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335

Index

ABM (antiballistic missile) systems, 240, 244–46, 248

Abu Ghraib, 109, 183accountability, 68, 153–54Acheson, Dean, 79, 125, 127, 172, 272Adamishin, Anatoly, 53, 140Adams, Gerry, 51Adams, John, 161–62Adams, John Quincy, 147, 162administration changeovers, 13, 140–42, 185adversarial relationship

negotiations in, 237–50threats of, 68

Afghanistan war, 40, 182, 184, 208, 213, 303n22, 311n45

Afghan-Soviet war, 129agreements, wording of, 12air-launched cruise missiles (ALCMs), 242Ake, Simeon, 58Al Arabiya, 91Albright, Madeleine

electoral cycles and, 138hospitality offered to, 110n41interagency rivalry, 144Middle East peace process, 182superpower mind-set, 44urgency of negotiations, 72

ALCMs (air-launched cruise missiles), 242alcohol consumption, 110, 110n41Algeciras conference, 166Alice in Wonderland (Carroll), 79amae, 48ambiguity, 79–80, 83, 191, 229ambivalence, 19–21, 153, 272“the American Creed,” 19n2American culture, 10–11Americanization, 220American West imagery, 153Amnesty International, 177Andreani, Gilles, 14–15, 279

on back channels, 101

on diplomatic autonomy, 151on linkages, 61on listening skills, 83on political vulnerability, 152on U.S. attitude toward negotiations, 19, 41,

294, 299, 299n16Angola, withdrawal of Cuban forces from, 98Angola/Namibia negotiations, 74, 108, 138–39,

148anti-Americanism, 283, 288antiballistic missile (ABM) systems, 240,

244–46, 248ANZUS Treaty, 222, 230, 234appeasement, 20, 55–56Arab cultures, conversational style, 84Arafat, Yasser, 182Araud, Gérard, 24, 39archival disorder, 76, 141–42, 173–74, 304–07argumentation (CCN category), 319Armitage, Richard, 41, 44arms control, 174, 175, 177–79. See also nuclear

policy negotiationsinteragency rivalry over, 144–45negotiations on, 237–50 (See also specific

treaty)Arms Control and Disarmament Agency, 246arrogance, 82–83, 257, 288, 294Art, Robert, 69Asad, Hafez al, 51, 51n10ASEAN (Association of Southeast Asian

Nations), 297negotiations with, 191, 193–95Regional Forum (ARF), 23–24

ASEAN Single Window (ASW), 194ASEAN-U.S. Enhanced Partnership, 194ASEAN-U.S. Free Trade Agreement, 194ASEAN-U.S. Trade and Investment

Framework Agreement (TIFA), 194Asian negotiating style, 48, 54. See also specific

countryAsia-Pacific Economic Cooperation forum, 297

336 American Negotiating Behavior

Asia Society, 251assertion (CCN category), 319Association of Southeast Asian Nations.

See ASEANASW (ASEAN Single Window), 194Atlee, Clement, 172attention to detail, 31–32, 312attitude toward negotiations, 19n1, 19–21

CCN category, 315–16foreign perspective on, 287optimistic, 27–28, 29

attitudinal changes, 15Australia, 234authority to negotiate, 281automobile metaphors, 27autonomy, diplomatic, 150–51, 164, 275Avruch, Kevin, 8“axis of evil,” 183Aziz, Tariq, 129

Babacan, Ali, 217back channels, 12, 94–102

attitude toward, 94CCN category, 320during Cold War, 96–97, 101, 174, 175definition of, 93, 95–96preference for, 217, 233–34risks of, 99–102, 217–18value of, 95

background material, 31, 107, 312Bacon, Kenneth, 27Bahr, Egon, 97n9Baker, Howard, 207Baker, James

administration changeover, 140arms control negotiations, 245attitude toward negotiation, 20congressional relations, 128–29, 136flattery used by, 51, 51n11French relations with, 287global purview used by, 90inducements, 56, 58interagency rivalry, 145on media coverage, 105negotiating language, 80, 81negotiating style, 25, 25n26, 29relationship building, 49–50START negotiations, 247–48

superpower mind-set, 43on threats, 69n66

Baklanov, Oleg, 244, 244n3Bangladesh, 260–61Ban Ki-moon, 311Barak, Ehud, 182Barry, Robert, 309n40bartering (CCN category), 320Bayard, Ashton, 162Begin, Menachem, 58, 108, 114, 178Benedick, Richard, 179Benedict, Ruth, 8Berman, Maureen, 252Beschloss, Michael R., 246–47bilateral settings, preference for, 86, 190–91,

271, 297n11Bildt, Carl, 115, 148“black books,” 31Blair, Tony, 53, 80, 87–88Blaker, Michael, 84blame, for failure of negotiations, 68, 153–54Blanchard, James, 104Blix, Hans, 183“blue line,” 99bluffing, 30, 70, 240–41bluntness, 81–83, 160, 230, 238, 239, 296bluster, 30, 318Boas, Franz, 8body language, 83, 319Bohlen, Charles, 22, 31n53Bolton, John, 196–97, 288

attack on Hill, 156personality, 89, 196UN reforms, 132, 136, 197–98

bombastic behavior, 30, 30n46Bosnia and Herzegovina, UN hostage crisis,

285Bosnia peace process. See Dayton negotiationsBrazil, 154, 262Bretton Woods Conference (1944), 171Bretton Woods institutions, 272Brezhnev, Leonid, 33, 176, 177–78, 246Bronk, Chris, 306Brooks, Linton, 241, 243Bryan, William Jennings, 166Brzezinski, Zbigniew, 72Buchanan, James, 163bullying, 40

337Index

bureaucratic context (CCN category), 316Bureau of East Asian and Pacific Affairs,

225Bureau of South Asian Affairs, 255Burns, Nicholas, 69–70, 102–03Burt, Richard, 151, 241, 243, 246–47Bush, George H.W., 180–81

administration changeover, 140arms control negotiations, 249back channels used by, 100congressional power and, 128deadline pressure, 74French relations with, 287“moving the goalposts,” 66multilateral diplomacy, 272, 273NATO reforms, 281negotiating language, 80negotiating style, 25, 25n26, 32relationship building, 49, 49n6scapegoating, 153–54Super 301 negotiations, 262superpower mind-set, 43Turkish relations with, 214

Bush, George W., 182–84administration changeover, 140ASEAN negotiations, 194attitude toward negotiation, 20, 91electoral cycles and, 138, 139exceptionalism, 38French relations with, 282idealism, 35Indian relations with, 264–67, 269interagency rivalry, 146interagency teams, 148international opinion of, 117lack of diplomacy, 288moralistic mind-set, 133multilateral negotiations, 86–88, 2722002 National Security Strategy, 212–13negotiating language, 80, 220negotiating style, 5, 34New Zealand relations with, 232recordkeeping practices, 142relationship building, 51–53Russian negotiations, 238Singapore-U.S. FTA, 191–92, 199superpower mind-set, 42–44threats used by, 68n62, 68–70

Turkish negotiations, 216–17unilateralism, 249

businesslike mind-set, 21–28, 45advantages and disadvantages of, 295history of, 169, 185during India negotiations, 253during New Zealand negotiations, 233relationship building and, 48sanctions and, 64in security negotiations, 212of State Department, 131

Camp David (Maryland), 73–74, 114–15, 138, 174, 178–79, 182

Canada, 104, 234capital controls, U.S.-Singapore dispute over,

192–93Carnegie Endowment for International Peace,

237Carroll, Lewis, 79Carter, Jimmy, 177–79

Camp David summit, 73–74, 114congressional relations, 131electoral cycles and, 139idealism, 34–35Indian relations with, 254inducements, 57–58media usage, 108mistranslations, 78“moving the goalposts,” 65negotiating style, 5as negotiator, 311–12track-one-and-a-half diplomacy, 120–21,

121n74Castro, Fidel, 135CCN (Cross-Cultural Negotiation) project, 7,

315–16Ceausescu, Nicolae, 82Cédras, Raoul, 121n74Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), See CIAceremonial functions

protocol and etiquette, 112, 114seating arrangements for, 83–84

CFCs (chlorofluorocarbons), 179–80Chagla, M. C., 268Chan Heng Chee, 14, 189

on internal negotiations, 123on multilateral negotiations, 86


on personalities, 89on separation of powers, 135–36on U.S. negotiating style, 29, 294, 299n16

Chemical Weapons Convention, 240Cheney, Richard

“Defense Planning Guidance,” 39interagency rivalry, 144–45, 146n72, 147, 216START negotiations, 247–48

chewing gum, U.S.-Singapore dispute over, 192Chiang Kai-shek, 155Chigas, Diana, 120China

communication style, 83–84diplomatic system, 54history of U.S. negotiations with, 164,

175–76hospitality, 110, 110n40human rights linkages, 61, 66invasion of India, 257–58MFN status, 66negotiating style, 23n18, 48, 54recordkeeping system, 142Tiananmen Square, 100, 103time pressures used by, 74U.S. threats against, 68

“China Hands,” 155–56China-U.S. Dialogue, 119Chirac, Jacques, 62, 68, 281, 284, 286Christopher, Warren

congressional relations, 129inducements, 57negotiating language, 83negotiating style, 24–25, 29–30New Zealand relations, 224on threats, 69n66

Churchill, Winston, 20, 171–72CIA (Central Intelligence Agency)

back channels used by, 96–97history of, 170, 173

“civic journalism,” 102Clawson, Patrick, 58Clay, Henry, 162Clemenceau, Georges, 167climate change, 179–80, 184, 277Clinton, Bill

administration changeover, 140congressional relations, 128, 129, 132electoral cycles and, 138–39

exceptionalism, 37hospitality offered by, 114Indian relations with, 255, 263–66inducements, 59, 69n66interagency teams, 149interest groups influencing, 134international support marshaled by, 62–63Japanese trade negotiations, 204Law of the Sea Treaty, 178linkages used by, 61Middle East peace process, 180–82, 183mistranslations, 78“moving the goalposts,” 66NATO reforms, 281negotiating style, 5, 72New Zealand negotiations, 231recordkeeping practices, 142relationship building, 51, 51n10Singapore-U.S. FTA, 191–92specialist support, 181–82, 311track-one-and-a-half diplomacy, 121, 121n74as UN special envoy, 311–12

Clinton, Hillary, 184, 305, 311, 312Clinton Foundation, 312Clinton parameters, 139CNN effect, 103, 103n27“coalitions of the willing,” 273coercive approach, 253, 264, 267Cogan, Charles, 87Cohen, Raymond, 8, 252, 256Cold War, 172–80

back channels during, 96–97, 101, 174, 175end of, 180, 238, 288exceptionalism and, 36multilateral diplomacy and, 273superpower mind-set and, 39, 189Turkish relations during, 215

communicationCCN category, 320context of, 83mistakes in, 77–78, 83nonverbal, 83technology, 102, 159, 161, 165, 303verbal (See language)

Community of Sant’Egidio, 120competitive process, negotiation as, 80Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (CTBT),

265, 277

339Index

compromiseCCN category, 319as form of appeasement, 55–56during Russian negotiations, 241–42

conceptualism, 238–40Conference on Security and Cooperation in

Europe, 81confidentiality, 242–44conflict management role, 303Congress, 12–13

attitude toward diplomacy, 86, 197–98, 309attitude toward hospitality, 112constitutional role of, 126–31food aid to India, 259foreign perspective on, 284–85influence of, 125–37, 300insular instinct of, 131–33interest groups and, 133–35as leverage, 136–37moralistic mind-set of, 131“moving the goalposts” and, 65multilateral negotiations, 272, 277New Zealand negotiations, 226–28threats used by, 69trade negotiations, 130, 203, 205–06two-sided relationship, 135–37

consensus, 85“constructive ambiguity,” 79“constructive engagement” policy, 61Contact Group, 62containment policy, 172–74context of communication, 83conventional forces in Europe (CFE), 279Convention for the Peaceful Settlement of

International Disputes, 88Convention on the Rights of the Child, 37conversational norms, 82–83Coolidge, Calvin, 22, 169corporate influence, 22Council on Foreign Relations, 170, 252countertactics (CCN category), 317cowboys, diplomats as, 152–54creativity

examples of, 199, 229, 242in multilateral negotiations, 275

credibility, 70, 318–19Crocker, Chester A.

attitude toward negotiation, 20, 28

back channels used by, 98deadline pressure, 74electoral cycles and, 138–39on interagency teams, 148linkages used by, 61media tactics, 108

Cross-Cultural Negotiation (CCN) project, 7, 315–16

Cuba, 98, 135Cuban missile crisis, 153, 174, 186, 215cultural differences

among diplomats, 9concepts of time, 71n71, 75in conversational norms, 82–83during India negotiations, 252, 255–57,

267–69during New Zealand negotiations, 222–23relationship building and, 54during Turkish negotiations, 218–19

cultural insensitivity, 113, 113n47, 252–53, 256, 257

culture, 7–11American, 10–11definition of, 8, 8n8of diplomacy, 9national versus institutional, 9–10“negotiation,” 10n12

“culture war,” 104Cushing, Caleb, 164customs procedures, 194Cyprus, 215

Dar al Hayat, 154Dartmouth Conference, 118–19Day, William, 165Dayton negotiations, 180–81

bluffing during, 70congressional influence, 128diplomatic autonomy during, 151n88hospitality during, 115inducements used during, 57interagency team, 148–49international support for, 62security procedures during, 113threats used during, 68, 68n58urgency of, 72–73

deadlines, 12, 71–76, 318–19“Defense Planning Guidance,” 39


demandsescalation of, 319late, 282

democratic states, internal negotiations, 124Deng Xiaoping, 100, 142Department of Defense

collaboration initiative, 307funding of, 308, 308n35history of, 144interagency rivalry with, 144Iraq War negotiations, 216–17New Zealand negotiations, 225political negotiators within, 311n45Quadrennial Defense studies, 307, 308n35role in security negotiations, 298

Department of Homeland Security, 212Department of State. See United States Foreign

Servicedétente (Soviet Union), 175–77developing strategies and tactics (CCN

category), 317development adviser role, 303Diplomacy (Kissinger), 25, 25n28diplomatic relations (U.S.), scope of, 20, 62,

90–92, 274diplomatic systems

comparison of, 54U.S. (See United States Foreign Service)

diplomats. See also specific personautonomy of, 150–51, 164, 275changing role of, 303, 310–12cultural differences between, 9domestic support for, 282–83versus political appointees, 89, 152, 168, 186political vulnerability of, 13, 152–56shared culture of, 9tenure of, 85

Diplopedia, 305–06disengagement from negotiations, 68dispute settlement mechanism (WTO), 209District of Columbia (D.C.) model, 181Dixit, J. N., 255Dobrynin, Anatoly, 98, 174, 175, 245–46Dole, Bob, 284domestic context (CCN category), 316domestic system interaction system (CCN

category), 316domineering style, 44

Dulles, John Foster, 34, 173–74, 254, 257, 269Dumbarton Oaks Conference (1944), 171Durban II Conference Against Racism, 197

Eagleburger, Lawrence, 309n40Eban, Abba, 174economic inducements, 57–58, 220economic superiority, 40. See also superpower

mind-setEgypt-Israel peace process, 176, 178–79

administration changeovers and, 141hospitality during, 114inducements used during, 58media used during, 108recordkeeping practices and, 173–74

Eisenhower, Dwight D., 173–74administration changeover, 141food aid to India, 259Indian relations with, 254negotiating style, 22threats used by, 68

electoral cyclesforeign policy formulation and, 124, 160impact of, 6, 13, 137–42time pressures and, 71, 74, 185–86

“embedded” journalists, 109emotional behavior, 30, 30n46, 33empathy, 49, 286endpoint of negotiation (CCN category), 317English language, 12, 76–78, 212, 274Environmental Protection Agency, 179equals, treating others as, 48, 252, 253, 263, 269Erdogan, Tayyip, 102, 216, 217escalation of demands (CCN category), 319ethnic lobbies, 133n33, 134, 134n35etiquette, 112, 114, 261“the Euro-Atlantic community,” 283–84Eurocorps, 285European Advisory Commission, 171Europeanization of NATO, 280European Union. See also specific country

effective multilateralism, 273financial incentives, 57Iraq War negotiations, 213–14security negotiations with, 288UN relations, 198

exceptionalism, 35–38history of, 35n71, 166, 185

341Index

multilateral negotiations and, 86–88, 272–73political vulnerability and, 153security negotiations and, 213superpower mind-set and, 40–41

“exchange of concerns,” 241executive agreements, 127expectation of success (CCN category), 315–16

facilitators, 120–21, 197factual argumentation (CCN category), 319failure of negotiations

blame for, 68, 153–54example of, 230–33

Fang Li Zhi, 154“feedback loop” (public), 107Fillmore, Millard, 164financial incentives, 57–58, 220Fissile Material Cut-off Treaty (FMCT), 265flexibility

examples of, 199, 229, 242in multilateral negotiations, 275

Foley, Tom, 207food aid to India, 252, 258–60Food for Peace (PL-480), 259Ford, Gerald R., 28, 177foreign perspectives, 13–15. See also specific

person or countryon adversarial negotiations, 237–50on attitude toward negotiations, 287on internal negotiations, 190, 221–35,

284–85, 286on legalistic mind-set, 191on mind-sets, 239–41on multilateral negotiations, 193–95,

271–77, 285–86on security negotiations, 206–08, 211–20on superpower mind-set, 38n80, 189–90,

196, 223–25, 237, 287on trade negotiations, 191–95, 201–09on United Nations, 195–98on U.S. negotiating style, 294on U.S. political system, 190

foreign policycongressional influence over, 130–33, 176–77failure of, accountability for, 68, 153–54formulation of, 124–25, 151interagency disputes over, 143–45politicization of, 103, 129, 160, 185

Foreign Relations Authorization Act, Kassebaum-Solomon amendment, 132

foreign service. See diplomats; United States Foreign Service

Foreign Service Act of 1946, 54, 173foreign travel, by U.S. officials, 56–57formality, 112, 114forward movement metaphors, 26–27, 26n33,

26n34Foster, William, 245–46Fox, Vincente, 53France

back channels used by, 99Franklin’s celebrity in, 161–62hospitality, 110, 112, 112n45Iraq War, 87, 183, 280, 282, 285, 287Moroccan dispute, 166NATO command dispute, 151, 151n91,

280, 282, 286negotiating style, 24, 25n27, 39, 55, 87, 280perspective (See Andreani, Gilles)U.S. negotiations with, 279–81World War I, 167–68World War II, 171

Franklin, Benjamin, 34, 116, 154, 161–62, 176

Freedom Support Act (Section 907), 134Freeman, Charles W., 4n2, 19n1

on administration changeovers, 141on congressional influence, 130, 136media tactics, 109negotiating style, 26on parochialism, 155on relationship building, 49threats used by, 69

Freeman, Orville, 260French Indochina, 172friendship, appeals to, 23, 3201923 Friendship Treaty (Turkey), 214Fulbright, William, 36, 36n73funding of foreign service, 308n37, 308–310

G-20, 297gaiatsu (foreign pressure), 209gaimusho ( Japanese Ministry of Foreign

Affairs), 54Galbraith, John Kenneth, 258Gallatin, Albert, 162


Gandhi, Indira, 254–55, 260Gates, Robert, 298, 308, 308n35Gelb, Leslie, 299n16General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade

(GATT), 205, 209, 262, 284General Agreement on Trade in Services,

192–93Geneva Agreed Framework, 56, 56n22,

69n66, 113Geneva Conference on Disarmament, 240,

243, 250German reunification, 115

back channels used during, 98–99relationship building during, 49–50

GermanyMoroccan dispute, 166West Berlin dispute, 174World War I, 167–68World War II, 171

Gingrich, Newt, 284Glaspie, April, 153–54Glassman, James, 269global audience, access to, 104, 107global financial crisis, 39, 184globalization, 91, 298–99global purview, 90–92“global war on terrorism,” 39, 183, 214Goldwater-Nichols Defense Reorganization

Act, 307, 309Gorbachev, Mikhail

administration changeovers and, 140arms control negotiations, 248Kohl meeting with, 32personality, 50personal relationships with, 52, 53Reagan meetings with, 179Reykjavik summit, 242START negotiations, 108

Gordon, Michael, 243Gould, Harold, 257Green Revolution, 259Group of 77 (G-77), 196, 198GRU, 97guanxi, 48guerrilla negotiating style, 67n56Gulf War (1990–91), 62, 90, 128–29, 153–54,

207, 215gunboat diplomacy, 260–61

Haass, Richard, 43, 64Hadley, Stephen, 217Haiti

Clinton as envoy to, 311, 312track-one-and-a-half diplomacy with, 121,

121n74Hale, William Bayard, 166Hamdoon, Nizar, 64Hannay, David, 14, 271

on diplomatic autonomy, 150on exceptionalism, 37–38on negotiating language, 80on political appointees, 89on superpower mind-set, 41–42on U.S. negotiating style, 30, 294

Harding, Warren, 169Harriman, Averell, 171, 174Hassan, King Moulay, 97Hay, John, 165hegemony, 38, 38n80, 131, 313. See also

superpower mind-setHelms Burton legislation, 135Helsinki Final Act, 66, 151, 177“high” politics, 61, 159, 184, 217, 300Hill, Christopher

Bolton’s attack on, 156businesslike style, 21flexibility in negotiations, 199internal negotiations, 190media tactics, 106, 109movement metaphors, 26negotiating language, 80

Hills, Carla, 262historical context (CCN category), 316historical overview, 13history, indifference to, 75–76, 218, 253, 256Hodel, Donald, 179Hofstadter, Richard, 35Holbrooke, Richard, 180–81, 288

on bluffing, 70on Christopher’s negotiating style, 30on congressional influence, 128diplomatic autonomy, 151n88on hospitality, 113n47, 115on inducements, 57interagency team, 148–49on language, 77media used by, 107n34

343Index

negotiating language, 81on negotiating style, 24threats used by, 68, 68n58on urgency of negotiations, 73

homosexuals, 156honesty, 30, 70, 81–82, 230, 238, 239Hong Kong, 134Hoover, Herbert, 169Hopkins, Harry, 171hospitality, 12, 93, 110–15

American culture of, 113–14attitude toward, 94, 111CCN category, 320definition of, 111during New Zealand negotiations, 229

hostility (CCN category), 320House, Colonel, 167How Israelis and Palestinians Negotiate (Wittes), 8Hrinak, Donna, 154Hull, Cordell, 171human rights

commitment to, 35linkage to, 61, 66, 176Pakistani case, 260–61Soviet negotiations over, 53

Human Rights Commission (UN), 197, 199Human Rights Watch, 177“Humpty Dumpty words,” 79Huntsman, Jon, Jr., 192Hurst, Steve, 103Hussain, Abid, 262Hussein, Saddam

foreign sympathy for, 64invasion of Kuwait, 62, 128, 153, 207Reagan relations with, 56use of force against, 86, 182–83, 213 (See also

Iraq War)weapons of mass destruction, 68

Hyde, Henry, 132, 198Hyde Act, 267

ICBMs (intercontinental ballistic missile), 240, 247–48, 249

ICC (International Criminal Court), 37, 88idealism, 33–35, 160, 189, 296ignorance of history, 75–76, 218, 253, 256impatience, 10–11, 12, 71, 212, 294

advantages and disadvantages of, 72–75

during arms control negotiations, 248–49avoidance of, 300, 304, 306electoral cycles and, 137during New Zealand negotiations, 224–25,

233implementation (CCN category), 317India, 251–269

American attitude toward, 76, 254–57, 261, 268

Bangladeshi refugees, 260–61cultural differences, 252, 255–57, 267–69economic power of, 263food aid to, 252, 258–60history of U.S. negotiations with, 251–52ideological differences, 253–54Kashmir, 255, 258, 263linkages, 258–59military assistance to, 257–58misunderstandings with, 253–62“moving the goalposts,” 64–65nonalignment policy, 254nuclear proliferation, 252, 263–67perspective (See Mansingh, Lalit)post-Cold War relations with, 262–67sanctions against, 264–65, 267Super 301 negotiations, 261–62U.S. threats against, 63, 265war with Pakistan, 261

indirectness, 93, 93n1individualism, 6, 83individual negotiation (CCN category),

317–18Indonesia, 193inducements (incentives), 11, 55–59

CCN category, 320financial, 57–58, 220versus threats, 69–70

inductive reasoning, 29industrial relations, negotiating skills influenced

by, 26Indyk, Martin, 182INF (intermediate-range nuclear forces), 244,

248, 248n11, 280informal bargaining

forms of, 93–94, 115–21with New Zealand, 229during Russian negotiations, 241–42

informal hospitality, 113–14


“informal probing,” 243The Inquiry, 167, 170institutional culture, 9–10institutional memory, 15, 141, 304–07integrity, 30, 274, 294intellectual property (IP) negotiations, 191–92,

194intelligence community (U.S.), 31

back channels used by, 96–97, 217–18Iraq War and, 183reliance on, 31, 284, 312

interagency collaboration, fostering, 307–08interagency negotiating teams, 147–50, 277,

298–99interagency rivalries, 12, 125

advantages and disadvantages of, 301avoidance of, 307–08foreign perspectives on, 190, 284–85, 286history of, 170impact of, 6, 142–51Iraq War negotiations, 144, 147, 216–17“moving the goalposts” and, 65multilateral negotiations and, 275, 277during New Zealand negotiations, 225presidential role in, 161, 186recordkeeping practices and, 142, 173–74trade negotiations, 206

intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBMs), 240, 247–48, 249

interest groups, indirect influence of, 133–35intergovernmental organizations, 85. See also

specific organizationintermediate-range nuclear forces (INF), 244,

248, 248n11, 280internal negotiations, 123–56

during arms control negotiations, 244–48with Congress (See Congress)election cycles and (See electoral cycles)foreign perspectives on, 190–91, 221–35history of, 161–62, 186interagency rivalries (See interagency

rivalries)during New Zealand negotiations, 225–26political vulnerability and, 13, 152–56

International Atomic Energy Agency, 267International Bank for Reconstruction and

Development (World Bank), 171, 271International Criminal Court (ICC), 37, 88

International Institute for Strategic Studies, 279

International Monetary Fund, 171, 271international organizations (IOs), role of,

297–98. See also specific organizationinternational public opinion, 117, 184, 268international support, marshaling, 62–63,

86–88, 91, 213International War Crimes Tribunal, 81Internet, 102interpreters, 76–78Inter-Tajik Dialogue, 119intimidation (CCN category), 320introspection, 312–313Iran

attitude toward negotiation, 91as “axis of evil” country, 183–84hostage crisis, 139“moving the goalposts,” 65, 65n52U.S. threats against, 69–70

Iraqas “axis of evil” country, 183invasion of Kuwait, 62, 90, 128–29, 153–54,

207, 215U.S. threats against, 68, 68n62

Iraq War, 40, 42, 44n99, 182–83back channels used during, 100–02French opposition to, 87, 183, 280, 282,

285, 287inducements used to gather support for, 58interagency rivalry over, 144, 147, 216–17media tactics, 109multilateral negotiations and, 86–88, 213–14Resolution 1441, 87–88time pressures, 75Turkish negotiations prior to, 213–16

Ireland peace process, 51, 73, 134, 311Isaacs, Harold, 255–56isolationism, 288, 296

congressional attitude of, 131–33idealism tied to, 34–35

Israel-Egypt peace process. See Egypt-Israel peace process

Israeli-Palestinian conflict, 8, 97, 138–39, 149Israel-U.S. Free Trade Agreement, 190Ivory Coast, 58Izetbegovic, Alija, 62, 73Izzard, Ralph, 154

345Index

J. P. Morgan, 169Jackson, Andrew, 163Jackson, Henry M., 130, 176Jackson-Vanik amendment, 130, 134, 134n36,

176–77Japan

attitude toward negotiation, 27, 27n36diplomatic system, 54history of U.S. negotiations with, 164–65internal negotiations, 124miscommunications with, 78negotiating style, 48, 54, 83–84, 209perspective (See Watanabe, Koji)security negotiations with, 206–08Super 301 negotiations, 262trade negotiations with, 201–09

Japan-U.S. Framework for New Economic Partnership, 204

Jefferson, Thomas, 34, 163Jewish immigration, from Soviet Union, 130,

134n36, 176–77Jiang Zemin, 63, 265Johnson, Allen, 21, 26n34Johnson, Lyndon B., 174–75

food aid to India, 259–60negotiating language, 82Turkish relations, 215

Jordan-U.S. Free Trade Agreement, 190Jospin, Lionel, 43junktim, 61, 282JUSKCANZ countries, 198

Kagan, Robert, 38n80Kakodkar, Anil, 64Kalb, Bernard, 102Kalb, Marvin, 102Kampelman, Max

on diplomatic autonomy, 151on hospitality, 113inducements, 57“moving the goalposts,” 66negotiating language, 81–82

Karadzic, Radovan, 107n34Karpov, Viktor, 243Kashmir, 255, 258, 263Kassebaum-Solomon amendment, 132Kaul, T. N., 254, 255Keating, Frank, 155

keiretsu (business groupings), 204Kennan, George F., 33, 172Kennedy, John F., 174

back channels used by, 97Cuban missile crisis, 153, 174, 186, 215Indian relations with, 254, 257–59Khruschev summit, 30n46

Kennedy, Patrick, 111–12Kennedy, Robert F., 97, 174Keynes, John Maynard, 168, 170KGB, 97Khalilzad, Zalmay, 196, 198Khan, Yahya, 260Khrushchev, Nikita, 30n46, 97, 173–74Kim Il Sung, 67n56, 121Kim Jong-il, 311Kirkpatrick, Jeane, 288

interagency rivalry, 144personality, 89, 196

Kissinger (Kalb), 102Kissinger, Henry, 175–76

ambiguous language, 79–80attention to detail, 32on attitude toward negotiation, 28back channels used by, 97n9, 97–98,

99–100, 175on balance of power, 251on congressional influence, 130–31on exceptionalism, 36hospitality offered to, 110, 110n40Indian relations with, 254–55, 261on interagency rivalry, 146on linkages, 60as “lone cowboy,” 153media coverage, 102on negotiating style, 25, 25n28, 25n29recordkeeping and, 142on subtle diplomacy, 83–84on superpower mind-set, 40–41threats used by, 68“three revolutions” theory, 297, 298n15time pressures on, 74on Wilsonianism, 33

Kluckhohn, Clyde, 8, 8n5Koh, Tommy, 24Kohl, Helmut, 32, 115Koljevic, Nikola, 77Koppel, Ted, 44, 228


Kosovo, 181Kosygin, 246Kozyrev, Andrey, 238Kurtzer, Daniel, 139, 182Kuwait, 62, 90, 128–29, 153–54, 207, 215Kux, Dennis, 259Kyoto Protocol, 37, 43, 88, 182, 183, 277

labor disputes, negotiating skills influenced by, 26Lake, Tony, 72Lamont, Thomas, 169Lane, Henry, 166Lang, Winfried, 10n12Lange, David, 230, 230n2language, 12, 76–85

ambiguous, 79–80, 83, 191, 229blunt, 81–83, 160, 230, 238, 239, 296CCN category, 318–19legalistic, 29, 79metaphors (See metaphors)in multilateral negotiations, 274precise, 79–80, 191, 239, 318in security negotiations, 212versus substance, 283–84of UN documents, 197written, 12, 82

Lantos, Tom, 129Lasensky, Scott, 139late demands, 282Lavrov, Sergei, 78Law of the Sea Treaty, 141, 178, 277League of Nations, 131, 167–68, 170, 271leaks, 242–44Lebanon, 139LeBaron, Michelle, 71n71Lee, Arthur, 162legalistic mind-set, 29–33, 45

advantages and disadvantages of, 295foreign perspectives on, 191language and, 29, 79in security negotiations, 212trade negotiations, 206

Lekson, Michael, 31, 84Lend Lease aid, 170“Lessons Learned Center,” 305leverage, 90, 282

Congress as, 136–37Levitte, Jean-David, 87

Lewis, Samuel, 141, 310n43Libya, 148Limited Nuclear Test Ban Treaty, 174Lind, John, 166linear sequence of negotiation, 27linguistic skills, 77linkages between issues, 60–61, 220, 258–59,

282, 319Linowitz, Sol, 178Lippmann, Walter, 257Lipset, Seymour Martin, 19n2listening skills, 83–85lobbying, 196, 215, 301n18localitis, 154–56logic (CCN category), 319Logoglu, Faruk, 14, 211

attitude toward time, 75on interagency rivalry, 144on listening skills, 83on negotiating language, 82on U.S. negotiating style, 32, 40, 42, 91n131

Lopez, George, 64Lord, Winston, 154“low” politics, 61, 159, 229Lugar, Richard, 309lying, 30

Madison, James, 147, 162Major, John, 62Malaysia, 130, 193Manifest Destiny, 36, 189Mansfield, Mike, 201, 201n1, 207Mansingh, Lalit, 14, 76, 251

on listening skills, 83on U.S. negotiating style, 34

Mao, Zedong (Mao Tse-tung), 32, 33, 84, 142Mapendere, Jeffrey, 121n74Market Oriented Sector Selective (MOSS), 204marshaling international support, 62–63, 86–88,

91, 213Marshall, George C., 172Marshall Plan, 215MBFR (Mutual and Balanced Force

Reduction) negotiations, 23n19McCain, John, 146n71McCarthy, Joseph, 54, 155–56McChrystal, General, 311n45McKiernan, General, 311n45

347Index

McKinley, William, 165McNamara, Robert, 245–46McNeil/Lehrer NewsHour, 228Mead, Margaret, 8Mead, Walter Russell, 8n4, 11, 296media, 12, 93, 102–10

American advantage with, 104–07attitude toward, 94campaigns, 109–10CCN category, 320diplomatic savvy with, 106–07, 311feeding, 107–09history of, 165, 174during New Zealand negotiations, 228–29during Russian negotiations, 243

mediators, 120–21Medvedev, Dmitry, 52Medvedev, Sergei, 66Mehta, G. L., 268Meir, Golda, 173memorandum of understanding (MOU),

U.S.–Singapore, 194Menon, Krishna, 254mercantile approach, 253metaphors

American West, 153movement, 26–27, 26n33, 26n34sports, 6, 27, 80–81, 239, 274

Mexican-American War, 153, 162–63Mexican oil drilling dispute, 169Mexican revolution, 166MFN (most favored nation) status, 61, 66Middle East peace process, 8, 97, 138–39, 149,

180, 182. See also Egypt-Israel peace process

MILF (Moro Islamic Liberation Front), 120military assistance, to India, 257–58military force, threats to employ, 68military superiority, 40. See also superpower

mind-setMiller, Aaron David, 182Milosevic, Slobodan, 62, 70, 81, 115, 181mind-sets, 5, 11, 15, 19–21

advantages and disadvantages of, 294–96blending of, 45businesslike (See businesslike mind-set)continuity of, 185foreign perspective on, 239–41

legalistic (See legalistic mind-set)moralistic (See moralistic mind-set)political, 310–12superpower (See superpower mind-set)trade negotiations, 206

MIRVed ICBMS (multiple independently targetable reentry vehicles on intercontinental missile), 240, 249

miscommunications, 77–78, 83during India negotiations, 253–62

Mitchell, George, 51, 73, 310–11Mitterrand, François, 281Miyazawa, Kiichi, 204Mondale, Walter, 207monochronic cultures, 71n71Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete

the Ozone Layer, 179Montville, Joseph, 118moralistic argumentation (CCN category), 319moralistic mind-set, 33–38, 45, 87, 133

advantages and disadvantages of, 296of Congress, 131presidential role and, 160sanctions and, 64

Morocco, 166Moro Islamic Liberation Front (MILF), 120Morrow, Dwight, 169Moses, George Higgins, 169MOSS (Market Oriented Sector Selective),

204most favored nation (MFN) status, 61, 66movement metaphors, 26–27, 26n33, 26n34“moving the goalposts,” 6, 13, 60, 64–66

avoidance of, 300negotiating language and, 80

Moynihan, Daniel P., 253, 261MPLA (Popular Movement for the Liberation

of Angola), 98Mullen, Michael, 21–22“multilateralism à la carte,” 43multilateral negotiations, 85–92, 271–77

versus bilateral, 86, 190–91complexity of, 275exceptionalism and, 37–38, 272–73foreign perspectives on, 193–95, 285–86future of, 297–99history of, 271–72preparation for, 32, 312


remedies for U.S. weaknesses in, 276–77, 299–13

strategic approach to, 272–73superpower mind-set and, 273U.S. practice of, 273–76

multiple independently targetable reentry vehicles on intercontinental missiles (MIRVed ICBMs), 240, 249

Musharraf, Pervez, 41Muskie, Edward, 311Mutual and Balanced Force Reduction

(MBFR) negotiations, 23n19My American Journey (Powell), 144Myanmar, 194

NAFTA (North American Free Trade Agreement), 66, 181

naïveté, 28, 296NAM (Non-Aligned Movement), 196, 254Namibia/Angola negotiations, 74, 108,

138–39, 148Nasser, Abdel, 174“national employees,” 302national equivalence, 48national identity, 76National Iranian Oil Company, 130national negotiating styles, 4national security. See security negotiationsNational Security Act of 1947, 173National Security Council (NSC), 143, 147,

173, 225–26, 229, 308n352002 National Security Strategy, 212–13NATO, 77, 81, 181, 215, 271, 272

command dispute, 151, 151n91, 280, 282, 286

Europeanization of, 280negotiations within, 279–80reform negotiations, 281, 286

nature of negotiation (CCN category), 315–16Nazarkin, Yuri, 14, 75, 237

on diplomatic autonomy, 151on interagency rivalry, 144–45on media, 108on negotiating language, 79START negotiations, 247on U.S. negotiating style, 32–33, 42,

293, 294Negotiating across Cultures (Cohen), 8

negotiating records, lack of, 76, 141–42, 173–74, 304–07

negotiating teams, makeup of, 147–50, 276, 298–99

negotiating traits and tactics (CCN category), 317–20

negotiationattitude toward (See attitude toward

negotiations)capacity enhancements, 276–77, 299–313changing world of, 297–99effectiveness of, 10, 10n14, 237–38, 293, 296factors influencing, 7future of, 15, 293–13historical overview, 13, 76informal (See informal bargaining)internal (See internal negotiations)reforms, 15, 91strengths and weaknesses in, 293–97styles of (See mind-sets)twelve rules for, 281–87

negotiation as process (CCN category), 317negotiation culture, 10n12negotiator’s interaction with domestic system

(CCN category), 316Negroponte, John, 72, 183Nehru, 114n52, 254, 256, 257, 259neither confirming nor denying (NCND)

policy, 222, 223Neumann, Ronald

on conversational style, 84on hospitality, 111on interagency rivalry, 301on linguistic skills, 77on negotiating language, 79n94, 82–83on relationship building, 54

New Deal, 170New York Times, 140, 166, 208, 243, 311New Zealand

nuclear power negotiations, 221–35failure of, 230–33interagency rivalry and, 145media coverage, 109–10perspective (See Wood, John)urgency of, 73, 224–25, 233

status as close ally, 223, 234trade relations with, 227–28, 231–32U.S. threats to, 67

349Index

NGOs. See nongovernmental organizations; specific organization

Nicolson, Harold, 9Nightline, 228Nixon, Richard M., 175–77

China visit, 32, 186electoral cycles and, 139Indian relations with, 254–55, 260–61interagency rivalry, 146linkages used by, 60miscommunications, 78Mutual and Balanced Force Reduction

negotiations, 23n19negotiating style, 33–34

Nobel Peace Prize, 92, 95Non-Aligned Movement (NAM), 196, 254nonalignment policy, 254“noncareer ambassadors,” 22nongovernmental organizations (NGOs).

See also specific organizationforeign service interaction with, 303, 303n22history of, 170role of, 297–98

nonproliferation. See nuclear policy negotiationsnonverbal cues, 83, 319North American Free Trade Agreement

(NAFTA), 66, 181Northern Ireland peace process, 51, 73, 134, 311North Korea

as “axis of evil” country, 183electoral cycles and, 138Geneva Agreed Framework, 56, 56n22,

69n66, 113hospitality, 110n41, 113n48interagency negotiating team, 148journalists held by, 311“moving the goalposts,” 64Six-Party Talks, 106, 109, 184, 190, 199threats used by, 67, 67n56track-one-and-a-half diplomacy with, 121

NSC (National Security Council), 143, 147, 173, 225–26, 229, 308n35

Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT), 252, 266

nuclear policy negotiationswith India, 252, 263–67with New Zealand, 221–35with Russia, 237–50

Nuclear Suppliers Group, 267Nye, Joseph, 206

Oakley, Phyllison congressional influence, 134, 136on electoral cycles, 138on internal negotiations, 124multilateral negotiations, 85–86negotiating style, 31on superpower mind-set, 38n80on track-two diplomacy, 119

Obama, Barack, 184arms control negotiations, 250attitude toward negotiation, 20, 91Indian relations with, 267interagency rivalry, 146international opinion of, 117Middle East envoy, 311negotiating style, 22, 199Nobel Peace Prize, 92relationship building, 52

offensive language/behavior, 82, 219–20, 243, 255Office of eDiplomacy, 305–06Office of Strategic Services (OSS), 170, 173Office of the United States Trade

Representative (USTR), 143, 150, 181, 194, 206, 262

Omnibus Trade and Competitive Act (1988), 260–61

open skies agreement, 104Opium War, 164optimistic attitude, 27–28, 29Oslo Accords, 180OSS (Office of Strategic Services), 170, 173Ottawa Treaty, 88outer space weapons, 244–45Ozal, Turgut, 214

package deals, 241–42, 247–48Pakistan

human rights abuses, 260–61military alliances with, 254, 263post-Iraq security challenges, 184U.S. parochialism and, 155U.S. threats against, 41, 63war with India, 261

Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO), 97, 180


Palestinian-Israeli conflict, 8, 97, 138–39, 149Panama Canal treaties, 178Paris Peace Conference (1919), 71, 167–68,

170parochialism, 154–56Peña y Peña, Manuel de la, 163Pentecostalists negotiations (Soviet Union), 66Permanent Court of Arbitration, 88Permanent Court of International Justice,

88n125Perry, Matthew, 150, 164–65Perry, William, 206personalities. See also specific person

impact of, 88–90India negotiations, 254–55in negotiating teams, 148New Zealand negotiations, 234trade negotiations and, 206–07UN representatives, 89, 196–97

personal relationships, versus national relationships, 51–52, 171

persuasive approach, 253, 264, 267Petraeus, David H., 311n45Pew Global Attitudes Project, 117, 268pharmaceutical policy harmonization, 194phases of negotiation (CCN category), 317Philippine Facilitation Project (PFP), 120Philippines, 193Pickering, Thomas

on hospitality, 111on internal negotiations, 123personality, 89, 196on U.S. negotiating style, 30

pioneering metaphors, 153PL-480 (Food for Peace), 259Plan of Action to Implement the ASEAN-U.S.

Enhanced Partnership, 194–95Plan of Attack (Woodward), 147Plaza Agreement (1985), 203PLO (Palestine Liberation Organization),

97, 180Poland, 78“the Polish vote,” 134n35political appointees, 85. See also specific person

competence of, 239, 275, 276criticism of, 152electoral cycles and, 138versus trained diplomats, 89, 152, 168, 186

political context (CCN category), 316political mind-set, 310–12political posturing, 240, 242political power, scope of, 20, 62, 90–92, 274political system (U.S.), 12, 20

disputatious nature of, 143–44effect on negotiating process, 6, 123–25, 178,

185–86foreign perspectives on, 190

political vulnerability, 13, 152–56politicization

of foreign policy, 103, 129, 160, 185of trade policy, 203, 205

The Politics of Diplomacy (Baker), 49Polk, James K., 153, 163polychronic cultures, 71n71Popular Movement for the Liberation of

Angola (MPLA), 98Portsmouth Peace Conference, 94–95, 166posting patterns, within foreign service, 54–55,

85, 138Potsdam summit (1945), 173Powell, Colin L., 183

interagency rivalry, 144, 147, 216international support marshaling, 87negotiating style, 23parochialism, 155personality, 88

power, 38–39. See also superpower mind-setbalance of, 235, 251, 274, 283, 299inducements and, 56types of, 7

“power of the purse,” 127–38pragmatism, 25, 29–30, 238–40, 288, 294precise language, 79–80, 191, 318prejudice, 268premature disclosure of information, 242–44preparation and management (CCN category),

317president(s), 159–86. See also specific president

1776–1898 (personal diplomacy), 161–651898–1932 (great power), 165–691933–45 (modern bureaucracy), 170–721945–68 (Cold War), 172–741968–89 (to end of Cold War), 174–801990s (post-Cold War), 180–84congressional restraints on, 127former, negotiating roles, 311–12

351Index

interagency rivalry with, 146legacy of, 185, 301relationship with negotiators, factors

shaping, 160role of, 13, 159, 161, 186, 300–01

presidential administration, changeovers in, 13, 140–42, 185

presidential libraries, 141, 173–74, 306presidential retreat (Camp David), 73–74,

114–15, 138, 174, 178–79, 182pressure tactics, 12, 59–70, 73, 319–20prestige-enhancing actions, 57, 83–84“prestige papers,” 105Prestowitz, Clyde, 43Primakov, Yevgeny, 238Principals’ Committee, 147prioritizing issues, 281–82process of negotiation (CCN category), 317process versus talk, 23n19, 23–24professional incompetence, accusations of, 152professionalism, 30, 191, 238, 239, 274, 294, 310Project Horizon, 306propaganda, 242protocol, 112, 114provincialism, 28public context (CCN category), 316public diplomacy, 94, 116–17public “feedback loop,” 107public opinion

international, 117, 184, 268media coverage and, 103–09mobilizing, 311–12of New Zealand nuclear policy, 227political points gained through, 242of presidents, 160, 184–85

punishment. See also sanctionsfor French opposition to Iraq War, 282, 287for New Zealand nuclear policy, 230–31,

233threats of, 59–70

“purple” (joint service) officer corps, 307purpose of negotiation (CCN category),

315–16Putin, Vladimir, 43, 51–52, 249

Qian Qichen, 56Quadrennial Diplomacy and Development

Review (QDDR), 306–07

Quandt, William B., 58on electoral cycles, 137, 138n47, 139

quids pro quo (CCN category), 320

Rabinovich, Itamar, 141n58racial prejudice, 268Rahman, Mujibur, 260Raphel, Robin, 255Reagan, Ronald, 179–80

administration changeover, 140deadline pressure, 74electoral cycles and, 139exceptionalism, 38Indian relations with, 254inducements, 56interagency rivalry, 144, 145, 146Law of the Sea Treaty, 178linkages used by, 61“moving the goalposts,” 66negotiating style, 29, 34New Zealand relations, 222relationship building, 50, 52–53Reykjavik summit, 242sports metaphors, 27

realism, 33, 40–41reassurance, 285records, lack of, 76, 141–42, 173–74, 304–07“red teaming,” 302, 308relationship building, 23n18, 23–24, 48–55

communication style and, 83at highest levels, 49–53importance of, 53–54lower-level, 53–55multilateral negotiations and, 85personal versus national, 51–52, 171

reporting system, 239research and study (CCN category), 317reservations, understandings, and declarations

(RUDs), 127Resolution 1441, 87–88respect, 48, 252, 253, 255, 263, 269retaliation. See punishment; sanctionsRevolutionary War, 36, 161–62Reykjavik summit, 242rhetoric (CCN category), 318Rice, Condoleezza

on exceptionalism, 37FSO reforms, 304n23


Indian negotiations, 266Middle East peace process, 184negotiating language, 80negotiating style, 23

Richardson, Bill, 89, 311Richardson, Elliot, 178Rio de Janeiro conference (1992), 181rivals, negotiations between, 237–50Rogers, William, 175, 176Rogers Act, 168Romania, 58Rome Treaty, 37Roosevelt, Franklin D., 170–72

interagency rivalry, 143, 146, 170interest groups influencing, 134n35moralistic mind-set, 133multilateral diplomacy, 272negotiating style, 22, 31relationship building, 51specialist support, 181on Wilson, 171

Roosevelt, Theodore, 94–95, 165–66Root, Elihu, 88n125Ross, Dennis

on back channels, 95, 98on hospitality, 115on interagency teams, 149on media coverage, 105Middle East peace process, 182on negotiating style, 25, 25n26on relationship building, 50, 51n10on U.S. attitude toward negotiations, 19

Rothkopf, David, 308n35Roy, Stapleton, 4n2

on congressional influence, 134, 136on conversational style, 84on inducements, 59on language, 77on “moving the goalposts,” 65on relationship building, 49on U.S. negotiating style, 30on Woodcock, 26n32

rudeness, 82–83RUDs (reservations, understandings, and

declarations), 127rules for negotiators, 281–87Rumsfeld, Donald, 146n72, 216–17Rusk, Dean, 153, 174, 260

Russell, Jonathan, 162Russia, 75. See also Soviet Union

hospitality, 110, 110n41negotiating style, 300n17negotiations with, 237–50

Russo-Japanese War, 166

Sacirbey, Mohamed, 68n58, 83Sadat, Anwar, 58, 114, 178Safeguards Protocol, International Atomic

Energy Agency, 267Salacuse, Jeswald, 10Salle Colbert, 112, 112n45SALT (Strategic Arms Limitation Talks),

177–78, 242sanctions, 63–64

against India, 264–65, 267New Zealand, 230–31, 233threats of, 59–70

San Francisco Conference (1945), 171sanitary and phytosanitary (SPS) negotiations,

194Sarkozy, Nicolas, 286Satloff, Robert, 58Sato, Eisaku, 78Scali, John, 174scapegoats, diplomats as, 152–54Schecter, Jerrold, 110Schifter, Richard, 50, 53, 140Schlesinger, Arthur, Jr., 254Schulzinger, Robert, 13, 159

on administration changeovers, 141on electoral cycles, 137on interagency rivalry, 143on negotiating teams, 147on political vulnerability, 153on Wilson, 31

Scott, Winfield, 163Scowcroft, Brent

administration changeover, 140back channels used by, 100diplomatic autonomy and, 151scapegoating, 154START negotiations, 247

Scratches on Our Minds (Isaacs), 256SDI (Strategic Defense Initiative), 244–45, 245n4sea-launched cruise missiles (SLCMs), 243,

243n2, 249

353Index

seating arrangements, 83–84secret diplomacy, 71Section 301 (Trade Act of 1974), 68, 205, 209security negotiations

with Europe, 288with Japan, 206–08military’s role in, 298with New Zealand, 221–35versus trade negotiations, 204, 227–28with Turkey, 211–20

security procedures, treatment of foreign officials and, 112–13, 113n47

Seitz, Raymond, 123self-confidence, 67, 189, 274self-image, 19, 36–39self-reflection, 312–13semantics, 283–84Semenov, Vladimir, 175separation of powers, 124–25, 130, 135–37,

185, 190September 11th (2001), 182–83

security negotiations after, 208, 211–20as turning point, 42, 91n131, 211, 232, 288

Serbia, 62, 70Service, John, 156Shevardnadze, Eduard, 32, 49–50, 52, 247–48“ship-to-mouth” strategy, 260shopping sprees, for back channels, 101short-term perspective, 12. See also impatience

avoidance of, 300, 304, 306“short tether” policy, 259showmanship, 24Shultz, George

administration changeover, 140interagency rivalry, 144, 147“moving the goalposts,” 66negotiating style, 26, 40–41New Zealand negotiations, 227, 230, 230n2relationship building, 50, 52

Sidey, Hugh, 174SII (Structural Impediment Initiative), 135,

204–06silence, 84Singapore, 190–91

ASEAN negotiations, 193–95perspective (See Chan Heng Chee)

Singapore-U.S. Free Trade Agreement, 191–93, 199

Singh, Jaswant, 264–66Singh, Manmohan, 266, 269Singh, Natwar, 267site-preparations agreement (Turkey), 219Six Day War (1967), 56, 141Six-Party Talks (North Korea), 106, 109, 184,

190, 199SKS Group, 130SLCMs (sea-launched cruise missiles), 243,

243n2, 249Smith, Gerard, 175Smith, Jeffrey, 244Smyser, Richard, 40, 40n85, 97n9, 99Snow, Edgar, 84social hysteria, 155–56soft power (cultural influence), 7Solomon, Richard H., 23n18Solzhenitsyn, Aleksandr, 177Somalia famine, 103Sorenson, Theodore, 304n24SORT treaty (strategic offensive reductions), 249Soviet Union. See also Cold War; Russia

administration changeovers and, 140arms control negotiations with, 237–50

(See also arms control; specific treaty)back channels with, 96–97, 101containment policy toward, 172–74détente with, 175–77dissolution of, 42, 58–59, 75, 105, 180, 238as “evil empire,” 179Jewish immigration from, 130, 134n36,

176–77linkages used with, 60, 176Pentecostalists negotiations, 66perspective (See Nazarkin, Yuri)political divisions within, 244–45superpower mind-set and, 39U.S. influence on attitudes in, 245–46World War II, 171–72

Spanish-American War, 165specialist support, 181–82, 184, 239, 311Special Providence: American Foreign Policy and

How It Changes the World (Mead), 8n4, 11

“special” relationships, 234sporting metaphors, 6, 27, 80–81, 239, 274SPS (sanitary and phytosanitary) negotiations,

194


Stalin, Joseph, 51, 134n35, 171–72, 173stalling (CCN category), 318–19START (strategic arms reduction treaty), 75,

108, 145, 237, 241–42, 244, 246–47, 249State Department. See United States Foreign

ServiceStearns, Monteagle, 9

on congressional influence, 131on political vulnerability, 153on rotation within foreign service, 55

stereotypes, 283Stettinius, Edward, Jr., 22, 171Stimson, Henry, 172stonewalling, 199, 260strategic approach

to arms control negotiations, 248–49CCN category, 317to multilateral negotiations, 272–73

Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty, 151Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI), 244–45,

245n4strategic planning mechanism, 306strategic stability, concept of, 240Structural Impediment Initiative (SII), 135,

204–06substance versus language, 283–84Sudan, 148, 184Summit of the Americas, 297Sun Tzu, 4, 15, 312–13Super 301, 261–62superpower mind-set, 38–45, 131

advantages and disadvantages of, 295–96effectiveness of negotiations and, 293–94, 296foreign perspectives on, 38n80, 189–90, 196,

223–25, 237, 287history of, 165–69, 180multilateral diplomacy and, 273presidential role and, 160in security negotiations, 213trade negotiations and, 205

supporting data, 31Surrender Is Not an Option (Bolton), 197suspicion, culture of, 280, 285Syria Accountability Act, 134

Tagore, 268Taiwan, 68Taiwan Relations Act of 1979, 65

Taiwan Security Enhancement Act, 134Talbott, Strobe

on exceptionalism, 36, 36n76on global interdependence, 91Indian negotiations, 264–66on interagency teams, 149–50on international support, 63on listening skills, 83START negotiations, 246–47

“talk/don’t talk” ambivalence, 19–21, 153, 272talking points, 31, 212“talk shops,” 23–24talk versus process, 23n19, 23–24Tarapore nuclear plant (India), 252TASS news agency, 97team negotiation (CCN category), 317–18technical experts, 181–82, 184, 239, 311technology, communications, 102, 159, 161,

165, 303Templeton, Malcom, 222n1temporal purview (CCN category), 318tenor (CCN category), 316“Ten Reasons Why We Need to Engage India”

brief, 263–64Tepliakov, V. A., 245n4terrorism. See also September 11th (2001)

global war on, 39, 183, 214Thailand, 193Thatcher, Margaret, 50threats, 30, 30n46, 59, 66–70

CCN category, 319–20credibility of, 70direct versus indirect, 67examples of, 67–68versus inducements, 69–70

thriftiness, 114Tiananmen Square, 100, 103time

concepts of, 12, 71–76, 212, 218–19, 287, 318political pressure on (See electoral cycles)pressures, 71–76

Time magazine, 169time zones, 276Tocqueville, Alexis de, 35n71, 71Tolpa, Mostafa, 180toughness, 238–39Toys “R” Us, 135, 206track-one diplomacy, 47–92, 94

355Index

track-one-and-a-half diplomacy, 94, 119–21track-two diplomacy, 94, 118–19Trade Act of 1974

Jackson-Vanik amendment, 130, 134, 134n36, 176–77

Section 301, 68, 205, 209Trade and Investment Framework Agreement

(New Zealand), 231trade deficits, 203, 203n3, 208, 260–61Trade Expansion Act, 176trade negotiations. See also specific negotiation

congressional influence, 130, 203, 205–06foreign perspectives on, 191–95, 201–09with India, 261–62interagency disputes, 143, 150language used in, 82mind-sets, 206personalities and, 206–07politicization of, 203, 205versus security negotiations, 204, 227–28superpower mind-set and, 205threats used during, 69

trainingin foreign languages, 77, 303n21, 304n23interagency coordination, 123, 302media, 106, 302–03in negotiation, 4, 15, 281, 302–04reform of, 302–04

train metaphors, 26–27, 26n34traitors, 155–56Treasury Department of Foreign Assets

Control, 63treaties, 127Treaties in Force, 133Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, 163Treaty of Paris (1783), 162Treaty of Versailles, 131, 149, 168Treaty of Wanxhia, 164Trist, Nicholas, 153, 162–63Truman, Harry S., 127, 172

food aid to India, 259Indian relations with, 256interagency rivalry, 143multilateral diplomacy, 272

Truman Doctrine, 214trust, 263, 274, 285Turkey

back channels with, 100–02

embargo against, 134history of U.S. negotiations with, 214–15invasion of Cyprus, 215perspective (See Logoglu, Faruk)security negotiations with, 211–20U.S. threats against, 82

Two Plus Four process, 115

Ugly American archetype, 257Ukraine, 59Ulmer, Al, 96uncompromising style, 44, 196, 199UNEP (United Nations Environmental

Program), 180unilateralism, 42–44, 287, 288

arms control negotiations and, 249–50back channels and, 218example of, 86–88, 88n125multilateral negotiations and, 273relationship building and, 52–53security negotiations and, 213UN negotiations and, 197–98

United Kingdomlend-lease agreement with, 79perspective (See Hannay, David)“special” relationship with, 234World War I, 168World War II, 171

United Nationsforeign perspectives on, 195–98, 271 (See also

Hannay, David)history of, 170–71, 271–72Human Rights Commission, 197, 199reforms of, 197–98representatives to, 85, 89–90, 150, 196–97,

275–77Resolution 1441, 87–88U.S. attitude toward, 132, 191, 195–98, 272

United Nations Environmental Program (UNEP), 180

United Nations General Assembly, 297Fifth Committee, 198

United Nations Reform Act of 2005, 132United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation

Administration (UNRRA), 127United Nations Security Council

Iraq war and, 86, 183, 213–14Resolution 998, 285


sanctions imposed by, 63U.S. support for, 277

United States Advisory Commission on Public Diplomacy, 116

United States Foreign Serviceautonomy of, 150–51, 164back channels used by, 95, 98–99congressional relations, 135–37corporate experience, 22funding of, 308n37, 308–10history of, 168–72, 173, 186hospitality offered by, 111–12, 114n51institutional memory, 15, 141, 304–07interaction with NGOs, 303interagency rivalry with, 144legal background, 29linguistic skills, 77media savvy, 106–07political vulnerability of, 13, 152–56professionalization of, 168–69, 276–77,

310–12reforms, 304n23reporting system, 239response to globalization and

interdependence, 91rotation within, 54–55, 85, 138subcultures within, 155training, 4, 15, 123, 302–04

United States Information Agency (USIA), 116United States Institute of Peace

Cross-Cultural Negotiation (CCN) project, 7, 315–16

fifth facet idea, 310n43Philippine Facilitation Project, 120

U.S. Treasury Department of Foreign Assets Control, 63

USAID, 309, 309n40USTR (Office of the United States Trade

Representative), 143, 150, 181, 194, 206, 262

urgency, 72–74, 137, 318Uruguay Round, 277

Vance, Cyrus, 26, 177Vandenberg, Arthur, 127Védrine, Hubert, 43Vietnam, 193Vietnamese refugees, 134

Vietnam War, 71, 174–75Villepin, Dominique de, 183Voice of America (VOA), 116–17voluntary restraints, on Japanese exports, 203von Sternberg, Baron Speck, 166

Walker, Robert, 164Wallace, Mike, 107n34Walters, Vernon, 89, 97, 196Wanis-St. John, Anthony, 95n2, 96, 96n5“war on terrorism,” 39, 183, 2141973 War Powers Resolution, 128“war room,” 165Washington, George, 34Washington Post, 43, 108, 244, 308n35,

311n45Watanabe, Koji, 14, 201

on congressional influence, 135on exceptionalism, 37on interagency teams, 150on negotiating language, 82on U.S. negotiating style, 23, 294

weapons of mass destruction (WMD), 87, 109, 148, 183

Webster, Daniel, 164Weinberger, Caspar, 144, 147Wherry, Kenneth, 156White, Henry, 166White House receptions, 114Whiteside, Ruth

on hospitality, 113inducements, 57on internal negotiations, 123media savvy, 106negotiating style, 22

“whole-of-government” concept, 308, 308n35Wilson, Charles, 22, 129Wilson, Woodrow, 166–68

congressional relations, 131interagency teams, 149negotiating style, 31, 33specialist support, 181

“Wilsonianism,” 33window of opportunity, 72–73Winthrop, John, 36Wittes, Tamara Cofman, 7, 8, 8n8WMD (weapons of mass destruction), 87, 109,

148, 183

357Index

Wolfowitz, Paul, 39, 217, 219Wood, John, 14, 221

on congressional influence, 137on diplomatic autonomy, 151n90on hospitality, 113–14on interagency rivalry, 145on media coverage, 106, 109–10on relationship building, 48–49on threats, 67on urgency of negotiations, 73on U.S. negotiating style, 294

Woodcock, Leonard, 26, 26n32Woodward, Bob, 147wording of agreements, 12World Bank (International Bank for

Reconstruction and Development), 171, 271

World Trade Organization (WTO), 205, 209, 271

World War I, 167–68

World War II, 170–72, 189multilateral negotiations after, 271–72New Zealand special relationship and, 234

Wright Patterson Air Base, 115Wriston, Henry M., 54Wristonization, 54–55written language, 12, 82WTO (World Trade Organization), 205,

209, 271

Yakis, Yasar, 217Yalta Conference, 171–72Yazov, Dmitri, 247–48Yeltsin, Boris, 75, 238, 249

Zartman, I. William, 8n9, 252Zhou, Enlai, 110n40, 175Ziyal, Ugur, 216Zoellick, Robert, 192, 193Zubak, Kresimir, 57

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