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557

Index

Abbas, Mahmoud, 205, 206, 211Abkhazia, Russia and, 42Abu Sayyaf Group (ASG), 404, 406Abubakar, Abdulsalami, 549ACC (Arab Cooperation Council), 177–78Acevedo, Carlos, 516Acharya, Amitav, 62, 63Adjei, Nii Okai, 153Advance Cargo Information System

(ACIS), 471“affection-based politics,” 120Afghanistan, 4, 9, 174

Central Asian states aid in reconstruction, 339

constitution on Islam, 390n22CSTO and, 332–33drugs into Russia from, 315Durand Line, 548instability in, 323jihadists in, 230NATO and, 253, 254, 260public support level in NATO

countries, 273n26radical Islam at border, 361Russia and, 318security challenges, 216Taliban in, Central Asia as base for

overthrow, 321troop cargo supply route, 322, 339–40U.S. support for sending troops, 273n27views of NATO in, 258

Africaarmed conflict in, 117collective conflict management, 539tcyber crime in, 158–61follow-up on commitments, 163

improved conditions, 119intrastate conflicts, 52migration of professionals, 123organized crime in, 121regional arrangements, 51tregional character of conflicts, 119–20regional organizations, role of, 115security culture origins, 81security issues, 149

complexity, 116–25national and regional, 115new threats, 121–23

societal disjointedness and frailties in postcolonial, 152

African Charter on Democracy, Election, and Governance, 125–26

African criminal networks (ACNs), 154African Peace and Security Architecture

(APSA), 116architecture, 127–32assessment, 132–42

capacity to act, 134–35institutional capacity, 135–36operational capacity, 139–40peacekeeping capacity, 136–38political will to act, 132–34

need for strengthening, 143policy agenda, 125–26as work in progress, 135–36

African Peace Facility, 139African Peer Review Mechanism

(APRM), 125African Standby Force (ASF), 129–30African Union, ix, 53, 57, 65, 115–16, 535

approach to security, 116–17backroom services and office space, 140

USIP--Crocker.indb 557 7/28/11 1:20:50 PM

© Copyright by the Endowment of the United States Institute of Peace

558 index

capacity to address security challenges, 116

Conference of Ministers for Drug and Crime Prevention, 165

Constitutive Act, 54, 125, 126members’ suspension, 60Ministerial Conference on Drug

Control, 164–65Mugabe and, 134nongovernmental organizations,

capacity, 141Peace and Security Council (PSC), 125,

127–28peace operations, 59tPolicy Framework on Post-Conflict and

Reconstruction, 123response to organized crime, 162, 163–64staffing for, 139–40techniques, 58

African Union Commission, 57African Union Mission in Sudan (AMIS),

549African Union-United Nations Hybrid

Operation in Darfur (UNAMID), 247, 550

Agency for the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons in Latin America and the Caribbean (OPANAL), 444, 551

agriculture in Africa, climate change and, 122

agroeconomic problems in India, 359Aguilar, Ruben, 489Agyeman, Hackman Owusu, 153Ahmad, Sagir, 371Ahmadinejad, Mahmoud, 188, 201,

248Ahsan, Muhammad, 184Ahtisaari, Martti, Crisis Management

Initiative, 31, 552AIDS, poll on concern, 11Akayev, Askar, 320al-Qaeda, 10, 230, 404

at Afghanistan-Pakistan border, 362

Iran tension with West, 181in Iraq, 179, 186in Israel, 208in Pakistan, 184

Alagappa, Muthiah, 15Albright, Madeleine, 259, 275n41

Algeria, 185counterterrorist measures, 230elections, 119wealth use to support groups, 236

Alianza Republica Nacionalista (ARENA), 490

All Parties Hurriyat Conference (APHC), 371

All Parties National Alliance, 392n45Allison, Roy, 63Americas. See also Central America;

Mexico; South America; United States

conflict management in, 493–94conflict resolution in, 484–86regional arrangements, 51tsecurity threats, 488–491

organized crime, 483, 488–90, 496Amity and Cooperation, Treaty of (1976),

54, 56, 428China signing, 410

Amnesty International, 520Amoateng, Eric, 153Amsterdam Treaty (1997), 274n35ancestral worship, in West Africa, 156Andean Charter for Peace and Security,

446Andean Community, 446, 551Anderson, Tony, 471–72Andréani, Gilles, 531Andrés, Amando Philipe de, 151Angola, 121Ankomah, Paapa Owusu, 153Annan Peace Plan, 43Annual African ICT Achievers Awards,

167anti-American feelings, of Middle East

public, 239Anti-Ballistic Missile (ABM) treaty, 41Antigua and Barbuda, 475APHC (All Parties Hurriyat Conference),

371APSA. See African Peace and Security

Architecture (APSA)Arab Cooperation Council (ACC), 177–78Arab-Israeli conflict, 190–93

centrality in regional insecurity, 229peace process, 200, 209–15

collapse, 207threat of conventional war, 202



index 559

Arab League, 175, 182, 222, 231–32, 241and Arab-Israeli dispute, 192budget, 66failure to act on Darfur, 247

Arab Maghreb Union (AMU), 176Arab states

authoritarian rule in, 226calming conflicts in, 103–04change in 2011, 250conflict mediation, 235–38disempowerment of, 247external military protection, 225fragile nature, 228government distrust in, 249and joint military capacity, 251n8national identity, 171, 172negotiation, 111n30peace efforts with Israel, 201refusal to endorse humanitarian

intervention, 243relations between, 97–98security, 221

competing frameworks, 231–35state-society gap, 227–29trust absent between, 172vertical policymaking, 91weakness in joint actions, 223

Arabsabsent strategic community, 225–26distrust of international order, 225as Israeli citizens, 207religious minorities, 222

Arafat, Yasser, 210, 211arbitration of disputes, 58“arc of communication,” 389n3“arc of energy,” 389n3“arc of instability,” 389n3“arc of prosperity,” 389n3ARENA (Alianza Republica Nacionalista),

490Argentina, 440, 458n14

and Falklands/Malvinas, 95Arias, Oscar, 484Aristide, Jean-Bertrand, 485Aristotle, 27, 28armed conflict. See also war

in Africa, 117in Central America, 511–12increase in, 13types, 51–52

victims of, 34–36armed forces. See military forcesArmed Forces Special Powers Act (India),

371, 391n32Armenia, 297

CSTO membership, 329arms control, 5, 41

absence of agreement in Middle East, 227

in South America, 448Arms Control and Regional Security

Working Group, 209ASEAN. See Association of Southeast

Asian Nations (ASEAN)ASEAN Plus Three, 102, 430ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF), 54, 55,

407–08, 536development influences, 65in East Asia, 429India in, 376limitations, 411

Ashton, Catherine, 276n54Asia. See also Central Asia; East Asia;

South Asia; Southeast AsiaEuropean Union and, 342India’s role, 353regional arrangements, 51t

Asia Foundation, 550Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation

(APEC), 23n32Asia-Pacific region, lack of formal

multilateral institutions, 14Asian Development Bank (ADB), 336al-Assad, Bashar, 213al-Assad, Hafez, 213Association of Southeast Asian Nations

(ASEAN)conflict management techniques, 58development, 542diplomats’ vs. public views, 94–95in East Asia, 428–29flexible engagement debate, 65forums, 551High Council, 56India and, 376, 383, 394n68intrastate conflict resolution, 53member states, 406quiet diplomacy, 101–03role of, 54–55, 406–09, 418structure, 534, 536



560 index

Asunción, Treaty of, 445Atlantic Underwater Testing and

Evaluation Center (AUTEC), 475Australasia, regional arrangements, 51tAustria, and European Union, 102authoritarian rule

in Arab states, 226, 228in Central Asia, 320effect on public policy, 195and human security, 244and radicalization threat thesis, 325

autonomyfor Jammu and Kashmir, 371for Kashmir, 373–75

average incomes, globalization and growth in, 21n14

Avruch, Kevin, 79Awami League, 391n23Ayacuchu Declaration, 448Azcona, Jose, 485

Bacar, Mohammed, 133Bachelet, Michelle, 452Baghdad Pact, 208Bahamas, 475Bahrain

in Gulf Cooperation Council, 233links with West, 173military forces, 225view of security threats, 228

Bailes, Alyson, 87, 93, 104, 106on competition among organizations, 89on European security experiment,

111n29Baker-Hamilton Iraq Study Group report,

241Bakiyev, Kurmanbek, 320, 321balance of power

in international system, 4in interwar period, 25

Balkan states, 93, 296European Union and, 61future of cooperation, 96tensions in, 282

Ban Ki-moon, 554Bangladesh, 356, 359–60, 383

Islamist militant groups, 364views on terrorism, 10

Bangladesh Nationalist Party (BNP), 361

banyamulenge, 120Baqeri, Mohammad-Reza, 187Barak, Ehud, 214, 217Barcelona Process, 234Barisan Revolusi Nasional, 405Barrosso, Jose Manuel, 264al-Bashir, Omar, 117, 246

arrest warrant, 466battle-group coordination conference, 275n43Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multi Sector

Technical and Economic Cooperation (BIMST-EC), 382

behavior, characteristic patterns in negotiating, 80

Belarus, 297, 331CSTO membership, 329

Belgium, measure of military effort, 291tBen-Gurion, David, 208Bengal, partition, 356Berlin-plus agreement, 268Betts, Richard, 261Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), 361Bhutto, Benazir, assassination, 184Biden, Joe, 264Biological and Toxin Weapons

Convention, South America and, 438bipolar international system, 5Bishop, Maurice, 470Bishop, Morris, 485Bitzinger, Richard A., 551Black Sea Cooperation Forum, 301n2Boeing, 270n5Bolivarian Alternative for the Americas

(ALBA), 442, 486, 498n7confrontation with OAS, 487and Cuba readmission to OAS, 487–88

Bolivia, 95left-wing government, 440

border control for Mexico, 519border disputes

in India and Pakistan, 357SCO and, 335Durand Line between Afghanistan and

Pakistan, 548in South America, 440, 447

Border Management Afghanistan Project, 343

borderland development policy, in South Asia, 357



index 561

Bordyuzha, Nikolay, 331, 332Boshoff, Henri, 123Bosnia, 4, 7Bourdieu, Pierre, 64Bozizé, François, 135Brahimi Panel on UN Peace Operations,

147n73Brahimi Report on UN Peacekeeping

Reform (2000), 137Brazil

crime rate, 453dispute with Ecuador, 440

Brazilian-Argentine Nuclear Accounting Agency, 444

Bretton Woods system, 12Britain, 288

shift in military profile, 290Brownback, Sam, 180budget allocation, 66–67Bulgaria

measure of military effort, 291tU.S. agreement with, 294

bureacracies, for regional arrangements, 57

Burma, 400Burundi, 123, 130

African Union in, 133Bush, George H.W., 485Bush, George W., 489

at EU-U.S. summit meeting 2001, 264

and North Korea, 423Bush administration (George W.), 46, 212,

241approach to North Korea, 421and arms control, 41on Iran’s missile programs, 188–89and Russia, 311

Buzan, Barry, 15, 348, 532

Calderon, Felipe, 489Cambodia, 7, 55Cameroon, 120

cyber crime, 158security services weakness, 160, 161

Camp David summit (2000), 211Canada

“intelligent borders” agreement with U.S., 508

resistance to U.S. domination, 99threat of narcotics gangs, 489

Cape Verde, 168n4Caputto, Dante, 452Cardosa, Fernando Enrique, 496Caribbean, 98

brain drain, 491collective conflict management, 540tcriminal gangs and state sovereignty,

467–68drug trafficking in, 466freedom of movement in, 465regional security vs. national security,

472–73regional strategy, lack of, 464security environment, 465–68security threats

health systems, 492organized crime, 463, 490–91weapons build-up, 492–493

shared identities, 97state power erosion, 466“third-border” concept, 473–77

Caribbean and the Brazilian-Argentine Nuclear Accounting Agency, 551

Caribbean Basin Economic Recovery Act, 481n41

Caribbean Basin Initiative (CBI), 475Caribbean Basin Security Initiative

(CBSI), 474, 475–76Caribbean Free Trade Association

(CARIFTA), 468, 469CARICOM

Accreditation Watch List System (CAWS), 471

development, 468–72Interactive Border Security System

(CARIBSECS), 471need for collective approach to regional

security, 477–78regional security mechanism, 470–71threats to stability, 466–67

Carter, Jimmy, 420, 486Castenada, Jorge, 489Castresana, Carlos, 498n13Castro, Raul, 488catastrophic accidents, as security threat in

Russia, 314CCM. See collective conflict management



562 index

Cedras, Raoul, 485Central African Republic (CAR), 118,

123, 135Central America

armed conflict, 511–12collective conflict management, 540teconomic and social information, 502thomicide rates, 516, 517thuman rights of migrants, 520mine clearing, 450organized crime, 488–90peace processes, 512–13public perceptions of problems, 518tsecurity issues, 516–18security relations with Mexico, 518–19transnational security problems, 501U.S. interest in decision-making

processes, 6Central Asia, 318–28

authoritarian rule in, 320border disputes in, SCO and, 335and European Union, 341–43insecurity, 319, 345institutional responses to regional

security challenges, 328–45Islamic radicalization in, 324–25nation building, 320NATO and, 339new security paradigm, 346–49Russia-supported institutions, 329security threats, 322–28state-building vs. regionalism, 306strategy of eliminating Islamist groups,

326subregionalism in, 347

Central Asia Border Management Program, 343

Central Asia Drug Action Program, 343Central Asian Border Security Initiative,

343Central Asian Republics, 297Central European Initiative, 301n2central tenets, vs. operational assumptions,

64Centre for Humanitarian Dialogue

(HDC), 550Chad, 116, 120, 133

armed conflict, 149military mission, 275n42

Chaguaramas, Treaty of, 468Chan Heng Chee, 85, 87, 101, 106Chatultepec Accord, 498n4Chavez, Hugo, 451, 488Chechnya, 62, 282, 283, 297

terrorism in, 314Chemical Weapons Convention, South

America and, 438China

concerns in Southeast Asia, 398economy, 399

governance, 425–26growth as priority, 424

foreign policy, 426India and, 380, 382–83military expenditures, 435n3military potential growth, 396–99and North Korea, 422

role in negotiations, 433trade, 436n7

oil imports, 399political governance issues, 425role in East Asia, 416role in global conflict management,

30, 39role in Southeast Asia, 409–11, 412and SCO, 334, 336and Serbia, 36string of pearls strategy, 380, 398“tribute system,” 95–96views of al-Qaeda, 10

Chinese Nationalist Party (KMT) in Tawain, 420

civil society, 131involvement in conflict management,

5–6civil war, 8

outbreak in post–Cold War period, 6Clausewitz, Carl von, 25climate change, 118, 122, 404Clinton administration, 30

and Syria-first policy for Israel, 212cocaine

South America production, 453, 483trafficking, 150

coercion, rejection of, 29Cohen, Raymond, 111n30

Negotiating across Cultures, 79“coke coast,” West Africa as, 150



index 563

Cold War, 4end

effect of, 28impact on Arab countries, 222international institutions’ role, 536and Mexico democratization, 504military changes in Europe after,

281–82and Russia security concerns, 309

nonmilitary means for conflict management, 5

Russia resentment of perceived failure, 310

collective conflict management, 543–54cases, 547–52definition, 555n11and regional conflict management,

552–54sources of and obstacles to, by region,

539–40tcollective defense, 555n12collective peacekeeping, 59collective security, 555n12Collective Security Treaty (CST), 329Collective Security Treaty Organization

(CSTO), 307, 316, 329–34Charter, 349n11Foreign Ministers’ Council, 332–33future of, 337–38Joint Rapid Reaction Force (KSOR), 331mandate, 330military capabilities, 333–34peacekeeping forces, 332Rapid Deployment Forces of the

Central Asian Region, 330–31Russia support, 329vs. SCO, 335summit in Dushanbe, 332U.S. relations with, 338

Colombiacrime rate, 453OAS in, 452security threats, 488tensions with Ecuador, 447tensions with Venezuela, 440, 447–48,

458n10terrorism in, 483war in, 440–41, 447

colonial regions

European roles in, 286former, and cooperation, 541

colonization, impact on culture, 93Commission for Historical Clarification in

Guatemala, 514Common Foreign and Security Policy

(CFSP), 254Common Market of the South (Mercosul),

442, 445, 551and transnational criminal activity, 455

Common Security and Defence Policy (CSDP), 262–63

Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS), 62, 329

peace operations, 59tcommunicable disease. See infectious

diseasecommunication links, for Kashmir, 372Community of Andean Nations (CAN),

442Community of Latin American and

Caribbean States, 494–95Community of Sahel-Saharan States

(CEN-SAD), 140Composite Dialogue (India and Pakistan),

367–68Comprehensive Security Treaty

Organization, 302n13Compton, John, 498n5computer viruses, 159Conference for Interaction and

Confidence-Building in Asia (CICA), 344–45

Conference on Security and Co-operation in Europe (CSCE), 274n33

conflictdimensions for analyzing sources, 15exportation of, 120resolution in Americas

intrastate, 451–52South America, 439–40U.S. role, 486

response to, 67–68conflict management, 529. See also

collective conflict managementin Americas, 493–94Arab capacity for, 248definition, 20n4, 77differing approaches, 548t



564 index

vs. escalation, 25focus, 54–55institutions dedicated to, ixnew wealth of, 30–34nonmilitary means during Cold War, 5opportunities, 46regional capability, 538regional mechanisms of prevention and

resolution, 130–31regionalization effectiveness, 542–43requirements, security threats and, 4–13significance, 53–54

conflict mediation, informal means by Arab states, 235–38

financial means, 236–37religious influence, 237security agencies, 237–38tribal ties, 238

Conflict Prevention Framework, 55conflict resolution, in Americas, 484–86confrontation, vs. deference, 110n21Congo, 4consensus decision making, 56

by Arab League, 232vulnerability to paralysis, 110n25

Consortium of Non-Traditional Security Studies in Asia (NTS-Asia), 408–09

constitutionalism, African Union and, 125

Constitutive Agreement for the Central American Commission for the Eradication of Production, Traffic, Consumption and Illicit Use of Narcotics and Psychotropic Substances, 520

Constitutive Treaty of the Union, 445Contadora, 484Contadora Group, 512containment, overreliance on, 365Continental Early Warning System

(CEWS), 128–29Convention for the Elimination of

Discrimination against Women (CEDAW), 386

Conventional Forces in Europe (CFE) treaty, 41, 298

cooperationin conflict management, 542interest in, 538

cooperative security, 348, 450in South America, 442

Côte d’Ivoire, 133Council for Security Cooperation in the

Asia-Pacific (CSCAP), 408Council of Baltic Sea States, 301n2Council of Europe, 298, 535Council of Indigenous People, 446Council on Foreign Relations, 9, 10counterterrorism, 9countries in South, 9criminal activity

cyber crime, in Africa, 158–61gangs in Caribbean, 467–68as vocation in Caribbean, 491West African reaction, 156white collar crime, 160–61

Crisis Management Initiative, 31, 552Croatia, 282cross-cultural negotiating behavior, 78Cruz, Miguel, 517CSTO. See Collective Security Treaty

Organization (CSTO)Cuba, and OAS, 487cultural traits, shared by diplomats, 85culture, 63–65

clash, 86definition, 78, 79future research, 104–06of hard security, 226–27history and, 93–96impact, 75, 86–92role of, 84–92

cyber crimein Africa, 158–61

responses to, 166–67need for attention to, 168

cyberterrorism, 160Cyclone Nargis (2008), 427Cyprus, 5

in European Union, 276n59Czech Republic, U.S. agreement with, 294

DarfurAfrican Union and, 116, 130, 133, 549regionalization of conflict, 120responsibility to protect (R2P), 246–47roots of conflict in, 118Western attitude toward, 36



index 565

Dartmouth process, 20n5de Hoop Scheffer, Jaap, 258, 265–66de Wilde, Jaap, 15decision making

Arab League mechanism need for enforcing, 232

unanimity vs. consensus, 56Declaration of San Salvador, 449Declaration on Security in the Americas,

441–42defense industry, U.S. vs. Europe, 270n5defense spending

by EU members, 263increase by European countries, 283in Southeast Asia, 401

deference, vs. confrontation, 110n21Delhi Policy Group, 548democracy

in Africa, failure from corruption, 153after conflicts, 124in Asia, 352–53in Caribbean, 465deficit in South Asia, 385in India, 353internal contradictions, 42–44OAS defense of, 451progress in post–Cold War period, 29relationship with regional conflict

management, 69in South Asia, and religious extremism,

361in Western Hemisphere, 493–94

Democratic Progressive Party (DPP) in Taiwan, 420

Democratic Security Framework Treaty (1995), 520

dengue fever, risk in Southeast Asia, 403Denmark, shift in military profile, 290Department for International

Development (DfID), 122Desker, Barry, 551developing countries

feelings of disadvantaged, 12income growth, 21n14

Diehl, Paul, 58, 61differential attitudes, ASEAN and, 102diplomatic sanctions, 60diplomats

approaches to security risks, 13

identity shifts by, 105interviews with, 76–77professional culture, 77, 86–88style, culture influence, 85

disarmament commitments, bias in, 42Discovery of India (Nehru), 384disease. See also infectious disease

conflict as, 26disempowerment, of Arab governments,

247Disengagement Agreement of 1974, 200domestic politics, and regional behavior,

62–63domestic violence, and education levels,

491Dominican Republic, 486doubly disadvantaged, in South Asia, 355drug money, impact in Africa, 150drug trafficking

from Afghanistan into Russia, 315in Africa

collusion by African public officials, 152

in Ghana, 157response to, 161–66in West Africa, 155–56, 157t

in Americas, 483Caribbean, 466Central America, 323–24, 503Colombia, 440Mexico, 508, 509, 519–20

drug users, criminalization vs. treatment, 496

Duarte, Napoleón, 513Dubai Process, 548–49Duffield, John, 65Durand Line, 548“duty to intervene,” 251n14

East Asiaconflict management approach, 415confrontational approach, 95–96existing approaches to security, 428–30and global governance, 429–30major actors, 416–19new approach, 430–35regionalism in, 419security challenges, 419–27

China, 424–26



566 index

economic growth, 426–27nontraditional and transnational, 427North Korea, 420–24

trade, 435n2U.S. and future security for, 432

East Asia Security forum, need for, 434East Asia Summit (EAS), 408, 411, 417

propose security framework for, 435fEast Bengal, secession, 359–60East Timor, 7East-West bridge-building exercises, 20n5East-West conflict, 5Eastern African Standby Brigade

Coordination Mechanism (EASBRICOM), 137

Economic and Monetary Community of Central African States, 135

peace operations, 59tEconomic Commission for Latin

American and the Caribbean (ECLAC), 449

Economic Community of Central African States (ECCAS), 140

Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), 53, 55, 104, 130

Drug Control and Crime Prevention Mechanism, 166

and Liberian peace talks, 549Mediation and Security Council, 56,

70n27members’ suspension, 60peace operations, 59tProtocol on Democracy on Good

Governance (2001), 69response to organized crime, 162–63

Economic Community of West African States Monitoring Group (ECOMOG), 7

Economic Cooperation Organization (ECO), 178

economic disparity, 9in India, 359–60

economic globalization, 8–9economic interdependence, in East Asia,

420economic sanctions, 60ECOWAS. See Economic Community of

West African States (ECOWAS)

Ecuador, 439dispute with Brazil, 440left-wing government, 440tensions with Colombia, 447

education levels, and domestic violence, 491Egypt, 182, 185

counterterrorist measures, 230diplomatic style, 103elections, 119and Israel, 5, 207as mediator, 237military forces, 225resentment of U.S. involvement, 239and responsibility to protect (R2P),

244–45view of security threats, 228views of al-Qaeda, 10and the West, 173Western colonialism of, 91

Einaudi, Luigi R., 78, 106on Caribbean nations, 97, 98on elites in Latin America, 90on European Union, 94on multilateral trades unionism, 99on OAS, 85, 100

El Salvador, 490armed conflict, 511–12gang membership, 498n14guerrilla movements, 502military forces in, 514military stalemate, 513murder rates in, 490security-sector reforms, 514–15

elections, in African countries, 119elite culture, 86, 89–90elites

of Arab world, 228political survival, 120

Ellis, Stephen, 154Emmers, Ralf, 412energy security, for European Union, 342environmental pressures

on income growth, 21n14from prosperity, 427

equality, and extremism, 44Erdoğan, Recep Tayyip, 212Eritrea, armed conflict, 149escalation of conflict



index 567

vs. conflict management, 25prevention, 5

Esquipulas Agreement, 484Esquipulas II Agreement, 512Ethiopia, armed conflict, 149ethnic hatred, poll on concern, 11ethnicity, and African conflicts, 118Eurasia

collective conflict management, 540tcontrol of energy export routes from, 312drivers and limitations of key security

actor, 307–18post-Soviet, security threats and

challenges, 305and Russia, 348security threats, 315

Euro-Mediterranean Framework, 234Europe

absence as leader in global issues, 38active power vs. passive model, 300armed forces deployment, 303n36cocaine demand, 151collective conflict management, 540tintegration, and interaction with

neighbors, 296–300internal divisions, 256military forces, 255, 270n5national attitudes, 287–92native terrorism, 284opinion polls on concerns, 289readiness to intervene, 290regional arrangements, 51tand Russia, 346security convergence and common

ground, 292strategic objectives, 255threats and risks to security, 280–87U.S. support for defense efforts, 275n41and world, 300–01

“European concert,” 25–26European Council on Foreign Relations,

256European countries, role in global conflict

management, 30European Defence Agency, 271n9European External Action Service

(EEAS), 271n9European Neighborhood Policy (ENP), 341

European Rapid Reaction Force, 263European Security and Defense Policy

(ESDP), 254, 262–63, 280, 301n5European Security Strategy (ESS), 280European Security Treaty, Medvedev’s

draft, 310European Union, 30, 31–32, 53, 261–65,

535and Austria, 102and Balkans, 61bureacracies, 57and Central Asia, 341–43cooperation with NATO, 265–69

obstacles, 267–68decision making process, 56, 293energy security for, 342enlargement, 296and Eurasia, 307Eurobarometer poll (2008), 301n7European Neighborhood Policy (ENP),

296expenditures for Central Asia project,

328–29exporting by, 285foreign and security policy, 274n35high-level relations with U.S., 264history teaching need for peace, 94membership, 266t

enlargement, 271n8military forces, 263

measure of effort, 291tand NATO, 295peace operations, 59tpolice or rule-of-law missions vs.

military missions, 263relations with U.S., 33responsibilities, 262, 295role in conflict management, 32role in transatlantic relations, 254and Russia, 297, 310Security Strategy, 279U.S. view of, 257

external influence, and regional conflict management, 62

extremismcontradiction breeding, 44political, 43in South Asia, 357–60



568 index

Failed States Index, 222Falklands islands, 440FARC (Fuerzas Armadas Revolucionarias

de Colombia), 447, 488Fatah movement, 205Fawcett, Louise, 49Fayyad, Salam, 205Fergana Valley, 319Fernandez, Leonel, 494finances, in Middle East mediation,

236–37financial crisis in 2008, 20

and European military limitations, 261and Russian perception of U.S., 312

firearms. See weaponsfishing

competition for, 118–19illegal, 122

5+1 group, 190Flanagan, Stephen, 474, 475–76flexible engagement, debate on, 65food security, 122force. See also military forces

practices concerning use, 64unequal regulation of use, 40–42

Four Common Spaces approach, 341419 crime, 158Fox, Vicente, 506France, 288

measure of military effort, 291tmilitary forces, 290view of NATO, 258views on terrorism, 10

Franco, Itamar, 443fraternity of Sant’ Egidio, 31Free Aceh Movement, 31Freeman, Charles W., 88, 91, 97, 104, 106

on cultural tradition of statecraft, 92Frente Democrático Revolucionario-Frente

Farabundo Martí para la Liberación Nacional (FDR-FMLN), 513

Frente Farabundo Martí para la Liberacion Nacional (FMLN), 490

Frente Sandinista de Lieración Nacional (FSLN), 512

Friedman, Thomas, 20Front for the Liberation of the Enclave of

Cabinda (FLEC), 477Frum, David, 180

Fuerzas Armadas Revolucionarias de Colombia (FARC), 447, 488

funding, for conflict management operations, 139

G7, 40G8, 40G20 countries, 40

demands for rights to farmers, 359Gallup interviews, 256Gates, Robert, 497Gause, Gregory, 172Gaza Strip, 192, 204–05, 211

and responsibility to protect (R2P), 244–45

geographic scope, and regional variation, 60–61

geonarcotics, 465geopolitics, retreat in Central Asia, 347Georgia

closure of OSCE and UN missions, 307

war in, 274n33, 294, 315–16Bush administration support, 311and Russian limitations, 317

Germanymeasure of military effort, 291tview of NATO, 258–59

Ghana, 157cyber crime, 158

drug trafficking, 150–51, 168n5security services weakness, 160, 161smuggling gang arrest and release,

152–53Gilgit-Baltistan Thinkers Forum, 392n45Glenny, Misha, 158global developments, impact on Caribbean

security, 464global economy, China’s importance in, 426global financial crisis (2008). See financial

crisis in 2008global governance, East Asia and, 429–30global initiative, vs. regional initiative, 4global markets, 8global power, regions’ demands on, 533–34global security, 6, 530–32global threats, European Union view on

response, 286global wars, 478n6



index 569

globalizationand diplomats’ culture, 87effect on Mexican military, 507and growth in average incomes, 21n14and human insecurity, 8

goal of conflict management, 20n4Golan Heights, 202, 213

dispute over, 191Goldstone Report, 204Gopinath, Meenakshi, 547governance structures, lack for regions, 3Graham, John, 85, 90, 95, 98, 99, 106, 536Greater Middle East, 174Greece

measure of military effort, 291tU.S. and, 32

Grenada, 480n30coup in 1979, 470government overthrow, 485

Grenadines, CARICOM intervention, 469Griffiths, Ivelaw, 465gross domestic product (GDP)

U.S. defense expenditures, 275n44world, 261–62

Guarantors of the Peru-Ecuador Treaty, 444

Guatemala, 30, 485–86armed conflict, 511–12

peace process, 512, 513corruption and gangs, 490guerrilla movements, 502military forces in, 514security-sector reforms, 514–15

Guinea, 116narcotics impact, 157–58refugees’ overflow, 7

Guinea-Bissau, 116, 121–22, 123drug trafficking, 150–51narcotics impact, 157–58

Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC), 175–76, 233–34

and the West, 173Guyana, 464

drug dealers, 466gang violence, 467military, 479n20

H1N1 virus, 404, 430, 492Haacke, Jürgen, 532

habitus, 64, 65Haiti, 7, 97, 443, 486

coup in 1991, 485Latin American armies in, 450UN peace operation in, 453

Hamas, 191, 206, 211–12Iran support of, 230labeling, 231Saudi Arabia and, 237

Hariri, Rafiq, 191Harper, Stephen, 489–90al-Hasa province, 180Hassner, Pierre, 27health systems, in Caribbean, 492hegemony, 88, 110n24Heineman, Alessandra, 491Helsinki-2, 274n33Helsinki European Council, 301n5Helsinki Final Act, 298Helsinki Plus (Two), 310Helsinki Principles, 344Herdmanston Accord (1998), 469Herz, Monica, 536, 551Hezb-ut-Tahrir, 315, 324, 325Hezbollah, 191, 205–06, 214

Iran support of, 230labeling, 231missiles and rockets, 203–04

hierarchy among states, 43Hirst, Monica, 443historical factors in culture, 93–96HIV/AIDS infections, in Russia, 314homicide rates

in Central America, 516, 517tin El Salvador, 490in Mexico, 489

organized crime assassinations, 510f

Honduras, 486–88human rights, 124, 251n17

of migrants in Central America, 520human security

and authoritarian governments, 244commitment to, 126different conceptions, 385and globalization, 8

Human Security Report, 34Human Security Report Group, 117humanitarian abuses, internal, 7



570 index

humanitarian intervention, 52, 242–44

Iraqi Kurds and, 245–46and responsibility to protect (R2P),

242–43Hussein (King of Jordan), 177Hussein, Saddam, 38, 177

and Kurds, 245removal from power, 182, 215

Hutu refugee camps, 123

Ibekwe, Maurice, 153Ibero-American summits, 494identity shifts, by diplomats, 105IMF (International Monetary Fund), 354Imia-Kardak affair, 32IMPACT (International Multilateral

Partnership Against Cyber-Terrorism), 167

imperial peace, 28Implementation Agency for Crime and

Security (IMPACS), 470IMU. See Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan

(IMU)income gaps, 9India, 100, 351–52

Armed Forces Special Powers Act, 365borders and boundaries, 355, 357challenges, 387China and, 380, 382–83civilization description, 384democracy, 353empire experience, 93–94foreign policy, 377, 378–79free-trade agreement, 390n14in global order, 380“grand strategy,” 375–84Look East Policy, 379, 380, 381,

382–84multilateralism for, 388Muslim community, Sachar Committee

report on, 385national security, 354nonalignment policy, 382and Pakistan. See Kashmirpolitical movements in, 357–59relations with U.S., 33role in Asia, 353, 416and SCO, 335, 376suicide by farmers, 390n20

threats to, 380views of al-Qaeda, 10views on terrorism, 10working population daily earnings, 378

Indian Coast Guard, 372Indian Ocean

threats, 381tsunami in 2004, 427

Individual Partnership Action Plan (IPAP), 339

Indonesia, 400military purchases, 401views of al-Qaeda, 10

infectious diseasein Caribbean, 492in East Asia, 427poll on concern, 11risk in Southeast Asia, 403–04

information technology infrastructure, criminal activity, 159

injustice, perception in Arab states, 227Institute for Security Studies, 141institutional architecture for conflict

management, 3institutional culture, 86, 88–89institutions

conflict within, 31design, 73n44framework, 55–57of global and regional governance, 12weakness of regional organizations,

23n32Insulza, José Miguel, 95, 452, 495integration, asymmetrical dangers, 284“intelligent borders,” for U.S./Canada and

Mexico, 508Inter-American Commission on Drug

Abuse (CICAD), 454, 495Inter-American Committee against

Terrorism (CICTE), 454, 495Inter-American Convention against

Terrorism, 455Inter-American Convention against the

Illicit Production and Traffic of Arms, Ammunition, Explosives and Other Related Materials (CIFTA), 448, 495

Inter-American Convention on Transparency in Conventional Weapons Acquisitions, 448, 449



index 571

Inter-American Defense Board (IADB), 450, 507

Inter-American Defense College, 450Inter-American Democratic Charter

(2001), 69, 451Inter-American Observatory on Drugs, 454Inter-American Treaty of Reciprocal

Assistance (Rio Treaty), 460n36, 507Inter-Governmental Action Group against

Money Laundering in West Africa (GIABA), 162

interdependencein Europe, 285growth in Central Asia, 347–48

Intergovernmental Authority on Development, peace operations, 59t

International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), 189, 340

International Campaign to Ban Landmines, 440

International Civil Aviation Organization, air-security standards, 455

international community, 7, 8International Cricket Council (ICC)

security requirements for World Cup tournament, 470, 471

World Cup award, 479n25International Criminal Court (ICC), 31

and state power in Caribbean, 466International Crisis Group, 31International Institute for Strategic Studies

(IISS), Manama Dialogue, 186International Maritime Bureau, Piracy

Reporting Centre, 122International Maritime Organization,

International Ship and Port Facility Security Code, 455

International Monetary Fund (IMF), 354International Multilateral Partnership

Against Cyber-Terrorism (IMPACT), 167

international norms, Arab participation in changing, 248

international order, Arab distrust of, 225international security, 4

divisibility, 530new dimensions, 44–46popular views and, 9–10system as mixture, 531

international systemconflict as function of, 26exceptionally favorable alignment of,

27–30International Telecommunications Union,

High Level Expert Group (HLEG), 167

internationalization, 225Internet

in Central Asia, 340crime, 159, 160

interstate conflict, and natural resources, 120–21

interstate cooperation, 14intervention, absence of direct, 8interventionism, 7interviews of practitioners for CCN

project, 82–83general queries, 83–84

interwar period, arbitration and disarmament efforts, 25

intramural conflicts, 51intrastate conflicts, 51–52

and Africa security, 117–18Iran, 176, 201

in Arab-Israeli conflict, 191as major regional player, 181national identity, and clash with Arabs,

172nuclear program, 186, 188–89, 248–49GCC and, 233opposition to Western military

presence, 174prospects for Iraq alliance, 187Russian aid for nuclear program, 216and SCO, 335and Shia-Sunni divide, 229–30support for nongovernmental groups,

230threat to Israel, 201–02

of missile attacks, 203Iraq, 9, 176

destabilization, 229future role, 194Kurds and humanitarian intervention,

245–46links with West, 173as major regional player, 179–81prospects for Iran alliance, 187



572 index

regime change, 187and Shia-Sunni divide, 229–30U.S. troop withdrawal, 249U.S. war in, 215wealth use to support groups, 236weapons of mass destruction

production, 6, 38and the West, 173

Iraq War (2003), 37and international views of U.S., 33

Ireland, measure of military effort, 291tIslam

in Central Asia, 324–25extremists

in Central Asia, 324–25threat in Russia, 313–14

political, 42as religion vs. nationalism, 363

Islamic Framework, for collective security, 234–35

Islamic Jihad, Iran support of, 230Islamic Jihad Union (IJU), 323Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan (IMU),

319, 323violent actions, 325–26

Islamic Renaissance Party of Tajikistan (IPRT), 326

Islamist groupsdissociation from terrorists, 230militants in Bangladesh, 363violence related to suppression, 326–27

Israel. See also Arab-Israeli conflictal-Qaeda in, 208Arab citizens, 207and Arab neighbors, 5current perceptions of security threats,

201–08asymmetrical warfare, 205–07conventional war threat, 202–03Iran, 201–02rockets and missiles, 203–05

and Egypt, 5impact on Middle East, 222Iran nuclear program as threat, 188June War of 1967, 199–200, 210and Lebanon, 214–15as major regional player, 182–83national identity, and clash with Arabs,

172

past perceptions of national security threats, 200–01

present choices, 217–18radical policy changes in Egypt, Jordan,

and Palestinian Authority, 207and regional arrangements, 208–09self-reliance, 172–73and Syria, 5, 212–13terror in, 208

Israel-Palestine issue, 210–12. See also Arab-Israeli conflict

ad hoc structure for reviving peace process, 241

failure to address, 44U.S. and, 37–38

Italymeasure of military effort, 291tviews on terrorism, 10

Itno, Idriss Déby, 120

Jaish-e-Mohammed ( JEM), 362Jama’at al Muslimeen, 467Jamaat-e-Islami, 364Jamaica, 463, 464, 468

gangs in, 467Jamiat Ahle Hadith, 364Jammu, 367

domestic crisis in 2010, 375Indian election in, 373state, vs. Kashmir Valley, 392n41working group report on status, 371

Japanhistory impact, 96and North Korea, 421, 423, 433and North Korea nuclear program, 423,

436n6role in East Asia, 416–17views on terrorism, 10

Jemaah Islamiyah ( JI), 404–05Johnston, Alastair Iain, 62, 63Joint Caribbean-United States

Framework for Security Cooperation Engagement, 477

joint-venture companies, in Caribbean, 473Jordan

and Israel, 207military forces, 225resentment of U.S. involvement, 239and the West, 173



index 573

judicial/legal system in West Africa, vs. traditional/cultural system, 156

June War of 1967, 199–200, 210justice

vs. peace, 117war necessity for, 290

Kagame, Paul, on Rwandan genocide (1994), 115

Kagan, Robert, 286Kai Ka’us ibn Iskandar, The Qabus Nama (A

Mirror for Princes), 92Kashmir, 354, 363

autonomy for, 373–75cultural discontinuity impact, 368–69domestic crisis in 2010, 375impasse in, 366–75Musharraf ’s proposed settlement,

368–70Pakistan’s call for plebiscite, 370requisites for pragmatic solution, 374Singh initiative on human security

concerns, 370–73soft borders, 369state, vs. Kashmir Valley, 392n41Taliban in, 364transport and communication links, 372working group report on status, 371

Kashmir Study Group, 548Kashmiri American Council, 548Kasuri, Khurshid, 367–68Kayani, Ashfaq Parvez, 370Kazakhstan, 318, 327

CSTO membership, 329in NATO Partnership for Peace

program, 339in OSCE, 343–44

Kelly, Robert, 15Kenya, 116, 133Khan, Roger, 479n11Khartoum Arab summit, 210Khatami, Mohammad, 189Kim Dae-Jung, 420Kim Jong-Il, 421, 422Kluckholn, Clyde, on culture, 79Koizumi, Junichiro, 421Konaré, Alpha, 57Korea. See also North Korea; South Korea

view of outside powers, 95

Kosovo, 42, 282distrust against UN personnel, 43

Kouchner, Bernard, 251n14Kuala Lumpur Declaration (2005), 419Kumar, Radha, 368Kurdistan Workers’ Party (PKK), 238Kuwait, 186, 240

in Gulf Cooperation Council, 233Iraq invasion, 177links with West, 173military forces, 225U.S. forcing Iraq of, 225view of security threats, 228wealth use to support groups, 236

Kyrgyzstan, 315, 318crisis in 2010, 345–46CSTO membership, 329ethnic violence, 327–28in NATO Partnership for Peace

program, 339negotiations, 338political clashes, 344Russian border guard withdrawal, 333U.S. air-base facility, 321

Lake, David, 15on material constraints, 66

Lang, Winfried, 87language

impact of common, 110n22need for research, 105

Lashkar-e-Taiba (LET), 362Latin America. See also Central America;

South Americaculture of elites, 89–90diplomacy, 95diplomat networking, 99

Latin American Commission on Drugs and Democracy, 496

law, views of, 101League of Arab States (LAS), 53, 103–04,

535Lebanon

destabilization, 229Hezbollah and, 206and Israel, 214–15views on terrorism, 10and the West, 173

Lee Myong-Bak, 424



574 index

legal arbitration, 58Lepgold, Joseph, 544, 555n11Lesotho, 57Levant, 222“liberal peace,” 16Liberation Tigers for Tamil Eelam

(LTTE), 359Liberia, 7, 123

peace talks 2003, 549Libya, 133

AMU and, 177as major regional player, 183NATO responsibility for military

operation, 273n30wealth use to support groups, 236and the West, 174

Line, Milburn, 89, 94, 96, 97, 106on culture’s influence, 84

Lisbon Treaty (2007), 265, 271n9, 274n35, 296

local militias, in India, 358local ownership, in security management,

16–17Lombok and Makassar Straits, 399Lomé Declaration, 126Lorenz curves, 21n15losing face, fear of, 103

Maastricht Treaty (1992), 274n35MacKinder, Halford, 348Madagascar, 116Madrid Conference (1991), 240, 241Madrid Process (1990s), 200, 209Makarov, Nikolai, 317Malacca and Singapore Straits, 399Malan, Mark, 140–41Malaysia, 400

military purchases, 401Maldives, 379Mali, government cooperation with U.S.,

124malnutrition, 122Malvinas/Falklands islands, 440manipulation, risk from humanitarian

intervention, 243Manwaring, Max, 465, 467–68Maoists, 357

in Nepal, 360maqawama (resistance), 201

Maritime Security Shore Exercise, 429Marr, Phebe, 176Marshall, Monty, 21n15maximalists, view of NATO, 258McChrystal, Stanley, 322McConnell, Mike, 190McNabb, Duncan, 321mediation, 58Mediterranean, Europeans and, 298–99Medvedev, Dmitry, 308, 331

European Security Treaty initiative, 298, 309, 333, 348

Meeting of Consultation of Ministers of Foreign Affairs, 455

Meeting of Defense Ministers, 444Mekong-Ganga Cooperation Initiative

(MGCI), 382Menon, Shivshankar, 379Mercosul (Common Market of the South),

442, 445, 551and transnational criminal activity, 455

Mérida Initiative, 489, 509–11Merkel, Angela, 264Mesfin, Berouk, 127Mesoamerica region, 501–03Mexico

collective conflict management, 540tconstitution, on missions for armed

forces, 506democracy, 504drug trafficking, 508, 509, 519–20economic and social information, 502t“intelligent borders” agreement with

U.S., 508Mérida Initiative, 509–11military forces

expenditures, 505tmodernization, 507

nonmilitary government institutions creation, 507

organized crime, 488–90reforms and globalization, 508security relations with Central America,

518–19security sector reform, 503–11stability in jeopardy, 501U.S. weapons in, 489war against drug trafficking, 508

Miami Summit of the Americas (1994), 451



index 575

Micheletti, Roberto, 487Middle East

collective conflict management, 539tcontrasts, 199culture of hard security, 226–27defining region, 222, 224individualistic approach to security, 171major regional players, 178–85new international legal norms, 242–44regional arrangements, 51tregional security frameworks,

alternatives, 239–42security agencies, 175–78, 237–38security perceptions and narratives,

224–31tribal ties, 238Turkey’s role in, 215–16U.S. interest in decision-making

processes, 6Middle East and North Africa (MENA)

region, 172absence of regional security

architecture, 193regionalization, 174–75security issues, 185–93

migration of refugees, 289MILF (Moro Islamic Liberation Front),

404, 405–06, 550militant jihadists, 9militarism, in South Asia, 364–66military forces, 41

in Central America, mission redefinition, 515

changes in Europe after Cold War end, 281–82

of China. See People’s Liberation Army (PLA)

in El Salvador, 514European deployment, 285, 303n36external protection for Arab countries,

225in Guatemala, 514increase in expenditures, 302n16joint exercises by SCO member states,

334–35in Mexico, social function, 505NATO-EU doctrines, 268in Nicaragua, 514response to coups, 60

Military Staff Committee, 130Miller, Benjamin, “theory of regional war

and peace,” 62–63minimalists, view of NATO, 258, 259minorities, in India, 385MINUSTAH (United Nations

Stabilization Mission in Haiti), 507mixed international system, 27–28money-laundering, in South America, 454money-offer scams, 158Mongolia, and SCO, 335Mora, Frank, 475Morales, Evo, election, 460n45Morgan, Patrick, 15, 473

on material constraints, 66Morgenthau, Hans, Politics among

Nations, 4Moro Islamic Liberation Front (MILF),

404, 405–06, 550Morocco

counterterrorist measures, 230views on terrorism, 10

Moussa, Amr, 232, 251n9Mozambique, 7mufawadat, 111n30Mugabe, Robert, 133

African Union and, 134multicultural mixing, perception of, 289multilateral security cooperation, East Asia

need for, 432multilateral trades unionism, 99multilateralism, for India, 388murder rates

in Central America, 516in El Salvador, 490in Mexico, 489

organized crime assassinations, 510f

musawama (negotiation), 111n30Musharraf, Pervez, 367, 368, 374, 391n25,

548Muslim community in India, Sachar

Committee report on, 385Muslim countries

of former Soviet Union, 178income inequality, 21n15

Mutual Legal Assistance in Criminal Affairs, Treaty for, 520

Myanmar, 65, 85, 102, 426



576 index

Naim, Moises, 478n6Najar, Mostafa Mohammad, 188Namibia, 121narcotics. See also drug trafficking

in Africa, 150, 151–58nation building, in Central Asia, 347national attitudes, in Europe, 287–92National Bank of Economic Development,

440National Civil Police (PNC), in El

Salvador and Guatemala, 514–15National Council for Public Security of

El Salvador, 516national culture, 86, 91–92national interests

government’s definition of, 248priority of, 245

national security, vs. regional security, 472–73nationalism, 29

in China, 426in Japan, 417

NATO. See North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)

natural disasters, 404natural resources

and interstate conflict, 120–21politics and, 118

Naxalism, 357–58Naxarbayev, Nursultan, 344Nazi Germany, 25negotiation, 58

factors influencing, 79style, 76

Nehru, Jawaharlal, Discovery of India, 384neo-Confucian doctrines, 42Nepal

Hindu extremist groups, 362Islamist militant groups, 364peasant farmers in, 359

Netanyahu, Benjamin, 212Obama and, 217

Netherlands, measure of military effort, 291tNew Partnership for Africa’s Development

(NEPAD), 125New START Treaty, 312Nicaragua

armed conflict, 511–12peace process, 512

guerrilla movements, 502

military forces in, 514security-sector reforms, 514–15

Nice Treaty (2001), 274n35Nicolson, Harold, on diplomacy, 90Niger, 116

government cooperation with U.S., 124

Nigeria, 62, 120cyber crime, 158elections, 119political involvement in organized

crime, 153security services weakness, 160, 161views of al-Qaeda, 10

Nizam-e-Mustafa (Islamic system), 363Nkunda, Laurent, 120Nobel Peace Prize, 484Non-Aggression and Common Defence

Pact, 126Non-Aligned Movement (NAM)

conference (2009), 388Guyana as member, 469

nonalignment policy, of India, 382nongovernmental organizations (NGOs)

capacity of, 141and conflict management, 537–38, 552

nonindifference, 134noninterference, 102

in Southeast Asia, 411–12nonintervention, political meaning to, 32nonstate armed conflicts, 52norms and practices, 64North American Free Trade Agreement

(NAFTA), 475, 504North and South, different perspectives, 12North Atlantic Treaty Organization

(NATO), 30, 31–32, 53, 61, 294–95, 535

Afghanistan operations, 340bureaucracies, 57and Central Asia, 339collective self-defense and deterrence

function, 259commitment to improve Russia

relations, 310cooperation with European Union,

265–69obstacles, 267–68

and CSTO, 333



index 577

enlargement, 296enlargement as Russian concern, 309Euro-Atlantic Partnership (EAP),

296European Union and, 295functions, 273n24imperatives for future, 272n19membership, 261, 266t, 272n16missions and future, 257–58North Atlantic Council and Military

Committee, 70n25“out-of-area” missions, 260peace operations, 59tsupport for global orientation, 258and transatlantic relationship, 253, 254Turkey in, 172, 174

North Caucasus, instability in, 314North Korea, 91, 420–24

government siege mentality, 422and Japan, 421role in East Asia, 418and Six-Party Talks, 433–34trade with China, 436n7

North-South Joint Declaration, 420Northeast Asia, collective conflict

management, 540tNorthern Alliance, 321Northern Areas of Pakistan, 392n45Northern Distribution Network (NDN),

321–22, 323Northern Ireland, 7Norway, role in global conflict

management, 30nuclear disarmament, 5Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT),

41, 202, 312South America and, 438

nuclear weaponsattitudes on proliferation threat, 10concern about spread, 11, 22n22Iran development, 201Mexico and, 505North Korea development program,

420–22in Pakistan, 184in Russia, 310–11, 318Southeast Asia treaty banning, 408

Nunn, Sam, 486Nye, Joseph, 381

OAS. See Organization of American States (OAS)

Obama, Barack, 264and CSTO, 333and Cuba, 488and East Asia as priority, 417election, and U.S.-Russian relations,

312initiatives in Middle East, 216–17and international peacebuilding efforts

in Middle East, 194on nuclear weapons, 423Russia relations as priority, 310–11

Oderbrecht, 440OECD (Organization for Economic

Cooperation and Development), Information Computer and Communication Policy (ICCP) committee, 167

oilChina agreements on exploration

with Vietnam and Philippines, 410

impact on Middle East, 222and U.S. strategy, 181wealth used to impact opinion, 236

Olmert, Ehud, 211, 212, 214Oman

in Gulf Cooperation Council, 233links with West, 173military forces, 225view of security threats, 228

OPANAL (Agency for the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons in Latin America and the Caribbean), 444, 551

operational assumptions, vs. central tenets, 64

opinion polls, on Europe security, 292Orange Revolution in Ukraine, Bush

administration support, 311Organization for Economic

Co-operation and Development (OECD), Information Computer and Communication Policy (ICCP) committee, 167

Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE), 30, 298, 310, 343–44, 533

and Eurasia, 307



578 index

Organization of African Unity (OAU), 126AMU and, 176Commission for Mediation,

Conciliation and Arbitration, 56impact, 65Plan of Action on Drug Control, 164

Organization of American States (OAS)budget, 66competition for, 494–96consensus decision making by, 100condemnation of Honduran coup,

486–87damage control by, 495Guyana membership, 469intrastate conflict resolution, 53, 451Mission of Support of the Peace

Process in Colombia, 452and political culture change, 493renewal of, 439role of, 444–45, 457Rules of Procedures, 472–73secretary-general, 57and security threat, 446–47structure, 535–36subregional management, 99, 551Treaty on Pacific Settlement of

Disputes, 56Unit for the Promotion of Democracy

(UPD), 451–52Organization of the Eastern Caribbean

States (OECS), 470Organization of the Islamic Conference

(OIC), 235, 534organized crime

in Africa, 121, 150–51dynamics, and narcotics trade,

151–58in Americas, 483, 488–90, 496

Mexico, 509assassinations in Mexico, 510fin Caribbean, 463, 490–91development in West Africa, 154–55in Russia, 314transnational (TOC), 149

Ortega, Daniel, 484OSCE. See Organization for Security and

Co-operation in Europe (OSCE)Oslo Accords (1993), 210

Ouro Preto, Treaty of, 445outside powers, Arab states’ reliance on,

231–32

Pacific Islands Forum, peace operations, 59t

Pacific Settlement of Disputes, Treaty on, 56

Pakistan, 174, 356call for plebiscite in Kashmir, 370Durand Line, 548and India, 357. See also Kashmiras major regional player, 183–84militant groups, 363Northern Areas, 392n45political leadership, 370radical Islam at border, 361reprisals against Hindu minorities, 360and SCO, 335security challenges, 216threats, 391n25views of al-Qaeda, 10views on terrorism, 10

Pakistan Maritime Security Agency, 372Palermo Convention, 510Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO),

210Framework Agreement, 200

Palestinian Authority, 205, 206, 210–11and Israel, 207

Palestinian National Authority, 236Palestinian state, 192

establishment plans, 190–91Palestinians

demographic challenge, 207Qassam and Grad rockets, 204–05

Pan American Health Organization (PAHO), 492

Panama, 110n25pandemic diseases, risk in Southeast Asia,

403–04Panel of the Wise, 129Panetta, Leon, 497Pape, Eric, 155Paraguay, 440Partido de la Revolución Mexicana

(PRM), 521n4Partido Nacional Revolucionario, 521n4



index 579

Partido Revolucionario Institucional (PRI), 503

partitions, in South Asia, 356Partnership for Peace (PfP) agreement

with NATO, 267Pascoe, B. Lynn, 68Patassé, Ange-Felix, 120Pattani United Liberation Organization,

405peace

conditions of, 37era of improved, 27–36foundations of world, 37interrelationships and, xivs. justice, 117zone of, 28

peace agreementsfailure, 531recurrence of violence after, 123–25

Peace Fund, 130peace process

Arab-Israeli, 200, 209–15collapse, 207

conducted by regional arrangements since 1990, 59t

peacekeeping missions, 20n4Peninsula Shield Force, 251n11People’s Liberation Army (PLA), 396, 397

modernization, 424People’s Republic of China. See ChinaPérez, Orlando J., 518Perle, Richard, 180permanent liabilities, as category of people,

356Persian Gulf region, 176

oil, and U.S. strategy, 181security, 185–90

Persil islet dispute, 32Peru, 439

views on terrorism, 10Pew Research Center, 9, 10–11Philippines

China agreements on oil exploration, 410

International Contact Group (ICG), 550terrorist, separatist and insurrectionist

groups, 405–06views of al-Qaeda, 10

piracy, 122, 547NATO mission to combat off Somalia,

274n31NATO operations to disrupt, 556n13in Southeast Asia waters, 412

PLA. See People’s Liberation Army (PLA)Poland

measure of military effort, 291tU.S. agreement with, 294

police education, 497policymakers, impact of security culture, 75political conflicts, types, 51–52political corruption, 119

and democracy failure in Africa, 153in Guatemala, 490

political integration, to prevent conflict, 53–54

political Islam, 42vs. terrorism, 230–31

political movementsin India, 357–59in South Asia, 360–64

political power, exercise of, 62political transition, end in Central Asia,

347Politics among Nations (Morgenthau), 4pollution, poll on concern, 11Polybius, 27popular views, and international security,

9–10population

growth in Africa, 118security vs. countering threats to

Western interests, 124Portugal, measure of military effort, 291tpoverty

and ethnicity, 118India goal of eradicating, 377in South Asia, 357–60

Powell, Collin, 486power distribution

global, 37grievance with, 44

pragmatism, in collective conflict management, 545

Premadasa, Ranasinghe, 379private organizations, 31Prodi Report, 139



580 index

Proliferation Security Initiative, 41Protocol of Procedure of the Transfer of

Executive Power, 512Protocol of Washington (1992), 451, 469Pugwash conferences, 20n5Putin, Vladimir, 308

on concerns on post–Cold War security, 309–10

Pyongyang Declaration, 421

al-Qaradawi, Yusuf, 238Qatar

in Gulf Cooperation Council, 233links with West, 173as mediator, 238wealth use to support groups, 236

Quartet, 242and Arab-Israeli dispute, 192

Quinney, Nigel, 542

R2P. See responsibility to protect (R2P) principle

Rabin, Yitzhak, 212Radcliffe Line, 356–57Rafsanjani, Hashemi, 189Rakhmon, Emomali, 326Ranvir Sena, 358Rapnouil, Manuel Lafont, on multilateral

system reform, 12–13Rashid, Ahmed, 363Rasmussen, Anders Fogh, 258, 310Reagan, Ronald, 6, 484Reagan-Wright plan, 485reciprocity among states, 12reconstruction after conflicts, 124refugees, 6–7, 122–23

migration of, 289in South Asia, 356, 386

regime security, 117Regional Anti-Terrorist Structure (RATS),

334regional arrangements

and Israel, 208–09with security provision, 1945–2009, 51ttechniques and instruments, 58–60

regional autonomy, 534regional behavior, domestic politics and,

62–63Regional Centre for Strategic Studies, 548

regional culture, 86nature and impact of, 82

regional initiative, vs. global initiative, 4Regional Intelligence Fusion Centre

(RIFC), 471regional security

in Caribbean, vs. national security, 472–73

criticism, 16Regional Security System (RSS), 470regionalism

from African perspective, 142in East Asia, 419vs. state-building, 306study of, 15–16

regionalizationeffectiveness of conflict management,

542–43MENA and, 174–75UN and, 16

regions, 3blurred definition, 533definition, 78diversity in response, 532–38innovation, 541peacebuilding efforts, 529renewed focus, 49security challenges and capabilities, 15security control, demand for, 13–14variation

collective capacity, 66–67dimensions, 50–61sources, 61–67

Reinfeldt, Frederick, 264religion

influence in Middle East mediation, 237

poll on hatred as concern, 11in South Asia, 360–64of state, in South Asia, 390n22terrorism in South Asia, 360

religious freedom, government abuse and restrictions, 325

Report of the Commission for Africa (2005), 117

research, by African civil society groups, 141

resource allocation, politics in Africa, 118



index 581

resource mobilization, UN vs. African Union, 132

resources, and European community intervention limits, 290

responsibilities, unbalanced distribution, 37–40

responsibility to protect (R2P) principle, 8, 52–53, 532

and Darfur, 246–47debate on applying, 69Gaza, Egypt and, 244–45and humanitarian intervention,

242–43Reyes, Raul, 447Rio Group, 444, 494Rio Treaty (Inter-American Treaty of

Reciprocal Assistance), 460n36, 507and security threat, 446–47

rising sea levels, from climate change, 404Roberson, Barbara Allen, 172Roh Moo-Hyun, 424Rose Revolution in Georgia, Bush

administration support, 311, 321Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP),

489–90Russia, 100

Afghanistan and, 318as challenge for Europe, 282–83and conflict resolution, 39CSTO membership, 329domestic security concerns, 313drivers and limitations of key security

actor, 307–18Eurasia and, 348Europe and, 346European Union and, 297, 341–42future of supported institutions, 337–38impact on SCO, 336military allies, 302n13military changes required, 317–18as NATO members’ concern, 258nuclear weapons in, 318oil-export-generated wealth, 308regional security threats, 314–16relations with U.S., 33resentment of perceived failure in Cold

War, 310resources needed for security agenda,

316–318

resurgence, 308return of, 216role in East Asia, 418–19role in Kyrgyzstan, 328and SCO, 334security concerns, 308–16

Cold War legacies, 308–13and Serbia, 36test of power and influence, 315view by regional states, 346vision of multilateral organization,

297–98Rwanda, 7

1994 genocide, 115civil war, 120

Saakashvili, Mikheil, 312SAARC (South Asian Association for

Regional Cooperation), 356, 364Sachar Committee report, on Muslim

community in India, 385Sahni, Ajai, 363Said, Mohamed Kadry, 252n17Salacuse, Jeswald, 80Salinas de Gortari, Carlos, 505SALW (small arms and light weapons),

149. See also weaponsSalwa Judum, 358Sambi, Ahmed Abdallah, 133sanctions, African Union lack of, 135Sant’ Egidio, fraternity of, 31Santiago Declaration, 449, 451, 536, 542Sapoá Agreements (1988), 512Sarkozy, Nicolas, 299SARS epidemic, 404Saudi Arabia, 91, 181–82

customs union from GCC, 176exposure to Arab tradition of

diplomacy, 92in Gulf Cooperation Council, 233links with West, 173military forces, 225religious influence in, 237view of security threats, 228–29wealth use to support groups, 236

Savenije, Wim, 517Scandinavia, military forces, 290scarcity, politics and, 117school dropouts, in Caribbean, 491



582 index

SCO. See Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO)

sea lines of communication (SLOCs), 395China concern for, 399

Secretariat for Multi-Dimensional Security, 495

A Secure World in a Better World, 262security

definition, 8diversity, 11expansion, 3in South America, 441–43

differentiated views, 9–13expanded views, 7–9goal of, 249interrelationships and, xilocal ownership in managing, 16–17new dimensions in international, 44–46traditional views, 4–7

Security and Defence Treaty (1981), 470Security and Prosperity Partnership in

North America, 508security culture, 63–65, 69, 86

definition, 81impact on policymakers, 75shared, 61

security threatschange, and conflict management

requirements, 4–13changing perceptions, 13

Sejil missile system, 188self-control, 87Seniora, Faud, 206separatism, threat in Russia, 313September 11, 2001 attacks, 9

and international views of U.S., 33U.S. response, 13

Serbia, NATO air operation (1999) against, 36

Serduykov, Anatoly, 349n3Serrano, Jorge, 485–86Shanghai Cooperation Organization

(SCO), 53, 54, 307, 316, 334–37, 534anti-Western declarations by, 336future of, 337–38Russia support, 329

Shapiro, Jeremy, 265Sharon, Ariel, 211, 212Shaw, Mark, 155Shia in Iraq, 178, 179–80, 186–87

Shia-Sunni divide, 229–30Shinawatra, Thaksin, 405Siachen glacier, 368Sierra Leone, 7, 123Siles, Juan, 95Simmons, Beth, 438–39Sindjoun, Luc, 120Singapore, 400

military purchases, 401Singer, Max, 180Singh, Manmohan, 355, 369, 388

initiative on human security concerns, 370–73

SIPRI Yearbook, 34Sir Creek, 392n38Six-Day War of 1967, 199–200, 210Six-Party Talks, 421, 422, 430–31

and North Korea, 433–34slave trade, 31Slovenia, 282smart power, 381social Darwinism, and violent conflict, 42Solana, Javier, 259, 262Solingen, Etel, 63Solomon, Richard H., 91, 93, 95, 96, 107solutions, imposing, 26Somalia, 7, 116, 130, 133, 547

NATO mission to combat piracy, 274n31

Saudi Arabia and, 237Union of Islamic Courts in, 68

South Africa, 121South America

arms control in, 448boundary disputes in, 440collective conflict management, 540tconflict resolution, U.S. and, 456institutions managing security, 443–46intrastate conflict resolution, 451–52multilateralism in, 438–39

1990s challenges, 439–41security definition, 441–43transnational crimes, 453–56violence in, 437, 446–51

South American Regional Integration Initiative, 459n22

South American Security Council, 442South Asia, 351

borders, boundaries and migrants, 355–57



index 583

collective conflict management, 539tcomplexity of society, 355democracy, and religious extremism,

361democratic deficit in, 385militarism cultures, 364–66poverty, inequity and extremism, 357–60refugees, women and children as, 356religion, politics and extremism, 360–64security challenges, 354–64

South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC), 356, 364

South Caucasus, interethnic conflicts, 319–20

South China Sea, 395–96South Korea, 11–12

view of North Korea, 422–23South Ossetia, Russia and, 42South Timor, distrust against UN

personnel, 43Southeast Asia

arms race, 401–03challenges to peace and stability, 396–406

China’s growing military potential, 396–99

intra-ASEAN regional insecurities, 399–403

China and, 398, 409–11collective conflict management, 539tnontraditional threats, 403–06potential conflict, 395security architecture, 406–11, 407fASEAN, 406–09suspicions among countries, 396, 400United States in, 400

Southeast Asian Nuclear-Weapons-Free Zone Treaty, 408

Southern African Development Community (SADC), 57, 130–31

peace operations, 59tsovereign independence, 56sovereignty of states, 6, 29

African Union and, 117, 126in Caribbean, 467–68in South America, 442

preservation, 438Soviet Union

Cold War confrontation, 4in interwar period, 25Muslim countries of former, 178

Spainmeasure of military effort, 291tterrorist attacks, 284views on terrorism, 10

Special Security Conference in Mexico (2003), 441–42

Spratly Islands, 400, 410Sri Lanka, 30, 359

Indian Peace Keeping Force in, 379Islamist militant groups, 364state religion, 390n22

St. Vincent, CARICOM intervention, 469staffing, for African Union, 139–40standby force, of African Union, 138Standing, André, 118–19state-building, vs. regionalism, 306state capacity of Arab countries, 222state sovereignty, 6“state-to-nation balance,” 62–63state weakness in Africa, 116, 119stateless, designation of, 356states in Africa

development, organized crime impact, 157–58

reconstruction vs. development, 123–24states in South Asia, 355Steinmeier, Frank-Walter, 341Stephens, Philip, 190Stockholm International Peace Research

Institute, 401Strategic Defense Initiative (“Star Wars”), 6subnational identities in India, anxieties

about consolidating, 384subregion level, cooperation level, 98–101subregionalism

in Central Asia, 347in Middle East, 178

sub-Saharan African countries, income inequality, 21n15

Sudan, 116, 120, 130, 133, 426armed conflict, 149Darfur as internal issue, 246–47destabilization, 229and the West, 174

suicide bombings, in Israel, 205Suleiman, Omar, 237–38Summit Meetings of Hemispheric

Presidents, 444Summit Meetings of South American

Presidents, 444



584 index

Summit of the Americas, 495–96, 497Sunni militants, in Iraq, 179Susser, Asher, 181Sweden, measure of military effort, 291tSwitzerland, 30synthetic drugs, Canada production, 499n22Syria, 185

isolation of, 191and Israel, 5, 212–13and Israel-Lebanon relations, 214–15as mediator, 238nuclear weapons, 202opposition to Western military

presence, 174Syrian-Lebanese area, threat of Arab-

Israeli conventional war, 202

Tagore, Rabindranath, 384Taiwan, 398Taiwan Strait, diplomacy across, 420Tajikistan, 318, 320. See also Central Asia

conflict resolution, 326CSTO membership, 329in NATO Partnership for Peace

program, 339Russian border guard withdrawal, 333and Uzbekistan, 327

Taliban, 216, 404in Afghanistan, Central Asia as base for

overthrow, 321in Kashmir, 364Pakistan assistance in Afghani

overthrow, 183–84Saudi Arabia and, 237

Tamils of Jaffna, 356Tanzania, 133Tashkent Treaty, 329Taylor, Charles, 549Technical Assistance to the

Commonwealth of Independent States (TACIS), 341

terrorism, 230–31, 531Arab League efforts to fight, 232Caribbean vulnerability, 474“center of gravity” of international, 353in Colombia, 483in Europe, 284in India, 384in Israel, 208in Middle East, 226

vs. political Islam, 230–31responses in South Asia, 364–66South America and, 454–55in South Asia, 357in Southeast Asia, 400, 404threat in Russia, 313–14world views on threat, 10

Terrorist and Disruptive Activities Act (TADA), 365

Thailand, 55, 65, 400, 418Muslim-led insurgencies, 405U.S. relations with, 400

“third-border” concept, 473–77third parties, role of, 7Tiberias, Lake, Israel vs. Syria claims, 213Tlatelolco Treaty (1967), 438, 469, 505Torrijos-Carter Treaties, 110n25torture, 31trades unionism, multilateral, 99training of ASF personnel, 138transatlantic relations, 253. See also United

States-European relationspublic disengagement impact, 256–57

transnational crimes, 152in Africa, 121organized crime (TOC), 149in South America, 453–56

transport links, for Kashmir, 372tribal ties, in Middle East, 238Trinidad and Tobago, 467, 468

CARICOM troops in, 470natural gas, 474

Tripartite Agreement of 1950, 227, 250n1Trudeau, Pierre, 498n5trust, absence

between Arab states, 172in Central Asia, 327

Tulip Revolution (2005), 320Turkey, 185

assertion of national interests, 248Baghdad Pact and, 208increased role in Middle East, 215–16as mediator, 104national identity, and clash with Arabs,

172in NATO, 172, 174and NATO-EU relations, 266–67and “resistance camps,” 202U.S. and, 32views on terrorism, 10



index 585

Turkmenistan, 318. See also Central Asiain NATO Partnership for Peace

program, 339

UkraineOrange Revolution, Bush

administration support, 311Russia and, 316

Ul Haq, Mahboob, 385umma, 97UN/AU Mission in Darfur (UNAMID),

247, 550unanimity in decision making, vs.

consensus, 56Unidad Revolucionaria Nacional

Guatemalteca (URNG), 513Union for the Mediterranean, 234

efforts to create, 299Union of Islamic Courts, authorities in

Somalia, 68Union of South American Nations

(UNASUR), 442, 445, 450, 452, 494, 551

Union of the Comoros, 133United Arab Emirates

in Gulf Cooperation Council, 233links with West, 173wealth use to support groups, 236

United Kingdomand European integration, 94measure of military effort, 291t

United Nations2005 World Summit Outcome

document, 52vs. African Standby Force (ASF),

support, 137African Union-United Nations Hybrid

Operation in Darfur (UNAMID), 247

and ASPA, 131–32charter, 73n35, 535–36Commissioner for Refugees, 325in conflict management in Americas, 493culture, 88and Eurasia, 307international mandate, 33Office on Drugs and Crime

(UNODC), 150, 152, 490peacekeeping activities, 33

vs. ASF, 130

regionalization as competition, 16role in global conflict management,

31–34role of, 5Stabilization Mission in Haiti

(MINUSTAH), 507standby team of mediation, 68and state power in Caribbean, 466U.S. view of, 30

United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime, 510

United Nations Development Program (UNDP), 516

United Nations General Assembly, 8United Nations Security Council, 6

African Union and, 131–32and CSTO peacekeeping deployment,

332and humanitarian intervention, 243increased effectiveness, 33interpretation of threat, 49need for reform, 430post–Cold War period, 28–29reform, 39–40Resolution 687, 6Resolution 1701, 203Resolution 1718, on North Korea

nuclear testing, 421resolutions on North Korea, 433

United Statesagreements with Bulgaria and Poland,

294attitudes toward European integration,

254–55China and, 410in conflict management in Americas,

493and EU-NATO cooperation, 267–68Europe as natural ally, 269European attitudes toward, 265European expectation of leadership by,

299European opinions and siding with,

288–89fuel supply for military in Afghanistan,

322future security for East Asia, 432GCC cooperation with, 233–34high-level relations with European

Union, 264



586 index

interests in Caribbean, 465international dominance, 28Latin American efforts to constrain

intervention, 99main asset, 32in Middle East security framework,

239–40military expenses, 41military in Iraq, 180missile defense system, as Russian

concern, 311multifaceted approach of, 100–01multilateral approach to South

America, 439network of alliances, 33new policy in Middle East, 216–17Northern Command, 508and OAS, 444oil imports, 474Pakistan as ally, 184reactive policies in Persian Gulf, 186in regional decisions, 553Regional Maritime Security Initiative,

400relations with CSTO, 338relationship with Europe redefined,

255–56, 269resentment of leadership, 29–30responsibilities for conflict

management, 38role in East Asia, 417role in global conflict management,

31–34role in Middle East conflict, 249role in preservation of global peace, 28and South America conflict resolution,

456in Southeast Asia, 400State Department, Bureau of

International Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs, 157

“third-border” concept, 473–77view of North Korean nuclear program,

423war in Iraq, 215war to remove Iraq from Kuwait, 225Western Hemisphere ties, 475

United States-European relations, 253

United States Institute of PeaceCross-Cultural Negotiation (CCN)

project, 76, 78–80applying on regional level, 80–84

United Tajik Opposition (UTO), 319University of Maryland, Center for

International Development and Conflict Management, 530

Uppsala University Conflict Data Program, 35, 52

uranium, enrichment by Iran, 189Uruguay, 440U.S.-Caribbean Basin Trade Partnership

Act, 481n41U.S.-Mexican Merida Initiative, ixUshuaia Protocol of 1998, 445Uzbekistan, 315, 318, 331

border reinforcement, 327CSTO membership, 329disaster-response exercise, 340in NATO Partnership for Peace

program, 339negotiations, 338and Tajikistan, 327

Valdés, Juan Gabriel, 443, 452van der Veer, Jeroen, 259Van Rompuy, Herman, 276n54Venezuela

Armed Forces, 479n20arms expenditures, 492–93crime rate, 453left-wing government, 440tensions with Colombia, 440, 447–48,

458n10Verner, Dorte, 491vertical policymaking, in Arab states, 91victims of armed conflicts, statistics,

34–36Vietnam, China agreements on oil

exploration, 410violence

in Americas, interstate, 446–51in Central America, 516recurrence after peace agreements,

123–25Virtual Silk Highway project, 340Von Brazi, Calus, 161



index 587

Waajihatul Islaamiyyah, 467Waever, Ole, 15, 532Wajed, Sheikh Hasina, 391n23Waltz, Kenneth, 43Wane, El Ghassim, 129war. See also armed conflict

for dispute settlement, 1815 to 1914, 25–26

fatalities, 34, 35necessity for justice, 290risk of, 45

War of the Pacific, 437War of the Triple Alliance, 437war on terror, Libya’s role in, 183Washington Post, 496weapons. See also nuclear weapons

in Africa, 119arms race in Southeast Asia, 401–03availability of small arms, 149in Caribbean, 492–93in Central America, 517of Russian armed forces, 349n3in South America, 437–38trafficking in Africa, 121from U.S. into Mexico, 489

weapons of mass destructionIndia fears, 380Iraq production, 6

Weiss, Thomas G., 544, 555n11Wendt, Alexander, 64West

diplomatic style, 91–92market-driven reconstruction agenda,

125West Africa, 55

as “coke coast,” 150organized crime, 150transnational crimes, 152

West Bank, 192, 211West Indies federation, efforts to create, 98Western Hemisphere. See also Organization

of American States (OAS)democracy in, 493–94

white collar crime, 160–61wider regionalized conflicts, 52

Williams, Paul D., 81, 532Wisner, Frank, 85, 91, 96, 100, 103, 107Witney, Nick, 265women, in South Asia, 386Women of Liberia Mass Action for Peace

group, 549Working Group in Charge for Preparing

a Regional Strategy to Promote Inter-American Cooperation in Dealing with Criminal Gangs, 454

World Bank, 125, 354world, Europe and, 300–01world GDP, 261–62World Health Organization (WHO), 34World Trade Organization (WTO), 354

and state power in Caribbean, 466World War I, absence of conflict before,

36–37Wright, Jim, 484Wright, Quincy, 37

Yamani, Mai, 181Yanukovich, Victor, 312Yates, Mary Carlin, 157Yemen

counterterrorist measures, 230destabilization, 229resentment of U.S. involvement, 239and the West, 174

youth gangs, in Central America, 517youth maras, 517

in Central America, 503Yugoslavia, 7Yuschenko, Victor, 312

Zambia, 121Zapatista movement, 502Zartman, I. William, 75Zedillo, Ernesto, 505Zelaya, Manuel, 486Zimbabwe, 116

African National Union-Patriotic Front (ZANU-PF), 133

African Union and, 133elections, 119



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