Changing Perceptions of Gender A Comparative Study India Malaysia

18Changing Perceptions of Gender A Comparative Study India Malaysia

PROJECT REPORTON Changing Perceptions of Gender a Comparative Study India Malaysia

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a) Historical perspectivesIndia

The Indian subcontinent is the site of a civilization as ancient as any in the world. City states arose in North India, along the Indus River, at about the same time as the early civilizations of the Tigris-Euphrates at Sumer and other locations. Over the centuries, India was invaded by many different peoples, all of whom left their imprint.Hinduismdeveloped out of a multiplicity of local gods, goddesses, and heroes. Gradually this multiplicity was given a coherent framework, in which the individual deities were seen as manifestations of a greater unity. Nonetheless, multiplicity remained a major feature of Hinduism, as it is of Indian culture in general.Local deities were identified with cyclical forces of nature, as is common in an agricultural society-- birth, death, planting; and with the fertility of land, herds, and human beings.Gradually the belief arose that all these gods were manifestation of the One- Brahma. The physical world in all its variety was seen as a dream of Brahma; it comes into existence, ends, and is reborn in great cycles, as are human souls in the shorter cycles of human lifetimes. This cyclical idea, which reflects the cycles of seasons and fertility, repeats endlessly. The human soul, which is eternal, is reborn, orreincarnated. The actions of the individual in this life accumulate askarma, which affects the status one will achieve in the next life. The ultimate goal ismaksha, or the achievement of spiritual perfection which will enable the soul to achieve release from the wheel of life, and attain oneness with Brahma.The idea ofcasteis closely associated with Hindu beliefs about spiritual progress through the accumulation of karma and reincarnation. Caste is the division of society into rigid classes, which define one's status, occupation, and relationships. Historians believe that the caste system was introduced into India at the time of the Aryan invasions, c. 1500 B.C. as a means of separating the conquerors from the conquered. In due course, this stratification of society was sanctioned by Hinduism, in which caste came to be associated with the level of spiritual attainment.Thus in India we find a multiplicity of ethnic groups-- hundreds of separate languages are spoken-- a multiplicity of castes within each community-- and the worship of a multiplicity of gods that vary according to locality, caste, and personal preference.In this context, there are many paths to salvation, but one goal: to achieve release from the wheel of rebirth, to leave this world which is believed to be an illusion. The essential duty of the good Hindu can be summarized as follows:1. Live life according to your place, as you were born to it.2. Various forms of religious observance and practice are possible, depending on the individual's nature-- physical, ceremonial, or ascetic disciplines may be followed.3. The essence of all religious practice is mastery-- control over body, cravings, emotions. Therefore extremes of physical discipline are practiced by some to achieve such mastery. The varieties of physical discipline vary greatly, however. The fundamental idea is to remember that the world is an illusion; one must master the worldly flesh to escape it and reach spiritual enlightenment.Although there are many local deities, there are certain deities that are believed to be preeminent, and are widely recognized. Four in particular are of major importance:Brahma-- the creatorVishnu-- the preserverShiva-- the destroyerKali/Durga/Parvati-- the goddess in three incarnations: death and destruction, maiden, and mother.The sacred writings of Hinduism - the Baghvad Gita, the Ramayana, and others, are a mixture of mystical writings and allegorical interpretations of history. Many of the figures and events are believed to reflect actual events and individuals in ancient Indian history.Both Buddhism and Islam were also important in the culture of the Indian subcontinent. Buddhism first arose in India in the sixth century B.C, but became more important outside of India than within it. Islam came to Northern India (now Pakistan) beginning in the eighth century AD. Since these religions were also of importance in other regions, they will be discussed elsewhere.Indian Visual Arts

The sacred quality of all aspects of life is reflected in Indian art, as is the multiplicity of spiritual and cultural experience. Since the sacred is incarnate in all living things, animal or part-animal images are commonly used to represent gods; plant forms as well become important religious symbols. The cyclical basis of Indian cosmology reflects the cycles that rule in an agricultural culture, as well as the fertility cycles of human and animal reproduction, and this is often symbolized through the use of wheels and circles used to organize or emphasize compositions. This link will take you to a further commentary and examples ofHindu religious art

As in most traditional cultures, visual symbols are a powerful means of relaying religious and social ideals, as well as history. Since much of the population was illiterate, visual images developed to serve as an aid to memory for orally transmitted literature and history. This use of visual aids to memory and the transmission of culture is common to all traditional, preliterate cultures. Among the most impressive examples are the intricate carvings that cover the surfaces of Hindu temples. Temple architecture in India tends to be filled with carvings of gods, heroes, and the tales of their lives, all well known to those who are immersed in the cultural traditions. The effect is again one of multiplicity unified by a visual style that reflects and expresses the life and history of India itself.

MalaysiaMalaysiais aSoutheast Asiancountry located on strategic sea-lane that exposes it to global trade and foreign culture.Hinduismand BuddhismfromIndiadominated early regional history, reaching their peak during the reign of theSumatra-basedSrivijaya civilisation, whose influence extended through Sumatra,Java, theMalay Peninsulaand much ofBorneofrom the 7th to the 14th centuries. Kalinga putras of ancient India were earliest traders who set up colonies and spread Buddhism and Hinduism here.Although Muslims had passed through theMalay Peninsulaas early as the 10th century, it was not until the 14th and 15th centuries that Islam first firmly established itself. The adoption of Islam by the 15th century saw the rise of number sultanates, the most prominent of which was theMalacca. Islam has had a profound influence on theMalay people, but has also been influenced by them. ThePortuguesewere the first European colonial powers to establish themselves on the Malay Peninsula andSoutheast Asia, capturing Malacca in 1511, followed by the Dutch in 1641. However, it was the British who, after initially establishing bases atJesselton,Kuching,PenangandSingapore, ultimately secured their hegemony across the territory that is now Malaysia. TheAnglo-Dutch Treaty of 1824defined the boundaries betweenBritish Malayaand theNetherlands East Indies(which became Indonesia). A fourth phase of foreign influence was immigration of Chinese and Indian workers to meet the needs of the colonial economy created by the British in the Malay Peninsula and Borneo.[1]Japanese invasion duringWorld War IIended British domination in Malaysia.The subsequent occupation of Malaya,North Borneo and Sarawakfrom 1942 to 1945 unleashed nationalism. In the Peninsula, theMalayan Communist Partytook up arms against the British. A tough military response was needed to end the insurgency and bring about the establishment of an independent,multi-racialFederation of Malayain 1957. On 31 August 1963, the British territories inNorth Borneoand Singapore were granted independence and formedMalaysiawith the Peninsular states on 16 September 1963. Approximately two years later, the Malaysian parliament passed a bill to separate Singapore from the Federation.[2]A confrontation with Indonesiaoccurred in the early-1960s.Race riotsin 1969 led to the imposition of emergency rule, and a curtailment of political life andcivil libertieswhich has never been fully reversed. Since 1970 the "National Frontcoalition" headed byUnited Malays National Organisation(UMNO) has governed Malaysia. Economic growth dramatically increasedliving standardsby the 1990s. This growing prosperity helped minimize political discontent.(b) Social practices customs and cultureCustoms and culture of India

India is regarded by many historians as the oldest living civilization of Earth.Indian traditions date back to 8,000 BCE, and have a continuous history since the time of the Vedas, believed variously to be 3,000 to over 5,500 years old.Indian traditions and culture are perhaps the worlds richestas it unveils an amazing plethora of mythical stories that astounds the imagination. Ancient concepts like karma, dharma, atman (re-birth) and yoga still govern daily lives of Indians, hence an explanation is due.Generally, temples are strategically located in a place where earths magnetic waves pass through i.e. where the positive energy is abundantly available from the magnetic wave distribution of north/ south pole thrust. Because of its location, where high magnetic values are available, the Main Idol is placed in the center, and also because they place a copper plate written with some Vedic scripts, which is buried, beneath the Main Idols placement known as Garbhagriha or Moolasthan, the copper absorbs the earths magnetic waves and radiates to the surroundings.Thus a person who regularly visits a temple and makes clockwise pradakshina of the Main Idols placement, automatically receives the beamed magnetic waves which get absorbed by his body. This is very slow and a regular visit will make him absorb more energy, known as positive energy. In addition, the Sanctum Sanctorum is completely enclosed on three sides. The effect of all energies is very high in here.The lamp that is lit radiates the heat and light energy. The fragrance from the flowers, the burning of camphor gives out chemical energy. The ringing of the bells and the chanting of prayers gives sound energy. The effect of all these energies is activated by the positive energy that comes out of the idol. This is in addition to the north/ south pole magnetic energy that is absorbed by the copper plate and utensils that are kept in the Moolasthan.The water used for the Pooja is mixed with Cardamom, Benzoine, Holy Basil (Tulsi), Clove, etc is the Theertham. This water becomes more energized because it receives the positive-ness of all these energies combined. When persons go to the temple for Deep-aaraadhana, and when the doors open up, the positive energy gushes out onto the persons who are there. The water that is sprinkled onto the people passes on the energy to all. That is the reason why, men are not allowed to wear shirts to the temple and ladies have to wear more ornaments because it is through these jewels (metal) that positive energy is absorbed in ladies. It is proved that Theertham is a very good blood purifier, as it is highly energized.In addition, temples offer holy water (about three spoons). This water is mainly a source of magneto therapy as they place the copper water vessel at the Garbhagriha. It also contains cardamom, clove, saffron, etc to add taste and Tulsi (holy Basil) leaves are put into the water to increase its medicinal value! The clove essence protects one from tooth decay, the saffron & Tulsi leave essence protects one from common cold and cough, cardamom and benzoine known as Pachha Karpuram, acts as a mouth refreshing agents. This way, ones health too is protected, by regularly visiting Temples!

The tilak or a bindi is applied on the spot between the brows which is considered the seat of latent wisdom and mental concentration, and is very important for worship. This is the spot on which yogis meditate to become one with Lord Brahma. It also indicates the point at which the spiritual eye opens. All thoughts and actions are said to be governed by this spot. Putting of the coloured mark symbolizes the quest for the opening of the third eye. All rites and ceremonies of the Hindus begin with a tilak topped with a few grains of rice placed on this spot with the index finger or the thumb. The same custom is followed while welcoming or bidding farewell to guests or relations.A bindi, applied on the forehead on the third eye, signifies pleasantly the subsistence of her beloved husband. Is it used as a charm to ward off evil by un-married girls? Could be, because it could compel other unknown men to focus on the bindi rather than on her body.The same logic may apply to the mangalsutra (auspicious thread) worn around the neck, as it consists of black beads along with a gold pendant. The black beads are believed to act as protection against evil. Gold helps increase energy levels in the body and is symbol of prosperity. Married women wear this to protect their marriage and the life of their husband. In southern India, the mangalsutra is called tali.

Customs and culture of MalaysiaMeeting and Greeting Greetings in a social context will depend upon the ethnicity of the person you are meeting. In general, most Malays are aware of Western ways so the handshake is normal. There may be slight differences though and a few things to bear in mind include: Malay women may not shake hands with men. Women can of course shake hands with women. Men may also not shake hands with women and may bow instead while placing their hand on their heart. The Chinese handshake is light and may be rather prolonged. Men and women may shake hands, although the woman must extend her hand first. Many older Chinese lower their eyes during the greeting as a sign of respect. Indians shake hands with members of the same sex. When being introduced to someone of the opposite sex, nodding the head and smiling is usually sufficient.Among all cultures, there is a general tendency to introduce: the most important person to the lower ranking person. the older person to the younger person.women to men.Malaysia is a multi-cultural society. The main ethnic groups are the native Malays as well as large populations of Chinese, and Indians. When visiting the country it is clear that the ethnicities retain their religions, customs and way of life. The most important festivals of each group are public holidays.Although growing up, children are educated in the same schools and will eventually work in the same offices, few marry outside their own ethnicity. Families tend to socialize within their own ethnic group all part of retaining their individual traditions and lifestyles.Despite the ethnic differences there are commonalities culturally speaking.

(c) Gender roles-past and presentIndiaThis survey was designed to get an idea of how young, Indian women feel about their culture and its attitude in regards to their gender. Hindu beliefs and practices have often been regarded as a traditional, with strict attitudes towards women. As time progresses a persons outlook with respect to culture and lifestyle should modernize. Through this survey I want to provide sufficient information to the idea that Hinduism is still in certain ways holding women in traditional roles and could benefit from some reconstruction.This survey did in some ways support my hypothesis. Although Hinduism has modernized in certain ways, women are still being forced to assume traditional roles. Even though this appears to be the case, some women are satisfied with this decision. Some females are choosing to take a stand against traditional values while others are accepting them. Given the fact that overall Indian women appear to be receiving more equality, there is always room for change. Traditional values should be maintained, but not at the expense of an individuals own happiness.MalaysiaMalaysia, where women make up between 50 and 60 percent of the computer industrys employees and many hold mid- and upper-level management positions. The countrys burgeoning technology industry has brought about dramatic changes to womens roles in society, changing traditional perceptions of class, ethnicity and gender.

(d) Political aspirationsIndiaIndias democracy, the worlds most populous, is a marvel of the modern age: 1.2 billion people who speak more than 700 languages uniting under one roof. Its immensity also slows the decision-making needed to keep up with its peoples aspirations. Feeble public services, high inflation, crippling corruption andcrumbling infrastructureare ever-present grievances of an increasingly fed-up population, most of whom live on less than $2 per day. Indians yearn for better education, more jobs and faster development as a path to prosperity. Prime MinisterNarendra Modiwasswept to powerin May 2014 offering a change of course. His plan toreinvigorate the economyoffers a test of Indias maturing democracy, one that may alter its strong secular and socialist traditions.Why has the political class of India failed to meet the aspirations of the youth? Regardless of good intentions, politicians succumb to the temptation to do whatever it takes to stay in office in order to keep receiving the rewards. The system has to change in order to reward only those actions that benefit all citizens. And ethical restrictions, on politicians' behavior, have to be strengthened and enforced.Womens political participation in IndiaThe term 'political participation' has a very wide meaning. It is not only related to 'Right to Vote', but simultaneously relates to participation in: decision making process, political activism, political consciousness, etc. Women inIndiaparticipate in voting, run for public offices and political parties at lower levels more than men. Political activism and voting are the strongest areas of women's political participation.To combat gender inequality in politics, theIndian Governmenthas institutedreservationsfor seats in local governments.Women turnout during India's 2014 parliamentary general elections was 65.63%, compared to 67.09% turnout for men.India ranks 20th from the bottom in terms of representation of women in Parliament.Women have held the posts of president and prime minister in India, as well as chief ministers of various states. Indian voters have elected women to numerous state legislative assemblies and national parliament for many decadesMalaysiaMalaysia, he stressed that Malaysia's strength comes from diversity - just as it does in the case of the U.S. "Over the years multi-ethnic Malaysia has flourished in many ways. Chinese and Indian citizens are actively involved in Malaysian politics and leadership at all levels of society. Our economy has developed a multi-ethnic middle class and we have grown in relative peace. If one uses the incidence of ethnic violence as an index, Malaysia is undoubtedly one of the more successful multi-ethnic societies in the world." Prime Minister Najib admitted that national unity remains a work in progress and it requires a change in mindsets among both political leaders and the people.Women in governmentin the modern era are under-represented in most countries worldwide, in contrast to men. However, women are increasingly being politically elected to be heads of state and government. More than 20 countries currently have a woman holding office as the head of a national government, and the global participation rate of women in national-level parliaments is nearly 20%. A number of countries are exploring measures that may increase women's participation in government at all levels, from the local to the national.The United Nations has identified six avenues by which female participation in politics and government may be strengthened. These avenues are: equalization of educational opportunities, quotas for female participation in governing bodies, legislative reform to increase focus on issues concerning women and children, financing gender-responsive budgets to equally take into account the needs of men and women, increasing the presence of sex-disaggregated statistics in national research/data, and furthering the presence and agency of grassroots womensempowermentmovements.

(e)Education systemIndiaPre Education in IndiaThe Indian government lays emphasis on primary education, also referred to as elementary education, to children aged 6 to 14 years old.The Indian government has also banned child labor in order to ensure that the children do not enter unsafe working conditions.However, both free education and the ban on child labor are difficult to enforce due to economic disparity and social conditions.80% of all recognized schools at the elementary stage are government run or supported, making it the largest provider of education in the country.

School children,MumbaiHowever, due to a shortage of resources and lack of political will, this system suffers from massive gaps including high pupil to teacher ratios, shortage of infrastructure and poor levels of teacher training. Figures released by the Indian government in 2011 show that there were 5,816,673 elementary school teachers in India.As of March 2012 there were 2,127,000 secondary school teachers in India.Education has also been made freefor children for 6 to 14 years of age or up to class VIII under theRight of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act2009.There have been several efforts to enhance quality made by the government. The District Education Revitalization Programme (DERP) was launched in 1994 with an aim to universalize primary education in India by reforming and vitalizing the existing primary education system.85% of the DERP was funded by the central government and the remaining 15 percent was funded by the states.The DERP, which had opened 160000 new schools including 84000 alternative education schools delivering alternative education to approximately 3.5 million children, was also supported by UNICEF and other international programmes.This primary education scheme has also shown a high Gross Enrollment Ratio of 9395% for the last three years in some states.Significant improvement in staffing and enrollment of girls has also been made as a part of this scheme.The current scheme for universalization of Education for All is theSarva Shiksha Abhiyanwhich is one of the largest education initiatives in the world. Enrollment has been enhanced, but the levels of quality remain low.Education in IndiaEducation in Indiais provided by thepublic sectoras well as theprivate sector, with control and funding coming from three levels: central,state, andlocal. Under various articles of theIndian Constitution, free and compulsory education is provided as a fundamental right to children between the ages of 6 and 14.Indiahas made progress in terms of increasing theprimary educationattendance rate and expandingliteracyto approximately three-quarters of the population in the 7-10 age group, by 2011.India's improved education system is often cited as one of the main contributors to itseconomic development.Much of the progress, especially inhigher educationand scientific research, has been credited to various public institutions.At the primary andsecondarylevel, India has a largeprivate school systemcomplementing the government run schools, with 29% of students receiving private education in the 6 to 14 age group.Certain post-secondarytechnical schoolsare also private. The private education market in India had a revenue of US$450 million in 2008, but is projected to be a US$40 billion market. As per the Annual Status of Education Report (ASER) 2012, 96.5% of all rural children between the ages of 6-14 were enrolled in school. This is the fourth annual survey to report enrollment above 96%. Another report from 2013 stated that there were 229 million students enrolled in different accredited urban and rural schools of India, from Class I to XII, representing an increase of 2.3 million students over 2002 total enrollment, and a 19% increase in girl's enrollment. While quantitatively India is inching closer to universal education, the quality of its education has been questioned particularly in its government run school system. Some of the reasons for the poor quality include absence of around 25 percent of teachers everyday.States of India have introduced tests and education assessment system to identify and improve such schools. It is important to clarify that while there are private schools in India, they are highly regulated in terms of what they can teach, in what form they can operate (must be a non-profit to run any accredited educational institution) and all other aspects of operation. Hence, the differentiation of government schools and private schools can be misguiding. In India's education system, a significant number of seats are reserved underaffirmative actionpolicies for the historically disadvantagedScheduled Castes and Scheduled TribesandOther Backward Classes. In universities, colleges, and similar institutions affiliated to the federal government, there is a minimum 50% of reservations applicable to these disadvantaged groups, at the state level it can vary.Maharashtrahad 73% reservation in 2014, which is the highest percentage of reservations in India.MalaysiaPre Education in MalaysiaThere are no fixed rules on when a child needs to start preschool education but majority would start when the child turns 1 years old. Schooling can begin earlier, from 36, in kindergarten. Preschool education usually lasts for 2 years, before they proceed to primary school at age 7. There is no formal preschool curriculum except a formal mandatory training and certification for principals and teachers before they may operate a preschool. The training covers lessons on child psychology, teaching methodologies, and other related curricula on childcare and development.Preschool education is mainly provided by private for-profit preschools, though some are run by the government or religious groups. Some primary schools have attached preschool sections. Attendance in a preschool programme is not universal; while people living in urban areas are generally able to send their children to private kindergartens, few do in rural areas. Registered preschools are subjected to zoning regulations and must comply to other regulations such as health screening and fire hazard assessment. Many preschools are located in high density residential areas, where normal residential units compliant to regulations are converted into the schools.Primary education in Malaysia begins at age seven and lasts for six years, referred to as Year (Tahun) 1 to 6 (also known as Standard (Darjah) 1 to 6). Year 1 to Year 3 are classified as Level One (Tahap Satu) while Year 4 to Year 6 are considered as Level Two (Tahap Dua). Students are promoted to the next year regardless of their academic performance.From 1996 until 2000, thePenilaian Tahap Satu(PTS) or the Level One Evaluation was administered to Year 3 students. Excellence in this test allowed students to skip Year 4 and attend Year 5 instead. However, the test was removed from 2001 onwards due to concerns that parents and teachers were unduly pressuring students to pass the exam.Before progressing to secondary education, Year 6 pupils sit for the Primary School Achievement Test (Ujian Pencapaian Sekolah Rendah, UPSR).The subjects tested are Malay comprehension, written Malay, English, Science and Mathematics. In addition to the five subjects, Chinese comprehension and written Chinese are compulsory in Chinese schools, while Tamil comprehension and written Tamil are compulsory in Tamil schools.Gender RatioIn 2004 the UNDP (United Nations Development Programme) representative Dr. Richard Leete stated that Malaysia's ranking in the UNDP gender index was not "as high as it should be". Former Higher Education Minister Datuk Dr Shafie Salleh replied that it was not unique to Malaysia. His quoted statistics revealed that there was a 2:1 ratio of boys to girls in polytechnics and at public higher learning institutions. In virtually all developed countries females and males enter university in approximately equal ratios. Thus, the 2:1 ratio in Malaysia is seen as rather peculiar when placed in a global context.Malaysian polytechnics and community colleges are not degree-producing institutions and none have post-graduate programmes. Most are vocational or technical institutions. This imbalance is corrected once the respective genders leave the education system.Education in MalaysiaEducation in Malaysiais overseen by theMinistry of Education(Kementerian Pendidikan). Although education is the responsibility of the federal government, eachstate and federal territoryhas an Education Department to co-ordinate educational matters in its territory. The main legislation governing education is the Education Act of 1996.The education system is divided into preschool education, primary education, secondary education, post-secondary education and tertiary education. Education may be obtained from the multilingualpublic schoolsystem, which provide free education for all Malaysians, orprivate schools, or throughhomeschooling. By law,primary educationiscompulsory. As in many Asia-Pacific countries such as the Republic of Korea, Singapore and Japan,standardized testsare a common feature. Currently, there are 37 private universities, 20 private university colleges, seven foreign university branch campuses and 414 private colleges in Malaysia.(f) Legislations Contemporary rolesIndiaIndia offers astounding variety in virtually every aspect of social life. Diversities of ethnic, linguistic, regional, economic, religious, class, and caste groups crosscut Indian society, which is also permeated with immense urban-rural differences and gender distinctions. Differences between north India and south India are particularly significant, especially in systems of kinship and marriage. Indian society is multifaceted to an extent perhaps unknown in any other of the worlds great civilizationsit is more like an area as varied as Europe than any other single nation-state. Adding further variety to contemporary Indian culture are rapidly occurring changes affecting various regions and socioeconomic groups in disparate ways. Yet, amid the complexities of Indian life, widely accepted cultural themes enhance social harmony and order.

India is a hierarchical society. Whether in north India or south India, Hindu or Muslim, urban or village, virtually all things, people, and social groups are ranked according to various essential qualities. Although India is a political democracy, notions of complete equality are seldom evident in daily life.MalaysiaMalaysian legal historyhas been determined by events spanning a period of some six hundred years. Of these, three major periods were largely responsible for shaping the current Malaysian system. The first was the founding of theMelaka Sultanateat the beginning of the 15th century; second was the spread ofIslamin the indigenous culture; and finally, and perhaps the most significant in modern Malaysia, wasBritishcolonial rule which brought with it constitutional government and the common law system.