, 217transitions to, 16

democratic centralism (Indonesia), 34Develop the West program (PRC),

224, 236–237, 242–243Dewantoro, Ki Hadjar, 33DPD (Regional Representative

Council) (Papua/Irian Jaya), 188DPRP (Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat

Papua) (Papuan People’s Representative Assembly), 186, 187

Dravid Munnetra Kazhagam (DMK) (India), 66

Dreyer, June, 210Dutch colonialism

in Aceh, 38, 44–45, 172, 189revolutionary state formation

overview, 29–50constitutional changes in, 17in East Timor, 180in India, 34in Indonesia, 30, 32–34, 35–36,

38, 39–40, 41, 42, 168–172, 170–171, 174

languages imposed during, 23in the Philippines, 168

East Pakistan, 85, 91–93, 98. See also Bangladesh

East Sumatra NST, 39–40East Timor

overview, 179–183Dutch colonialism in, 180Habibie’s policies toward, 45, 181

immigration into, 181independence, 45, 46, 49, 172,

181–183Indonesian invasion, 44, 182languages, 181New Order regime in, 180Pancasila in, 180Portuguese colonialism in, 180,

181referendum on independence

offered to, 45, 181–182seccesion of, 182–183UN occupation of, 182

Edgar, Adrienne, 249Edrisinha, Rohan, 109Eelam (Tamil name for Sri Lanka).

See TamilsEgypt, 13Eluay, Theys, 187Estrada, Joseph, 179Ethiopia, 13ethno-religious nationalism, 52–53,

54–55, 59, 61–63European Union, 15, 46, 262

Federal Party (Sri Lanka), 107, 109, 117

federalism. See also Indiaaccommodation in, 2, 67asymmetrical, 66, 69–70, 164, 214,

215, 279, 283deeply asymmetrical, 51–52, 55,

69, 70, 73, 77, 79–80, 278vs. independent statehood, 164in Indonesia, 42–43, 45intolerance of, in Asia, 275limited effectiveness of, 26linguistic, 56–68, 66, 78, 79, 281in Malaysia, 48in multinational states, 2in Pakistan, 82in the Philippines, 31in PRC, 214vs. secession, 10Soviet Union and, 275–276sub-state nationalism and, 164symmetrical, 55

democracy (cont.)






Index 315

in territorially concentrated states, 17

Ferghana Valley, 248, 252, 256Filipino people/state. See

PhilippinesFonseka, Sarath, 130France, 199, 278Free Aceh Movement (Gerakan Aceh

Merdeka). See GAMFree Papua Movement (Organanisai

Papua Merdeka) (OPM), 185French Revolution, 7

GAM (Gerakan Aceh Merdeka) ( Free Aceh Movement), 31, 45, 46, 47, 189–192, 273

Gandhi, Indira, 93Gandhi, M. K., 7, 57, 89, 99Ganguly, Sumit, 25, 81–102, 264, 267,

272, 279, 281Gao Gong affair, 210Gapurov, Muhammetnazar, 250Gellner, Ernest, 52gender mainstreaming, 262Genghis Kahn, 257Georgia, 247globalization, 15GMD (Nationalist Party of China).

See China (Nationalist/Republican, 1912–1949); Guomindang

Golkar (Indonesian state party), 44

Gorno-Badakhshan Autonomous Region (Tajikistan), 252

GOSL (Government of Sri Lanka) (Sinhalese majority government). See also LTTE; Tamils

B-C Pact negotiated by, 107ceasefire agreement, 129–131civil war and, 104, 130–131constitution of Sri Lanka and,

109–112, 114–130Indian support for, 130Indo-Sri Lanka Accord, 109–110in Norwegian-facilitated peace

negotiations, 125, 131

Official Language Act implemented by, 107

Thimpu peace negotiations, 111–112

tsunami’s aftermath and, 125–130United States support for, 130

Government of India Act (1935), 72Guided Democracy, 42–43, 174Gujarat (Indian state), 65Guomindang (GMD) (Nationalist

Party of China), 198, 200, 199, 205, 228–229, 233. See also China (Nationalist/Republican 1912–1949

Habibie, B. J., 45, 181, 185–186, 187

Hakka Chinese ethnic group/language, 209, 210, 213

Han (Chinese ethnic majority) in Burma, 157cultural chauvinism, 213diversity among, 23, 198, 199–200,

209–210, 212–213identity issues, 196, 200–201,

216–217, 281nationality issues, 20–21, 203,

207–212, 281–282in the PRC, 204–206racial theories regarding, 201religions, 206in Tibet, 213, 238, 282among the Wa, 157

Haryana (Indian state), 65Hasan, Mushirul, 86Hatta, Mohammed, 43He, Baogang, 19Helsinki agreement (2005), 46Himachal Pradesh (Indian state),

65Hindu Mahasabha (nationalist

organization), 52Hinduism/Hindus

nationalism, 53, 54Hinduism/Hindus

Bengalis ruled by, 92extremist, 79






Index316

vs. Islam/Muslims, 21, 52–53, 58, 71, 84, 86

in Kashmir, 94nationalism, 85in Punjab, 21as Sri Lankan minority, 282

Hong Kong, 29, 204, 207, 215, 216Horowitz, D. L., 15Hsing-han, Lo, 158Hu Yaobang, 235Hunan (Chinese province), 210

ilustrados (Filipino educated elites), 168–169

India (Indian Union). See also Kashmir (Indian border state); specific Indian states

border state problems overview, 51–80, 69–71

accommodation in, 3, 5, 103, 265, 279, 283

acculturation of minorities in, 22asymmetrical federalism in, 66,

69–70, 283British colonialism in, 24, 56,

71–72, 75, 83, 267Christians in, 52coalescent nationalism, 53–55,

56–68, 59, 67, 69, 70composite-culture nationalism, 53,

54–55, 67, 69, 70, 74constitution of, 17, 54, 64–65, 67,

68, 70, 73, 77, 79constitutional asymmetry of, 67cultural nationalism rejected by,

282Dar commission, 59deeply asymmetrical federalism

in, 51–52, 55, 69, 70, 73, 77, 79–80, 278

democracy in, 79, 276–277, 278Dutch colonialism in, 34ethnic identities unacknowledged

in, 281ethno-religious nationalism, 52–53,

54–55, 59, 61–63

federalism, 31, 63–64, 66, 69, 79GOSL receiving weapons from, 130independence movement, 279vs. Kashmir, 271linguistic federalism, 56–68, 66, 69loosely coalescing nationalism, 54,

70as multi-lingual federation, 65as multinational state, 5, 21Muslims in, 52, 58, 79, 89–90Naga homeland struggle in, 71–80nationalism, 8, 99, 199–200, 282nation-building, 278vs. Pakistan, 21–22, 69, 82, 85, 93,

97, 272partition of, 20, 58–59, 69, 79, 89,

94, 276pradesh organization, 57vs. PRC, 69, 271secession movements, 66, 69secularism, 8, 282Sri Lanka, accord with, 109–110states created in, 64sub-state consolidation, 165symmetrical federalism, 55Tibet and, 272war with Pakistan, 93

Indian National Congress, 56, 84, 86, 94

Indonesia. See also Aceh; East Timor; Negara Indonesia Timur; Papua/Irian Jaya; Suharto; Sukarno

autonomy overview, 164–195revolutionary state formation

overview, 29–50accommodation by, 265acculturation of minorities in,

172–176anti-communist terror in, 43British colonialism in, 32, 35Christians in, 36, 39, 167colonel’s revolt in, 41–42communism in, 32, 34, 42, 171,

174, 175constitution (1985), 178constitutionalism of, 42

Hinduism/Hindus (cont.)






Index 317

democracy in, 34–35, 42–43, 174, 178, 265, 277

Dutch colonialism in, 30, 32–34, 35–36, 38, 39–40, 41, 42, 168–172, 174

federalism in, 42–43, 45Guided Democracy in, 174independence, 39, 48Islam in, 33, 36, 37, 38, 40–41, 170,

171, 174, 175, 179–177Japanese occupation of, 35–36, 170,

171languages, 23, 31, 35–36, 170, 176,

281vs. Malaysia, 26, 31, 48myth of unity in, 35–40nationalism, 171–172, 175nation-building, 168–172, 278–279New Order regime, 43, 44, 172,

175, 180, 183, 189Papua excluded by, 282People Power revolution in, 178pre-colonial unity in, 23Republic of, 170–172, 174revolution in, 171secessionist issues, 145single-nation status rejected in,

176–177sub-state nationalism in, 171–172,

176, 189, 193–195, 276–278vs. Sumatra, 39, 172, 174vs. Thailand, 166war on terror and, 273youth movements, 33, 171

Indonesian National Association, 33Indonesian Nationalist Party, 171Indo-Sri Lanka Accord, 109–110Inner Mongolia, 27International Islamic Educational,

Scientific and Cultural Organization (ISESCO), 259

international system weaknesses, 266–274

Iran, 13Iraq, 13, 223, 239Irian Jaya (Indonesian province).

See Papua/Irian Jaya

ISGA (Interim Self-Governing Authority) (Sri Lanka), 125–130, 132

Islam. See also Hindus; Muslimsin Aceh, 172, 188–189in Central Asia, 249, 253–254,

259–260in Indonesia, 33, 34, 36, 37, 38,

40, 170, 171, 174, 175, 179–177

in Kashmir, 70in Pakistan, 81, 88, 283Soviet Union vs., 253–254, 255

Islamic Renaissance Party (IRP) (Tajikistan), 259

Islamic State of Indonesia (Negara Islam Indonesia) (NII), 40–41

Jamaat-I-Islami (Pakistani religious party), 88

Jammu (Indian state), 67, 82, 85, 93–97, 216

Japan Burma occupied by, 139colonialism of, 206Indonesia occupied by, 35–36, 170,

171as multinational state, 20nationalism in, 202vs. Nationalist/Republican China,

198, 202, 280vs. PRC, 271Sukarno aided by, 35Sumatra and, 36, 37surrender, 37, 38, 48Taiwan and, 268, 272

Java, 32, 34, 36, 37, 39, 40, 44Jemaah Islamiyah (radical Islamic

organization), 273Jharkhand (Indian state), 65Jiang Zemin, 210Jinnah, Muhamid Ali, 84, 86–87, 91,

93, 99, 281Johnson, Chalmers, 202JVP (Janatha Vimukthi Peramuna)

(People’s Liberation Front) (Sri Lanka), 125, 127, 129






Index318

Ka Kwe Ye program (KKY) (Burma), 158

Kachin (Burmese state/ethnic group) autonomy of, 143under British colonialism, 138–139Burmese independence and, 141as Burmese state, 136ceasefire in, 151democratic representation of, 141ethnic conflict in, 267leaders in Communist Party of

Burma, 158lineages, 140–141native language, 147NDA-K of, 154, 155as pro-British, 139rebellion in, 143–145secession and, 142in Shan territory, 157statehood, 141–142, 148UWSP provocation of, 158

Kachin Defense Army (KDA) (Burma), 158

Kachin Independence Organization. See KIO

Kachin National Democratic Army (NDA-K), 154, 155

Kahn, Sayyid Ahmed Khan, 85Kahn, Yahya, 90, 277Kalabagh Dam (Pakistan), 99Kang Youwei, 201Kapitunan movement (Philippines),

168Karen (Burmese state/ethnic group).

See also KNPP; KNUBurma population percentage, 138in Burmese army, 138–139as Burmese state, 136as ceasefire group, 152lineages, 140–141linguistic groups, 267nationalism, 139native language, 147as pro-British, 139rebellion in, 144statehood, 141, 142–143, 144,

148

Karen National Union (Burma). See KNU

Karenni National Peoples Liberation Front (KNPLF) (Burma), 159

Karenni National Progressive Party (Burma). See KNPP

Karimov, Islom, 259–260Kartosuwirjo, S. M., 41Karuna, Colonel, 130Kashmir (Indian border state).

See also Pakistanoverview, 69–70, 93–97asymmetrical federalism and,

216Hindu rule in, 94vs. India, 271Indian-Pakistani conflict over, 21,

82, 85, 272Muslims in, 87religious identity denied to, 276secession of, 70statehood, 66, 67

Kashmir (Pakistan border state), 70, 82, 85, 87, 93, 265

Kayah (Burmese state/ethnic group) autonomy of, 139–140, 143Burma population percentage,

138as Burmese state, 136ethnic conflict in, 267ethnicity of, 157secession of, 142, 153in the SSNLO, 147statehood, 141–142, 148

Kayan New Land Party (KNLP) (Burma), 159

Kazakhstan, 244, 250, 253, 254, 255, 257–259, 260–261

Keating, Michael, 47, 105Kenyatta, Jommo, 7Khalid, Adeeb, 259Khan, Khan Abdul Ghaffar, 99Khan, Mohammed Ayub, 92Kikon, Dolly, 78KIO (Kachin Independence

Organization) (Burma), 146, 150, 151, 152, 154, 155, 158






Index 319

KNPP (Karenni National Progressive Party (Burma), 147, 153, 154, 156, 159

KNU (Karen National Union) (Burma)

vs. Burma, 143–144, 146, 150, 153, 160

NLD fleeing to territory of, 150as non-ceasefire group, 152, 154,

160in opposition constitution, 156SLORC, retreating from, 150

Kokang Democratic Army (Burma), 153, 155–156, 158

Kolbin, Gennadyi, 250Kongress Papua (Papua People’s

Congress), 185Korean War, 263Koteka campaign (Philippines), 184Kothari, Ranji, 65Kotkin, Stephen, 254Kumaratunga, Chandrika, 114, 119,

125Kunaev, Dinmukhammed, 250Kymlicka, Will, 19, 53, 103, 105Kyrgyzstan, 244, 250–251, 252, 254,

255, 257–259, 261

Lahu (Burmese ethnic group), 139, 156, 157, 161

Laliberté, André, 1–28, 164, 196–218, 263–285

Language of the Courts Act (Sri Lanka), 107

Language of the Courts (Special Provisions Act) (1973), 108

Laos, 145Latin America, 3, 9Latuharhary, Johannes, 36Law no. 45 (Papua/Irian Jaya), 187Law Number 5 (Suharto regime)

(1974), 44Law of Regional Autonomy (Tibet),

220, 236Law on Aceh, 166, 191–193League of Nations, 3Leninism

proactivity overview, 244–262Central Asia, legacies in, 256–262Central Asia, proactive

policymaking in, 247–249Central Asian ethnicity and,

247–249, 250–255, 256–259

disebmedded elites created by, 254–255, 260

Sukarno influenced by, 34Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam.

See LTTELijphart, Arend, 17linguistic nationalism, 104, 107–108,

112–113, 133–134Linz, Juan, 7Lisu (Burmese ethnic group), 157“Live or Die with Dai Nippon”

(Indonesian slogan), 35loosely coalescent nationalism.

See India, loosely coalescent nationalism

LTTE (Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam) (Sri Lanka). See also GOSL; Tamils

CFA, responses to, 129–131in civil war, 104, 130–132constitution of Sri Lanka and,

111–112, 113, 114, 116–130, 132–133

ISGA desired by, 120–130multinational policies of, 115–116,

117, 119negotiation status of, 115–116North-Eastern territories controlled

by, 120–125, 133, 134peace negotiations, 135political strategies of, 131Sinhalese attacked by, 109, 132terrorist status, 116Thirteenth Amendment opposed

by, 110tsunami aftermath and, 125–130Vaddukoddai Resolution

and, 109Luzon (Indonesian province), 173,

176






Index320

Macapagal-Arroyo, Maria Gloria, 179, 273

Macau, 204, 207, 215Madras (Indian state), 66Maharashtra (Indian state), 65Majul, Cesar Adib, 169Malaka, Tan, 33Malaya, 36, 37, 48Malaysia

British colonialism in, 35, 48–50communism in, 48democracy in, 50federalism in, 48identity of, unformed, 279vs. Indonesia, 26, 31, 48Malay language of, 33minorities in, 20UMNO as nationalist party

of, 48Malia, Martin, 255Malolos Republic, 31Maluku (Indonesian province), 174Manchuria, 202Mandarin Chinese language, 23, 201,

205, 213Manipur (Indian state), 71, 73Mansfield, Edward D., 217Mao ZeDong, 35, 202, 210, 232Marcos, Ferdinand, 177, 178, 276Martin, Terry, 248Marxism, 22, 34, 223, 231Masjumi/Masyumi (Islamic

Indonesian party), 41, 175McKenna, T. M., 169Megawati (Indonesian president), 46,

187, 190–191Megoran, Nick, 250Melaka (Crown Colony Strait

Settlement), 35, 48MILF (Moro Islamic Liberation

Front), 178–179, 273Minahasa (Indonesian ethnic group),

39Mindanao (Philippines province), 2–6,

166, 173, 177–179, 194, 265, 270

Ming dynasty (China), 207

Minnanhua Chinese language, 205, 213

Minto-Morley Reforms, 86, 267Misra, Udayon, 74Misuari, Nur, 177Mizoram (Indian state), 272MNLF (Moro National Liberation

Front), 177–179, 194mobilization

accommodation vs., 26Central Asian, 244, 247, 250, 252,

255, 261–262cultural, 244ethnic, 84, 103, 246–247, 280political, 66, 84, 87, 148, 162, 246,

253religious, 58, 86repression of, 175, 268–269, 276secessionist, 7, 276sub-state nationalist, 14, 22, 25,

165, 244, 272, 274, 276–277, 278

Mon (Burmese state/ethnic group) as anti-British, 139arms for democracy program, 144autonomy sought by, 139–140Burma population percentage, 138as Burmese state, 136as ceasefire group, 151–153, 152ethnicity, 157inter-tribal warfare, 138native language, 147NMSP in, 146, 150, 151, 152, 154,

155, 160public support for, 159rebellion in, 144statehood, 141, 142–143, 145, 148,

153Mon National Democratic Front

(MNDF), 159Mongolia, 20, 22, 201, 232Moro Islamic Liberation Front

(MILF), 178–179, 273Moro nation (Bangsa Moro)

(Philippines) Bangsa Moro Development Agency,

179






Index 321

Bangsa Moro Republic, 177Moro nation (Philippines)

overview, 177–179autonomy rejected by the

Philippines, 168–169, 283Christianity and, 281Filipino ambivalence toward,

172–174, 176national status claimed by, 166peace agreements with the

Philippines, 277Philippines, negotiations with, 31

Moro National Liberation Front (MNLF), 177–179, 277

Mountbatten, Lord, 94MQM (Muttahida Qaumi Movement)

(Pakistan political party), 91MRP (Majelis Rakyat Papua) (Papuan

People’s Assembly), 186, 187, 188

MUBES (Musyarawah Besar) (Papuan congress), 185

muhajirs (Muslims migrating from India), 89–90

Multicultural Odysseys (Kymlicka), 103

multiculturalism, 3, 18multination states defined, 2multination states overview, 19–24Musharraf, Pervez, 89, 93, 98, 102,

277Muslim League (India), 52, 54, 84,

86–87, 99Muslims. See also Hindus; Islam

in Burma, 153in China, 207, 232diversity of, 25extremist, 79in India, 52, 58, 79, 89–90in Indonesia, 36, 179–177in Kashmir, 87, 95in Pakistan, 81–82, 84, 87, 89–90,

94, 283in the Philippines, 167, 169–170,

173–174, 194, 268, 281, 282

supra-national identities of, 246

in Thailand, 22in Tibet, 238

Musyarawah Besar (MUBES) (Papuan congress), 185

Muttahida Qaumi Movement (MQM) (Pakistan political party), 91

Muzakar, Kahar, 41Myanmar. See Burma/Myanmar (post

1988)

Naga (Burmese ethnic group), 71, 73, 139, 155–156

Naga (Indian tribal people/state) overviews, 71–80autonomy won by, 77, 265ethnography of, 71–72government agencies formed by, 73Government of India Act, 72homeland struggle, 71–80Indian constitution and, 77majority cultural values imposed

on, 282Naga Club, 72Naga National Council, 72, 75National Socialist Council of

Nagaland (NSCN), 74peace mission to, 73, 78repression of, 276Shillong Accord, 73Shimla Accord, 74Simon Commission, 72village elders of, 75–76violence against, 71, 75–76

Nanayakkara, V. K., 134Narayan, Jayprakash, 73nation defined, 6nation formation overview,

278–283National Coalition Government

Union of Burma (NCGUB), 150, 156

National Council Union of Burma (NCUB), 150, 156

National Democratic Front (Burma), 147, 156, 158

National League for Democracy (NLD) (Burma), 150






Index322

nationalism. See also coalescent nationalism; composite-culture nationalism; cultural nationalism; ethno-religious nationalism; India; linguistic nationalism; sub-state nationalism

Bengali, 83in Burma, 83, 136, 145, 276–278,

282Chinese communist, 35, 202–204competitive, 30development of, 7–9Hindu, 53, 54, 85in India, 8, 99, 199–200, 282in Indonesia, 171–172, 175in Japan, 202of the Karen, 139loosely coalescing, 54, 70in Nationalist/Republican China,

7–8, 35, 199–202official, 280, 281in Pakistan, 83, 85–91in the Philippines, 171–172in the PRC, 7–8, 202–204,

207–212, 217Sikh, 69in Sri Lanka, 104, 112–113, 282state, 29, 30

Nationalist Party of China. See China (Nationalist/Republican 1912–1949); Guomindang

nation-building in Burma/Myanmar, 278in Central Asian states, 280in India, 278in Indonesia, 168–172, 278,

280in Pakistan, 278, 280–281in the Philippines, 168–172in the PRC, 280resisted, 9–13Sinhalese, 104in Sri Lanka, 104, 280–281Tamil, 104

NCGUB (National Coalition Government Union of Burma), 150, 156

NCUB (National Council Union of Burma), 150, 156

NDA-K (Kachin National Democratic Army), 154, 155

NDAK (New Democratic Alliance-Kachin) (Burma), 158

Negara Indonesia Timur (NIT), 39–40

Negra Islam Indonesia (Islamic State of Indonesia) (NII), 40–41

Nehru, Jawaharlal, 8, 58–63, 70, 94Nepal, 30New Democratic Alliance-Kachin

(NDAK) (Burma), 158New France, 15New Left nationalism (China), 203,

208New Mon State Party. See NMSPNew Order (Suharto regime).

See Suharto, New Order regime9/11 terrorist attack, 99, 1309th Panchen Lama (Tibet), 228Nixon administration, 271NLD (National League for

Democracy) (Burma), 150NMSP (New Mon State Party), 146,

150, 151, 152, 154, 155, 160North American Free Trade

Agreement (NAFTA), 15North Eastern Indian states, 71North Korea, 20North Sulawesi, 41North Sumatra, 41North West Frontier Province

(Pakistan), 82, 83, 99, 100, 273Northern Areas (Kashmir), 97Northern Ireland, 18NSCN (National Socialist Council of

Nagaland), 74Nu, U (Burmese Prime Minister), 141,

142, 144–145, 153, 161–162NWFP. See North West Frontier

Province

Official Language Act (Sri Lanka), 107

One China Principle, 197, 203, 216






Index 323

One Country Two Systems policy (PRC), 197–198, 215

Oo, Zaw, 152Organanisai Papua Merdeka (OPM)

(Free Papua Movement), 185Oslo Declaration on Sri Lanka, 114Outer Mongolia, 207

Pakhtoonistan, 99–100Pakistan. See also Bangladesh; East

Pakistan; Kashmir (Pakistan border state); Punjab/Punjabis; West Pakistan

political crisis overview, 25, 81–102Al Qaeda in, 99, 273autonomy, 97Bangladesh’s secession from, 25,

283break-up of, 91–93British colonialism in, 24, 83civil service of, 84, 91–92colonial legacy in, 85–87constitution of, 84democracy’s failure in, 83, 84,

85–87, 100–101federalism in, 82vs. India, 21–22, 69, 82, 85,

93, 97, 272Islam in, 81, 88, 283military rule in, 83, 84, 90–91, 98,

101, 102muhajirs, 89–90Muslims in, 81–82, 84, 87,

94, 283nation formation, 279nationalism, 25, 85–91nation-building, 278, 280pre-colonial imperial unity, 23Punjabi language, 281sectarian violence, 87sub-state nationalism, 82, 89–91,

97–98, 101, 276–278Supreme Court, 101Taliban regime in, 99as undemocratic, 278United States and, 271, 273Urdu language, 23, 91, 281

war on terror and, 273Pakistan People’s Party, 90, 92Palong (Burmese ethnic group), 147Palung State Liberation Party (PSLP)

(Burma), 152pan-Arabism, 13Pancasila (Indonesian state ideology),

44, 175, 180, 184, 282Panchen Lama (Tibet), 228Panlong agreement (Burma), 144, 145,

163Pao (Burmese ethnic group), 144, 147,

154, 155–156, 157, 159Pao National Organization (PNO),

154Papua/Irian Jaya (Indonesian

province). See also West Papuaoverview, 183–193Act of Free Choice in, 183, 185alienation, 282autonomy, 186–187, 265, 277campaign Koteka in, 184guerrilla movement in, 185independence demanded by,

185–186Indonesia, excluded by, 282, 283Law no. 45 in, 187migration into, 184New Order in, 183provinces created in, 187rebellion in, 179, 265representative bodies established

in, 185, 187, 188secession and, 187single nation status rejected in, 166,

172Special Autonomy Law (2001), 186violence against, 185

Papuan People’s Assembly (Majelis Rakyat Papua) (MRP), 186, 187, 188

Papuan People’s Congress (Kongress Papua), 185

Papuan People’s Representative Assembly (Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat Papua) (DPRP), 186, 187






Index324

Parliamentary Democracy Party (PDP) (Burma), 160

Parti Nasional Indonesia (PNI), 33Partition. See India, partition ofPDP (Parliamentary Democracy Party)

(Burma), 160Pemerintah Revolusioner Republik

Indonesia (PRRI), 41–42pemuda (Indonesian youth

movement), 171Penang (Crown Colony Strait

Settlement), 35, 48People Power revolution (Moro

nation), 178People’s Republic of China (PRC).

See China (People’s Republic of China)

People’s Revolutionary Army (PRA) (China), 197

Philippines. See also Mindanao; Moro nation

acculturation of minorities in, 172–176

autonomy overview, 164–195Bureau of Lands, 173Christians in, 170, 173, 176, 194,

268, 281, 282colonialism in, 167, 168–172,

173, 176communism in, 145cultural nationalism rejected by,

282democracy in, 265federalism in, 31independence, 31languages of, 169, 176as multinational, 31Muslims in, 167, 169–170,

173–174, 194, 268, 281, 282nationalism in, 171–172nation-building in, 168–172single-nation status rejected in,

176–177sub-state nationalism in, 166–167,

176, 193–195, 276–278vs. Thailand, 166war on terror and, 273

PNI (Parti Nasional Indonesia), 33PNO (Pao National Organization),

154Pol Pot, 31Portugal, 180, 181, 278pradesh (Indian territorial unit), 57Prawiranegara, Sjafruddin, 42PRC. See China (People’s Republic of

China)Premadasa, Ranasinghe, 95, 118PRRI (Pemerintah Revolusioner

Republik Indonesia), 41–42, 43PSLP (Palung State Liberation Party)

(Burma), 152P-TOMS (Post-Tsunami Management

Structure), 125–130Punjab/Punjabis (Indian), 21, 65, 66,

69–71Punjab/Punjabis (Pakistani), 88, 90,

99, 270, 281

Qing Empire (China), 22, 200, 207, 214, 227, 268

Quebec, 4, 15, 216Quezon, Manuel, 173Qutughtu, Norla, 228

Racine, Jean-Luc, 274Rahmon regime (Tajikistan), 259Rajapaksa, Mahinda, 108, 113,

118–119, 131Rakhine (Burmese state/ethnic group),

138, 148, 153, 157Ramos, Fidel, 178–179Reformasi era (Indonesia), 45–47regime type and accomodaton,

274–278Regional Representative Council

(DPD) (Papua/Irian Jaya), 188Reid, Anthony, 26, 29–50, 267–268,

278Republic of China (ROC). See TaiwanRepublic of the South Moluccas

(RSM), 40, 174Republican China (1912–1949).

See China (Nationalist/Republican 1912–1949); Taiwan






Index 325

“Returning to the rails of the Revolution” (speech by Sukarno), 42

ROC (Republic of China). See Taiwan

Sabah (Borneo state), 48–49Saddiqa, Ayesha, 101Saifuddin, Omar Ali, 49Samaraweera, Managala, 116Samarqand (Uzbekistan region), 252,

256Sarawak (Borneo state), 48–49Sarekat Islam (Indonesian Islamic

merchant association), 171Saudi Arabia, 89Schatz, Edward, 27, 244–262,

268–269Schoeberlein-Engel, John, 256Scotland, 18Scott, Michael, 73secession. See also mobilization

activities of, in Indonesia, 109, 145of Bangladesh/East Pakistan, 19–20,

25, 82, 98, 270, 283in Burma, 137vs. federalism, 10in India, 66, 69, 70, 71–80Kachin and, 142of Kashmir, 70of the Kayah, 142, 153of the Moros, 173National Democratic Front,

rejected by, 147Ne Win’s response to, 162of Papua, 187of the Shan, 142, 145, 153from the Soviet Union, 276,

279–280of the Tamils, 104, 109, 121Tibet and, 234, 241vs. unitary nation primacy, 4, 6,

10, 14Senanayake-Chelvanayakam (1965)

(Sri-Lanka), 109September 11 terrorist attack, 99, 130Seventeen Point Agreement (Tibet),

230, 233–235, 240

Shakya, Tsering, 235Shan (Burmese state/ethnic group)

as anti-British, 139autonomy of, 139–140, 143Burma and, 136, 138, 141ceasefire leaders imprisoned, 160democratic representation of, 141ethnic conflict in, 267ethnicity of, 157in Kachin territory, 157leaders in Communist Party of

Burma, 158National Democratic Alliance

Army, 155native language, 147neutrality, 139rebellion in, 144–145secession of, 142, 145, 153self-administered zones in,

155–156SSA of, 151, 152, 153, 156, 158SSNLO of, 146, 147SSPP of, 146, 147statehood, 141–142, 148in Thailand, 161in UWSP controlled territory, 157Wa and, 147, 157

Shan National Democratic Alliance Army (Burma), 155

Shan National League for Democracy (SNLD), 159, 160

Shari’a law, 179–177Sharif, Nawaz, 89Shia Muslims, 83, 86, 88–89, 100Sikh religion, 21, 23, 66, 69, 265Silverstein, Jacob, 149, 157, 161Simon, John, 72Simon Commission (Indian Statutory

Commission), 72Sindh (Pakistan province), 83, 89–91Singapore, 35, 48–49Singh, Hari, 94Sinhalese (Sri Lankan ethnic group).

See also GOSLconstitution of Sri Lanka and, 104,

106–130educational opportunities of, 107






Index326

employment opportunities of, 112–113

linguistic nationalism of, 104, 107–108

LTTE violence against, 109, 132

nationalism, 112, 126–129nation-building, 104as Sri Lankan ethnic majority, 25,

103–104, 120, 267, 282Tamil parity with, 135

SLFP (Sri Lanka Freedom Party), 113, 125

SLORC (State Law and Order Restoration Council) (Burma), 150–154

Slovakia, 4Smith, Chris, 131Smith, Graham, 256Smith, Martin, 160Snyder, Jack, 217Somalia, 13Soulbury Constitution (Sri Lanka),

116–117South Africa, 135South Korea, 20South Maluku (Ambon), 39–40South Moluccan Republican

Movement, 174South Sulawesi, 41, 174Southern Philippines Council for

Peace and Development (SPCPD), 178

sovereign equality model, 29Soviet Union

as accommodation model, 164Central Asian issues, 246–249,

253, 256–259China-U. S. rapprochement

vs., 270collapse, 16–17, 210–211, 214,

244, 251, 256, 275–276federalism and, 275–276vs. Islam, 253–254, 255minority group control, 244nationalism in, 8–9

secession from, 276, 279–280state identities created by, 8–9sub-state nationalism repressed

by, 14violence among former members

of, 6Spain

accommodation in, 3Catalonia recognized by, 18, 164colonialism in the Philippines, 167,

168, 173federalism, 17as multinational state, 103Philippines uprising against, 31state-building, 278

SPDC (State Peace and Development Council) (Burma), 137, 151, 154–157

Special Autonomy Law (2001) (Aceh), 191–192, 194

Special Autonomy Law (2001) (Papua/Irian Jaya), 186, 187, 188

Sri Lanka. See also GOSL; LTTE; Sinhalese; Tamils

aoverview, 106political crisis overview, 103–135B-C Pact, 107, 109Bhutan peace negotiations, 115British colonialism in, 24, 104, 113,

267Buddhism in, 282ceasefire in, 129–131civil war in, 104–105, 106, 115Colombo peace negotiations, 115conflicts over education, 107conflicts over employment, 112–113conflicts over languages, 104,

107–109, 113conflicts over negotiators’ status,

115conflicts over white collar

employment, 112–113constitution (1972), 107, 109,

116–118, 123, 277constitution (1978), 112, 116–118,

122, 123, 134Constitution Bill (2000), 119

Sinhalese (cont.)






Index 327

constitution process overviews, 104–105, 114–130

constitution substance crisis overviews, 104–105, 106–114

cultural nationalism, 282democracy in, 277Hindu minority in, 282India, accord with, 109–110Jaffna peace negotiations, 115JVP in, 125, 127, 129as multinational state, 114, 135nationalism, 104, 112–113, 282nation-building, 104, 280–281Norwegian-facilitated peace

negotiations, 114, 115–116, 118–119, 120, 121, 122, 131

Official Language Act, 107Oslo Declaration, 115–116post-independence issues in, 107Senanayake-Chelvanayakam Pact,

109Sixth Amendment to constitution

of, 118SLFP in, 113, 125South African facilitated peace

negotiations, 135sub-state nationalism in, 104, 112Supreme Court, 127–129, 133Thimpu peace negotiations, 115Thirteenth Amendment to

constitution of, 108, 109–111tsunami in, 120, 125–130TULF in, 109, 110, 111Vaddukoddai Resolution, 109war on terror and, 273

Sri Lanka Freedom Party (SLFP), 113

SSA (Shan State Army) (Burma), 151, 152, 153, 156, 158

SSNLO (Shan State Nationalities Liberation Organization) (Burma), 146, 147

SSPP (Shan State Progress Party) (Burma), 146

Stalin, Josef, 247, 248, 269

Stanley, P. W., 168State Law and Order Restoration

Council (SLORC) (Burma), 150–154

State Peace and Development Council (SPDC) (Burma), 137, 151, 154–157

state structures and accommodation, 274–278

States Reorganization Committee (India) (1954), 65

Stepan, Alfred, 7Stokke, Kristian, 120Sub-Saharan Africa, 12–13sub-state nationalism.

See also mobilizationhistorical perspective, 9–14overview, 9–14in Baluchistan, 97–98Burma/Myanmar vs., 276–278in the Cold War, 14in democracy, 15–16federalism and, 164in Indonesia, 171–172, 176, 189,

193–195, 276–278in Pakistan, 82, 89–91, 97–98,

101, 276–278in the Philippines, 166–167, 176,

193–195, 276–278in the PRC, 220, 276–278in Sindh, 89–91in the Soviet Union, 14in Sri Lanka, 104, 112in Tibet, 219–243, 220United States support for, 14

Suharto (Indonesian president) authoritarian centralism

of, 43–45nationalist views of, 7, 175New Order regime, 43, 44, 172,

175, 180, 183, 189resignation of, 45sub-state nationalism repressed by,

276Sukarno (Indonesian president)

democracy rejected by, 34–35failed policies of, 43






Index328

Islam as source for, 34Japan, assisted by, 35–40Leninism influence on, 34as nationalist leader, 34–35, 174PNI established by, 33single nation views of, 40–43

Sulawesi (Indonesian province), 37, 181

Sumatra Aceh dominance in, 172Central, 41East Timor business sector

dominated by, 181vs. Indonesia, 39, 172, 174Japan and, 36, 37monarchy ending in, 38province established, 37, 41West Sumatra, 44

Sumitro (Professor/General), 41Sun Yat-Sen, 7, 200, 228–229, 232Sunni Muslims, 83, 86, 88–89, 100Swat Valley (Pakistan), 100

Taiwan. See also China (Nationalist/Republican 1912–1949); China (People’s Republic of China)

overview, 196–218vs. CCP, 196, 198, 209–218, 264,

268, 281China’s view of, 197Cold War and, 270colonial rule in, 268democracy in, 196, 199, 217ethnic nation views of, 204independence, 198, 199Japan and, 268, 272linguistic unity in, 200–201national identity, 281nationhood, 198–199, 212–218,

283PRC and, 207–208, 212–218, 214as the Republic of China, 197self-determination, 20–21, 196United States and, 264viewed internationally, 197virtual sovereignty, 209–212

Taiwan Strait Crises, 263Tajikistan, 244, 252–253, 255, 259,

260Taliban regime, 99, 100, 273Tamerlane, 257Tamil Federal Party (FP), 107Tamil Language (Special Provisions

Act) (1958) Sri Lanka, 108Tamil Nadu (Indian state), 66Tamil National Alliance, 131Tamil Tigers. See LTTETamil United Liberation Front (TULF)

(Sri Lanka), 109, 110, 111, 117Tamils (Sri Lankan ethnic group).

See also GOSL; LTTEaccommodation of, resisted, 4, 105,

264constitution of Sri Lanka and,

104–105, 106–130, 132–133, 134

dynastic continuity, 23educational opportunities for, 107,

133–134Federal Party, 107, 109, 117federalism sought by, 108–112,

131ISGA proposals of, 123language issues, 107–108, 133–134nationalism, 104, 105, 106, 108,

113, 114, 116, 134nation-building, 104negotiation status, 115–116privileged under colonialism, 104,

113, 267secession of, 104, 109, 121Sinhalese parity with, 135as Sri Lankan ethnic minority,

103–104, 105, 282Tamil Tigers as terrorist group,

273violence against, 109, 133–134,

277Wickremesinghe and, 131

Tanzania, 13Taoism. See DaosimThailand

Buddhism in, 165–166

Sukarno (cont.)






Index 329

Burma vs., 146, 151communism in, 145, 146, 270identity building in, 165–166vs. Indonesia, 166majority rule in, 20Muslims in, 22vs. Philippines, 166Shan in, 161

Thawnghmung, Ardeth Maung, 136–163, 164, 267, 270, 277

Thimpu resolution (Sri Lanka), 111–112

Thirteenth Amendment (Sri Lankan constitution), 108, 109–111

Tibet asymmetrical federalism, 215Autonomous Region, 221, 224autonomy, 211, 220–221, 232, 233,

265Buddhism in, 227–229, 230–231,

240–242CCP and, 232China’s ideological failure

regarding, 219–243cultural nationalism, 207culture retained by, 22Develop the West program, 224,

236–237, 242–243diversity within, 221–223economic advancement, 224vs. Han Chinese, 213, 216–217,

282historical trajectory of Chinese rule

in, 231–236independence, 220, 272India and, 272martial law in, 223–224military occupation of, 227Muslims in, 238nationalism in, 219–223poverty in, 224–225PRC and, 22, 27, 196–197, 223,

225–226, 271promises to, broken, 223–226,

228, 236–242in Qing Empire, 23, 207

rebellion in, 226–227, 235, 237–240

Republican China’s policies toward, 201, 219, 228–230, 231–232, 240

secession and, 234, 241secularization policies failing in,

226–229, 230self-determination sought by, 219Seventeen Point Agreement

regarding, 230, 233–235sub-state nationalism, 219–243Tibetans working for China

in, 239Timor (Portuguese), 36Tiro, Hasan, 43, 44–45, 46Tonnesson, Stein, 29Towards the Republic of Indonesia

(Malaka), 33Toynbee, Arnold, 32Tripoli Agreement (1976), 177–178Truth and Reconciliation

Commission, 186TULF (Tamil United Liberation Front)

(Sri Lanka), 109, 110, 111, 117Turkey, 13, 259Turkistan, 232Turkmenistan, 244, 250Tuttle, Gray, 27, 219–243, 265, 268,

277, 282

ulama (Islamic scholar community), 38, 189

ulèëbalang (Indonesian provincial aristocracy), 38, 189

UMNO (United Malays National Organization). See Maylasia, UMNO, 70

UNANET (UN mission to East Timor), 181

Union of England and Scotland, 18United Kingdom, 3–4, 17, 18, 103,

130United Nationalities League (Burma),

156United Nations (UN), 17, 95, 181,

182, 183






Index330

United States accommodation resisted by, 18colonialism in the Philippines, 167,

168–169, 173, 176GOSL supported by, 130in Iraq, 223, 239Pakistan and, 271, 273Philippines supported by, 173PRC rapprochement, 270resistance against, 223sub-state nationalists supported

by, 14Taiwan and, 264war on terror, 211

United Wa State Party (UWSP) (Burma), 152, 155, 157, 160–161

Urdu language, 23, 91, 281Uttaranchal (Indian state), 65UWSP (United Wa State Army)

(Burma), 152, 155, 157, 160–161Uzbekistan, 244, 250–251, 252–253,

255, 257. See also Bukhara; Samarqand

Vaddukoddai Resolution (Sri Lanka), 109, 117

Vietnam, 20, 31, 145, 270Visaya Islands (Philippines), 176

Wa (Burmese ethnic group) Han Chinese among, 157leaders in Communist Party of

Burma, 158neutrality of, 139Shan and, 147, 157UWSP of, 152, 155, 157,

160–161Wachman, Alan, 198

Wahid, Abdurrahman, 45Wang Shaoguang, 203, 208war on terror, 130, 211, 264, 266Weber, Eugen, 199Weberain bureaucracy, 32Weerakoon, Bradman, 118West Irian Jaya, 188West Java, 40, 172West Pakistan, 91–93, 267West Papua (Indonesian province),

183West Timor, 181, 182Westphalian nation-state system, 2,

8, 30Wickremesinghe, Ranil, 118, 125,

131Wilson, A. Jeyaratnam, 106Win, Min, 152Win, Ne, 137, 145, 146, 147,

148–149, 158, 162Womack, Bradley, 30Women’s League of Burma, 156

Xiao Gongqin, 208Xinshang/ Xinjiang (Chinese

province), 22, 27, 211Xu Ben, 209

Yamin, Hatta and Mohammed, 36Young, B. C., 31Yuan Shikai, 228Yudhoyono, Susilo Bambang, 46Yugoslavia, 1, 8–9, 214Yusuf, Irwandi, 47

Zhang Xuding, 209Zia ul-Haq, Mohammed, 88–91, 98,

277






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