`INDIA RIVER

The area drained by a single river system (river + tributaries) is called a drainage basin or river basin.

An elevated area, such as a mountain or an upland, separates two drainage basins. Such an upland is known as a water divide

relief" refers to the highest and lowest elevation points in an area. eg. mountains, altitude, valleys, types of land and heights of mountains they are the opposite of drainage pattern as it includes water channels while relief does not.

A relief map is a type of map, which shows the kind of landscapes or geographical features that are present in a particular place. Some of these geographical features are rivers, mountains, plateaus, lakes, valleys and plains.

In geology, a valley or dale is a depression that is longer than it is wide. The terms U-shaped and V-shaped are descriptive terms of geography to characterize the form of valleys.

Physiography (physical geography)

Perennial River have water throughout the year.

MEANDERS-A meander, in general, is a bend in a sinuous watercourse or river. A meander forms when moving water in a stream erodes the outer banks and widens its valley, and the inner part of the river has less energy and deposits silt.

OXBOW LAKE is a U-shaped body of water that forms when a wide meander from the main stem of a river is cut off, creating a free-standing body of water. 

India river perform intensive erosional activity in their upper courses and carry huge loads of silt and sand.

DRAINAGE PATTERN-

The DENDRITIC PATTERN - develops where the river channel follows the slope of the terrain.

The TRELLIS PATTERN- A river joined by its tributaries, at approximately right angles, develops a trellis pattern. A trellis drainage pattern develops where hard and soft rocks exist parallel to each other.

A RECTANGULAR PATTERN develops on a strongly jointed rocky terrain.

The RADIAL PATTERN develops when streams flow in different directions from a central peak or dome like structure.

PENINSULAR RIVERS-

These rivers flow in the Indian peninsula, which is the area extending from Narmada River to India’s southern tip, are seasonal in flow.

WEST FLOWING RIVERS –

Narmada river(1057km) – Amarkantak plateau to gulf of Khambat.

Tapti river(724km)- originate from Betul

Sabarmati river(416 km)- Aravallis in Rajasthan

Mahi river(560 km)- Vindhya in m.p. Sabarmati and Mahi are the two famous rivers of Gujarat.

Luni river(450 km)- largest river system of Rajasthan, west of Aravallis in Rajasthan to rann of kuchchh, also called salt river. originates near Pushkar in two branches, i.e. the Saraswati and the Sabarmati, which join with each other at Govindgarh. From here, the river comes out of Aravali and is known as Luni.

A river alongwith its tributaries may be called a river system.

THE INDUS RIVER SYSTEM(2900 km,)

Rises in Tibet, near Lake Mansarowar. Flowing west, it enters India in the Ladakh district of Jammu and Kashmir.

After flowing in the northwest direction between the Ladakh and Zaskar ranges, it passes through Ladakh and Baltistan. It cuts across the Ladakh range, forming a spectacular gorge near Gilgit in Jammu and Kashmir. It enters into Pakistan near Chillar in the Dardistan region(in Gilgit -balistan)

The river flows southward and receives ‘Panjnad’ a little above Mithankot. The Panjnad is the name given to the five rivers of Punjab, namely the Satluj, the Beas, the Ravi, the Chenab and the Jhelum.

The Indus flows in India only through the Leh district in Jammu and Kashmir.

Jhelum t flows through Srinagar and the Wular lake

The Chenab is the largest tributary of the Indus.

Ravi is another important tributary of the Indus. It rises west of the Rohtang pass in the Kullu hills of Himachal Pradesh and flows through the Chamba valley of the state.

The Beas is another important tributary of the Indus, originating from the Beas Kund near the Rohtang Pass at an elevation of 4,000 m above the mean sea level. The river flows through the Kullu valley

The Satluj, the Beas, the Ravi, the Chenab and the Jhelum join together to enter the Indus near Mithankot in Pakistan..

flows southwards eventually reaching the Arabian Sea, east of Karachi.

A little over a third of the Indus basin is located in India in the states of Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and the Punjab and the rest is in Pakistan.

Indus water treaty (1960)-

The partition of British India created a conflict over the plentiful waters of the Indus basin. Geography of partition was such that the source rivers of the Indus basin were in India.  Pakistan felt its livelihood threatened by the prospect of Indian control over the tributaries that fed water into the Pakistani portion of the basin.

In 1947, when Punjab was divided between the two countries, many of the canal head-works remained with India

On April 1, 1948, India stopped the supply of water to Pakistan from every canal ( ravi and sutlaj in east Punjab ) flowing from India to Pakistan. –

During the first years of partition the waters of the Indus were apportioned by the Inter-Dominion Accord of May 4, 1948. This accord required India to release sufficient waters to the Pakistani regions of the basin in return for annual

payments from the government of Pakistan. The accord was meant to meet immediate requirements and was followed by negotiations for a more permanent solution.

Pakistan approached the World Bank in 1952 to help settle the problem permanently. Negotiations were carried out between the two countries through the offices of the World Bank. It was finally in Ayub Khan’s regime that an agreement was signed between India(Jawahar Lal Nehru) and Pakistan in September 1960 –

Pakistan obtained exclusive rights for the three western rivers, namely Indus, Jehlum and Chenab. And India retained rights to the three eastern rivers, namely Ravi, Beas and Sutluj. The treaty also guaranteed ten years of uninterrupted water supply. During this period Pakistan was to build huge dams, financed partly by long-term World Bank loans and compensation money from India. Three multipurpose dams. Warsak, Mangla (Jhelum River near the town of Jhelum) and Tarbela (on the Indus, 50 miles (80 km) northwest of Rawalpindi) were built.

According to the regulations of the Indus Water Treaty (1960), India can use only 20 per cent of the total water carried by Indus river system. This water is used for irrigation in the Punjab, Haryana and the southern and western parts of Rajasthan.

DOAB is a term used in India and Pakistan for the tract of land lying between two converging, or confluent, rivers.

THE GANGA RIVER SYSTEM

rises in the Gangotri glacier near Gaumukh (3,900 m) in the Uttarkashi district of Uttaranchal. Here, it is known as the Bhagirathi. At Devprayag, the Bhagirathi meets the Alaknanda(from Satopanth glacier above Badrinath); hereafter, it is known as the Ganga.

The Alaknanda consists of the Dhauli and the Vishnu Ganga which meet at Joshimath or Vishnu Prayag. Pindar join alaknanda at Karna Prayag while Mandakini or Kali Ganga meets it at Rudra Prayag.

The Ganga enters the plains at Haridwar. From here, it flows first to the south, then to the south-east and east before splitting into two distributaries, namely the Bhagirathi and the Hugli

The Son is its major right bank tributary. The important left bank tributaries are the Ramganga, the Gomati, Yamuna, the Ghaghara, the Gandak, the Kosi and the Mahanada.

Yamuna largest tributaries of ganga is joined by the Chambal, the Sind, the Betwa and the Ken on its right bank which originates from the Peninsular plateau while the Hindan, the Rind, the Sengar, the Varuna, etc. join it on its left bank

The Ghaghara, the Gandak and the Kosi rise in the Nepal Himalaya. They are the rivers, which flood parts of the northern plains every year, causing widespread

damage to life and property but enriching the soil for the extensive agricultural lands.

Main tributaries, which come from the peninsular uplands, are the Chambal, the Betwa and the Son.

Enlarged with the waters from its right and left bank tributaries, the Ganga flows eastwards till Farakka in West Bengal. This is the northernmost point of the Ganga delta. The river bifurcates here; the Bhagirathi-Hooghly (a distributary) flows southwards through the deltaic plains to the Bay of Bengal. The mainstream flows southwards into Bangladesh and is joined by the Brahmaputra. Further downstream, it is known as th Meghna. This mighty river, with waters from the Ganga, and the Brahmaputra, flows into the Bay of Bengal. The delta formed by these rivers is known as the Sunderban delta.

THE BRAHMAPUTRA RIVER SYSTEM

The Brahmaputra rises Chemayungdung glacier of the Kailash range in Tibet east of Mansarowar lake very close to the sources of the Indus and the Satluj.

On reaching the Namcha Barwa (7757 m , just above N-E Arunachal Pradesh), it takes a ‘U’ turn and enters India in west of Sadiya town of Arunachal Pradesh through a gorge.

In Bangladesh, the Tista joins it on its right bank from where the river is known as the Yamuna. It finally merges with the river Padma (known as Ganga in India), which falls in the Bay of Bengal. The Brahmaputra is well-known for floods, channel shifting and bank erosion. This is due to the fact that most of its tributaries are large, and bring large quantity of sediments owing to heavy rainfall in its catchment area.

BRAIDED CAHNNEL- it has a channel that consists of a network of small channels separated by small and often temporary islands called braid bars. Braided Rivers exhibit numerous channels that split off and re-join each other to give a braided appearance.

The Brahmaputra has a braided channel in its entire length in Assam and forms many riverine islands MAJAULI OR MAJOLI is a large river island in the Brahmaputra River, Assam, India. Majuli is the largest river island in the world. The island had a total area of 1,250 square kilometres (483 sq mi),

THE PENINSULAR DRAINAGE SYSTEM

The Peninsular drainage system is older than the Himalayan one.

Most of the major rivers of the Peninsula such as the Mahanadi, the Godavari, the Krishna and the Kaveri flow eastwards and drain into the Bay of Bengal. These rivers make deltas at their mouths

The Narmada and The Tapi flow in trough(low press region) faults and fill the original cracks with their detritus(debris and waste) materials. Hence, there is a lack of alluvial and deltaic deposits in these rivers.

THE NARMADA BASIN

The Narmada raises in the Amarkantak hills in Madhya Pradesh. It flows towards the west in a rift valley between the Satpura in the south and the Vindhyan range in the north formed due to faulting. The Narmada basin covers parts of Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat.

THE TAPTI BASIN

The tapti rises in the Satpura ranges, in the betul district of Madhya Pradesh. It also flows in a rift valley parallel to the Narmada.

Its basin covers parts of Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat and Maharashtra.

Main west flowing peninsular river are

Periyar river-

Periyar is the longest river and the river with the largest discharge potential in the Indian state of Kerala.  Rises in the Western Ghats range near the border in Tamil Nadu state and flows north a short distance to Periyar Lake (originate due to construction of mullaperiyar dam ). It is one of the few perennial rivers in the region and provides drinking water for several major towns.[4] The Periyar is of utmost significance to the economy of Kerala. It generates a significant proportion of Kerala's electrical power via the Idukki Dam (on the border of Kerala and tamilnadu) and flows along a region of industrial and commercial activity. The river also provides water for irrigation and domestic use throughout its course besides supporting a rich fishery.

Sabarmati river-

it is one of the biggest rivers of Gujarat. It originates in Dhebar lake in Aravalli Range of the Udaipur District of Rajasthan and meets the Gulf of Cambay of Arabian Sea after travelling 371 km in a south-westerly direction.

Mahi River –

Originates from Vindhyachal Hills, Madhyapradesh and meets in Bay of Khambhat.

Bharathpuzha -

Second largest river in kerala ,,drained into Arabian sea..

The Godavari Basin(1500 km.)

The Godavari is the largest Peninsular river. It rises from the slopes of the Western Ghats in the Nasik district of Maharashtra. It drains into the Bay of Bengal. drainage basin is also the largest among the peninsular rivers

Please note that the drained basin or river or water basin is drained area by river and its tributaries

A river drains the water collected from a specific area(used only for river not for river system), which is called its ‘catchment area’

The basin covers parts of Maharashtra (about 50 per cent of the basin area lies in Maharashtra), Madhya Pradesh, Orissa and Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Chhattisgarh. Largest river basin among peninsular river in India.

Tributaries are Purna, indravati, the Wardha, the Pranhita, the Manjra, the Wainganga and the Penganga.

Because of its length and the area it covers, it is also known as the ‘Dakshin Ganga’.

The Mahanadi Basin

The Mahanadi rises near Sihawa in Raipur district of Chhattisgarh. It flows through Orissa to reach the Bay of Bengal.

drainage basin is shared by Maharashtra, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, and Orissa.

The Krishna Basin

Rising from a spring near Mahabaleshwar in Sahyadri, the Krishna flows for about 1400 km and reaches the Bay of Bengal.

The Tungabhadra, the Koyana, the Ghatprabha, the Musi and the Bhima are some of its tributaries.

basin is shared by Maharasthra, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh

The Kaveri Basin

The Kaveri rises in the Brahmagri range(western ghat) of kogadu district of Karnataka and it reaches the Bay of Bengal.

Since the upper catchment area receives rainfall during the southwest monsoon season (summer) and the lower part during the northeast monsoon season (winter), the river carries water throughout the year withcomparatively less fluctuation than the other Peninsular rivers

tributaries are Amravati, Bhavani, Hemavati and Kabini

basin drains parts of Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu.

The river Kaveri makes the second biggest waterfall in India. It is known as Sivasamudram.

The Sharavati is another importantriver in Karnataka flowing towards the west. The Sharavati originates in Shimoga district of Karnataka and drains a catchment area of 2,209 sq. km.

Mandovi and Juari. Are two important rivers in GOA.

71 per cent of the world’s surface is covered with water, but 97 per cent of that is salt water Of the 3 per cent that is available as freshwater, three quarters of it is trapped as ice.

Find out the location of Caspian ,dead and aral sea..

Dal lake in Jammu and Kashmir

Lagoon is a shallow body of water separated from larger body of water by a barrier island or reefs..

LAKE-(read carefully from internet)Lake is formed by Spits and bars form lagoons in the coastal areas, eg the Chilika lake, the Pulicat lake, the Kolleru lake

SPIT- long narrow ridges of sand and shingle which project from shore line in to sea. from the coastline into the sea. The formation of a spit begins due to a change in the direction of the coastline, where a low energy zone is found. This can also be at the mouth of the estuary. The main source of material building up a spit is from long shore drift and current, which brings material from further down the coast.

BAR- Bars form in the same way as a spit initially, but bars are created where a spit grows across a bay, joining two headlands. Behind the bar, a lagoon is created, where water has been trapped.

Lakes in the region of inland drainage are sometimes seasonal; for example, the Sambhar lake in Rajasthan, which is a salt water lake. Its water is used for producing salt.

Most of the fresh water lakes are in the Himalayan region. They are of glacial origin. In other words, they formed when glaciers dug out a basin, which was later filled with snowmelt.

The Wular lake in Jammu and Kashmir, in contrast, is the result of the tectonic activity. It is the largest freshwater lake in India.

The Dal lake, Bhimtal, Nainital, Loktak and Barapani are some other important fresh water lakes

the damming(CONSTRUCT DAM) of the rivers for the generation of hydel power has also led to the formation of Lakes such as Guru Gobind Sagar (Bhakra Nangal Project).

National River Conservation Plan (NRCP)

The activities of Ganga Action Plan (GAP) phase-I, initiated in 1985, were declared closed on 31st March 2000. The Steering Committee of the National River Conservation Authority reviewed theprogress of the GAP and necessary correction on the basis of lessons learnt and experiences gained from GAP Phase-I. These have been applied to the major polluted rivers of the country under the NRCP. The Ganga Action Plan (GAP) Phase-II, has been merged with the NRCP. The expanded NRCP now covers 152 towns located along 27 interstate rivers in 16 states. Under this action plan, pollution abatement works are being taken up in 57 towns. A total of 215

schemes of pollution abatement have been sanctioned. So far, 69 schemes have been completed under this action plan. Amillion litres of sewage is targeted to be intercepted, diverted and treated.

DAMS-

dams are built not just for irrigation but for electricity generation, water supply for domestic and industrial uses, flood control, recreation, inland navigation and fish breeding.

in the Sutluj-Beas river basin, the Bhakra – Nangal project water is being used both for hydel power production and irrigation. Similarly, the Hirakud project in the Mahanadi basin integrates conservation of water with flood control

EMBANKMENT- A levee, an artificial bank raised above the immediately

surrounding land to redirect or prevent flooding by a river, lake or sea

Hydraulic Structures in Ancient India

In the first century B.C., Sringaverapura near Allahabad had sophisticated water harvesting system channelling the flood water of the river Ganga.

During the time of Chandragupta Maurya, dams, lakes and irrigation systems were extensively built.

Evidences of sophisticated irrigation works have also been found in Kalinga, (Orissa), Nagarjunakonda (Andhra Pradesh), Bennur (Karnataka), Kolhapur (Maharashtra), etc.

In the 11th Century, Bhopal Lake, one of the largest artificial lakes of its time was built.

In the 14th Century, the tank in Hauz Khas, Delhi was constructed by Iltutmish for supplying water to Siri Fort area.

Jawaharlal Nehru proudly proclaimed the dams as the ‘temples of modern India’; the reason being that it would integrate development of agriculture and the village economy with rapid industrialisation and growth of the urban economy.

AFFECT OF DAMMING-

Regulating and damming of rivers affect their natural flow causing poor sediment flow and excessive sedimentation at the bottom of the reservoir, resulting in rockier stream beds and poorer habitats for the rivers’ aquatic life.

Dams also fragment rivers making it difficult for aquatic fauna to migrate, especially for spawning.( Anadromous fish are fish that spawn in fresh water and then leave for the sea, most likely for the greater amounts of resources, which allow them to reach large sizes impossible in fresh water (Lewis 1991). These fish will then return from the ocean at sexual maturity to spawn in the streams in which they themselves were spawned; it is a long journey, and many die along the way. The fish must swim upstream for miles before they reach their

destination. Once the fish enter the freshwater system, however, new dams that have been put in place may block their access to the spawning grounds and the fish will not reproduce if they cannot get there. The dams may even interfere with the fishes navigation systems by blocking many olfactory clues, which many biologists believe may be one of the factors responsible for the incredible homing system the fish have) The reservoirs that are created on the floodplains also submerge the existing Vegetation and soil leading to its decomposition over a period of time.

Multi-purpose projects and large dams have also been the cause of many new

social movements like the ‘Narmada Bachao Andolan’ and the ‘Tehri Dam

Andolan’ etc. Resistance to these projects has primarily been due to the large-

scale displacement of local communities.

A RIPARIAN STATE through or along which a portion of a river flows or a lake lies.

NARMADA BACHAO ANDOLAN or Save Narmada Movement is a Non-Governmental Organisation (NGO) lead by MEDHA PATKAR ( an Indian social activist and social reformer turned politician) that mobilised tribal people, farmers, environmentalists and human rights activists against the Sardar Sarovar Dam being built across the Narmada river in Gujarat. It originally focused on the environmental issues related to trees that would be submerged under the dam water. Recently it has re-focused the aim to enable poor citizens, especially the oustees (displaced people) to get full rehabilitation facilities from the government.

TEHRI BACHAO ANDOLAN- The dam project was approved in 1972 and construction was started in 1978. The Tehri Hydro Development Corporation (THDC) was constituted in 1989 to supervise the construction of the dam. The main dam of the project is built near the old Tehri town that lies at the confluence of the rivers Bhagirathi, (one of the major tributary of the river Ganga) and Bhilangana. The main dam will produce 2000 MW of electricity when completed. However, only the Phase-I with capacity of 1000 MW is approved at present. There is another smaller dam 14 km downstream at Koteshwar that will produce 400 MW of electricity. The main reservoir comprises an area of 42 km². This will sink the old Tehri town and 112 villages around the town, thereby displacing more than 100,000 people.

Irrigation has also changed the cropping pattern of many regions with farmers shifting to water intensive and commercial crops. This has great ecological consequences like salinisation of the soil.

the Krishna-Godavari dispute is due to the objections raised by Karnataka and Andhra Pradeshgovernments? It is regarding the diversion of more water at Koyna by the Maharashtra government for a multipurpose project. This would reduce downstream flow in their states with adverse consequences for agriculture and industry.

the dams that were constructed to control floods have triggered floods due to sedimentation in the reservoir. Moreover, the big dams have mostly been unsuccessful in controlling floods at the time of excessive rainfall and caused extensive soil erosion.

Sedimentation also meant that the flood plains were deprived of silt, a natural fertiliser, further adding on to the problem of land degradation.

It was also observed that the multi-purpose projects induced earthquakes, caused waterborne diseases and pests and pollution resulting from excessive use of water.(Due to reservoir induced seismicity, earthquake is related to extra power pressure

created in the micro crack and fissures in the ground under and near a reservoir. When press of the water in the rock increases, it acts to lubricate faults which are already under tectonic strain, but are prevented from slipping by friction of the rock surfaces)

WATER HARVESTING SYSTEM-

In hill and mountainous regions, people built diversion channels like the ‘guls’ or ‘kuls’ of the Western Himalayas for agriculture.

Guls or Kuls -

kul irrigation, which utilises kuls (diversion channels) to carry water from glacier to village. The kuls often span long distances, running down precipitous mountain slopes and across crags and crevices. Some kuls are 10 km long, and have existed for centuries. The crucial portion of a kul is its head at the glacier, which is to be tapped. The head must be kept free of debris, and so the kul is lined with stones to prevent clogging and seepage. In the village, the kul leads to a circular tank from which the flow of water can be regulated. For example, when there is need to irrigate, water is let out of the tank in a trickle(gradual flow). Water from the kul is collected through the night and released into the exit channel in the morning. By evening, the tank is practically empty, and the exit is closed.

Rooftop rain water harvesting’ was commonly practised to store drinking water, particularly in Rajasthan.

In the flood plains of Bengal, people developed inundation channels to irrigate their fields.( Floodwater entered the fields through the inundation canals, carrying not only rich silt but also fish, which swam through these canals into the lakes and tanks to feed on the larva of mosquitoes. This helped to check malaria in this region)

In arid and semi-arid regions, agricultural fields were converted into rain fed storage structures that allowed the water to stand and moisten the soil like the ‘khadins’ in Jaisalmer and ‘Johads’ in other parts of Rajasthan.

In the semi-arid and arid regions of Rajasthan, particularly in Bikaner, Phalodi and Barmer, almost all the houses traditionally had underground tanks or tankas for storing drinking water. The tanks could be as large as a big room. The tankas were part of the well-developed rooftop rainwater harvesting system and were built inside the main house or the courtyard. They were connected to the sloping roofs of the houses through a pipe. Many houses constructed underground rooms adjoining the ‘tanka’ to beat the summer heat as it would keep the room cool.

Tamil Nadu is the first and the only state in India which has made roof top rainwater harvesting structure compulsory to all the houses across the state. There are legal provisions to punish the defaulters.

In Gujarat, the Sabarmati basin farmers were agitated when higher priority was given to water supply in urban areas, particularly during droughts.

Today in Rajasthan, the practice of rooftop rainwater water harvesting has diminished because high water availability due to the Rajasthan Canal

perennial (always with water) or ephemeral (water during rainy season, and dry, otherwise)

A river drains the water collected from a specific area, which is called its ‘catchment area’.

The area drained by a single river system (river + tributaries) is called a drainage basin or river basin

The boundary line separating one drainage basin from the other is known as the WATERSHED. It can be outlined on a topographic map by tracing the points of highest elevation (usually ridge crests) between two adjacent stream valleys. The watershed of a large river usually contains the watersheds of many smaller streams. Also referred to as a "drainage basin"

The main correlation between catchment area drainage basin and watershed is

The catchments of large rivers are called river basins (that means catchment is used for Small River or tributaries)

The catchments of small rivulets (stream) and rills (small stream) are often referred to as watersheds.

That mean drainage area is used for river system, catchment is used for small river and tributaries that meets river system while water shed is used for small stream that meets tributaries.

Indian drainage system may be divided on various bases. On the basis of discharge of water (orientations to the sea), it may be grouped into: (i) the Arabian Sea drainage; and (ii) the Bay of Bengal drainage. They are separated from each other through the Delhi ridge(POTWAR PLATEAU), the Aravalis and the Sahyadris (water divide is shown by a line in Figure 3.1). Nearly 77 per cent of the drainage area consisting of the Ganga, the Brahmaputra, the Mahanadi, the Krishna.

River Kosi, also known as the ‘sorrow of Bihar’, has been notorious for frequently changing its course. The Kosi brings huge quantity of sediments from its upper reaches and deposits it in the plains. The course gets blocked, and consequently, the river changes its course.

The pattern of flow of water in a river channel over a year is known as its REGIME.

The Ganga has its minimum flow during the January-June period. The maximum flow is attained either in August or in September. After September, there is a steady fall in the flow. The river, thus, has a monsoon regime during the rainy season.

India accounts for about 2.45 per cent of world’s surface area, 4 per cent of the world’s water resources and about 16 per cent of world’s population.

Much of the annual water flow in south Indian rivers like the Godavari, the Krishna, and the Kaveri has been harnessed, but it is yet to be done in the Brahmaputra and the Ganga basins.

spatio-temporal variability in rainfall

Watershed development refers to the conservation, regeneration and the judicious use of all the resources - natural (land, water, plants, animals) and human - within a particular watershed. Watershed management tries to bring about the best possible balance in the environment between natural resources on the one side, and human and other living beings  on  the  other.

Components of watershed developmen

• Human Resource Development (Community Development) • Soil and Land Management• Water Management • Crop Management• Afforestation • Pasture/Fodder Development • Livestock Management • Rural Energy Management • Farm and non-farm value addition activities

All these components are interdependent and interactive

The total Replenishable groundwater Resources in the country are about 432 cubic km. the Ganga and theBrahamaputra basins, have about 46 per cent of the total replenishable groundwater resources..

Multipurpose river valleys projects like the BHAKRA-NANGAL, HIRAKUD, DAMODAR VALLEY, NAGARJUNA SAGAR, INDIRA GANDHI CANAL PROJECT(read about these), etc. have been taken up mainly for irrigation..

Agriculture accounts for most of the surface and ground water utilisation, it accounts for 89 per cent of the surface water and 92 per cent of the groundwater utilisation. While the share of industrial sector is limited to 2 per cent of the surface water utilisation and 5 per cent of the ground-wate.

water requirement of rice, sugarcane, jute, etc. is very high which can be met only through irrigation.

over withdrawals in some states like Rajasthan, and Maharashtra has increased fluoride concentration in ground-water, and this practice has led to increase in concentration of arsenic in parts of West Bengal and Bihar.

The Ganga and the Yamuna are the two highly polluted rivers in the country.

There is need to encourage watershed development (the conservation, regeneration and the judicious use of all the resources - natural (land, water, plants, animals) and human - within a particular watershed. Watershed management tries to bring about the best possible balance in the environment between natural resources on the one side, and human and other living beings  on  the  other), rainwater harvesting, water recycling and reuse, and conjunctive use of water for sustaining water supply in long run.

The concentration of pollutants in rivers, especially remains very high during the summer season when flow of water is low.

organic and bacterial contamination continues to be the main source of pollution in rivers. The Yamuna river is the most polluted river in the country between Delhi and Etawah.

Groundwater pollution has occurred due to high concentrations of heavy/toxic metals, fluorideand nitrates at different parts of the country.

The legislative provisions such as the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act 1974, and Environment Protection Act 1986 have not been implemented effectively.

The Water Cess Act, 1977, meant to reduce pollution has also made marginal impacts.

The public awareness and action can be very effective in reducing the pollutants from agriculturalactivities, domestic and industrial discharges.

Use of water of lesser quality such as reclaimed waste-water would be an attractive option for industries for cooling and fire fighting to reduce their water cost. Similarly, in urban areas water after bathing and washing utensils can be used for gardening. Water used for washing vehicle can also be used for gardening. there is enormous scope for replenishing water through recycling.

Watershed management basically refers to efficient management and conservation of surface and groundwater resources. It involves prevention of runoff and storage and recharge of groundwater through various methods like percolation tanks, recharge wells, etc. However, in broad sense watershed management includes conservation, regeneration and judicious use of all resources – natural (like land, water, plants and animals) and human with in a watershed.

Watershed management aims at bringing about balance between natural resources on the one hand and society on the other. The success of watershed development largely depends upon community participationHaryali is a watershed development project sponsored by the Central Government which aims at enabling the rural population to conserve water for drinking, irrigation, fisheries and afforestation. The Project is being executed by Gram Panchayats with people’s participation.

Neeru-Meeru (Water and You) programme (in Andhra Pradesh) and Arvary Pani Sansad (in Alwar, Rajasthan) have taken up constructions of various water-harvesting structures

Due to rapid percolation, there is practically no danger of soil suffering from bed drainage, but on the other hand, there is a possibility of the dissolved plant nutrients like calcium and magnesium being carried deep into lower layers and depositing beyond the reach of the roots of common field crops. In sandy or open textured soils there is a rapid loss of water through percolation.

Percolation tanks are the structures for recharging ground water. These are generally constructed across streams and bigger gullies in highly permeable or fractured area in order to impound a part of the run-off water. This water, in due course, finds its way into subsoil and recharges the found water. This leads to better recuperation of wells in the downstream areas.

Tamil Nadu has made water harvesting structures in the houses compulsory. No building can be constructed without making structures for water harvesting.

In Rajasthan, rainwater harvesting structures locally known as Kund or Tanka (a covered underground tank) are constructed near or in the house or village to store harvested rainwater.

Read highlights of India’s National Water Policy, 2002

PHSICAL GEOGRAPHY

India has an area of about 3.28 million sq. km. The north-south extent from Kashmir to Kanyakumari is about 3,200 km. And the east-west extent from Arunachal Pradesh to Kuchchh is about 2,900 km.

From south to north, India extends between 8°4'N and 37°6'N latitudes. From west to east, India extends between 68°7'E and 97°25'E longitudes.

The local time changes by four minutes for every one degree of longitude. The sun rises two hours earlier in the east (Arunachal Pradesh) than in the west (Gujarat).

Sri Lanka is separated from India by the Palk Strait.

Rajasthan is the largest state and Goa is the smallest state in terms of area.

The northernmost is the Great Himalaya. or Himadri. The world’s highest peaks are located in this range. Middle Himalaya or Himachal lies to the south of Himadri. The Shiwalik (lower Himalaya) is the southernmost range.

Alluvial deposits : These are very fine soils, brought by rivers and deposited in the river basins.

Aravali hills, one of the oldest ranges of the world, border it on the north-west side.

While the Western Ghats are almost continuous, the Eastern Ghats are broken and uneven (Figure 7.3). The plateau is rich in minerals like coal and iron-ore.

The Ganga and the Brahmaputra form the world’s largest delta, the Sunderban delta.

To the West of the Western Ghats and the East of Eastern Ghats lie the Coastal plains.

To the West of the Western Ghats and the East of Eastern Ghats lie the Coastal plains. The western coastal plains are very narrow. The eastern Coastal plains are much broader.

The rivers Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna and Kaveri form fertile deltas at their mouth.

Two groups of islands also form part of India. Lakshadweep Islands are located in the Arabian Sea. These are coral islands located off the coast of Kerala. The Andaman and the Nicobar Islands lie to the southeast of the Indian mainland in the Bay of Bengal..

Sahyadris is also known as wastern ghat

Aravali is the oldest mountain range in india.

india main land extends between latitudes 8°4'N and 37°6'N and longitudes 68°7'E and 97°25'E.

The southernmost point of the Indian Union– ‘Indira Point’ got submerged under the sea water in 2004 during the Tsunami.

The land mass of India has an area of 3.28 million square km. India’s total area accounts for about 2.4 per cent of the total geographical area of the world. India is the seventh largest country of the world. India has a land boundary of about 15,200 km and the total length of the coast line of the mainland including Andaman and Nicobar and Lakshadweep is 7,516.6 km.

The latitudinal extent influences the duration of the day and night, as one moves from south to north.

No other country has a long coastline on the Indian Ocean as India has and indeed, it is India’s eminent position in the Indian Ocean which justifies the naming of an Ocean after it.

The ideas of the Upanishads and the Ramayana, the stories of Panchtantra, the Indian numerals and the decimal system could reach many parts of the world by north land routes. The spices, muslin and other merchandise were taken from India to different countries. On the other hand, the influence of Greek sculpture, and the architectural styles of dome and minarets from West Asia can be seen in different parts of our country.

Our southern neighbours across the sea consist of the two island countries, namely Sri Lanka and Maldives. Sri Lanka is separated from India by a narrow channel of sea formed by the Palk Strait and the Gulf of Mannar while Maldives Islands are situated to the south of the Lakshadweep Islands.

Most volcanoes and earthquakes in the world are located at plate margins, but some do occur within the plates

Gondwana land. The Gondwanaland included India, Australia, South Africa and South America as one single land mass. The convectional currents split the crust into a number of pieces, thus leading to the drifting of the Indo-Australian plate after being separated from the Gondwana land, towards north. Due to this collision, the sedimentary rocks which were accumulated in the geosyncline known as the Tethys were folded to form the mountain system of western Asia and Himalaya.

The Himalayan uplift out of the Tethys sea and subsidence of the northern flank of the peninsular plateau resulted in the formation of a large basin. In due course of time this depression, gradually got filled with deposition of sediments by the rivers flowing from the mountains in the north and the peninsular plateau in the south. A flat land of extensive alluvial deposits led to the formation of the northern plains of India.

the Peninsular Plateau constitutes one of the ancient landmasses on the earth’s surface. It was supposed to be one of the most stable land blocks. The Himalayas and the Northern Plains are the most recent landforms. From the view point of geology, Himalayan mountains form an unstable zone.

The peninsular plateau is composed of igneous and metamorphic rocks with gently rising hills and wide valleys.

HIMALAYA form an arc, which covers a distance of about 2,400 Km. Their width varies from 400 Km in Kashmir to 150 Km in Arunachal Pradesh.

Northern most greater Himalaya or HIMADRI is most continuous range consisting of the Loftiest peaks with an average height of 6,000 metres. The core of this part of Himalayas is composed of granite.

South of himadri Himachal or lesser Himalaya, the most rugged mountain system are mainly composed of highly compressed and altered rocks. The altitude varies between 3,700 and 4,500 metres and the average width is of 50 Km. the Pir Panjal range forms the longest and the most important range, the Dhaula Dhar and the Mahabharat ranges are also prominent ones . consists of the famous valley of Kashmir, the Kangra and Kullu Valley in Himachal Pradesh. This region is well known for its hill stations.

The outer most range of the Himalayas is called the SHIWALIKS. They extend over a width of 10-50 Km and have an altitude varying between 900 and 1100 metres. These ranges are composed of unconsolidated sediments brought down by rivers from the main Himalayan ranges located farther north. These valleys are covered with thick gravel and alluvium.

The longitudinal valley lying between lesser Himalaya and the Shiwaliks are known as Duns. Dehra Dun, Kotli Dun and Patli Dun are some of the well-known Duns.

Beyond the Dihang gorge, the Himalayas bend sharply to the south and spread along the eastern boundary of India. They are known as the Purvanchal or the Eastern hills and mountains. These hills running through the north-eastern states are mostly composed of strong sandstones which are sedimentary rocks. Covered with dense forests,

NORTHERN PLAIN-

It spreads over an area of 7 lakh sq. km. The plain being about 2400 Km long and 240 to 320 Km broad

The rivers, after descending from the mountains deposit pebbles in a narrow belt of about 8 to 16 km in width lying parallel to the slopes of the Shiwaliks. It is known as bhabar. The soil in this region contains calcareous deposites locally known as kankar.All the streams disappear in this bhabar belt.

South of this bhabar belt, the streams and rivers re-emerge and create a wet, swampy and marshy region known as terai. This was a thickly forested region full of wildlife. The forests have been cleared to create agricultural land and to settle migrants from Pakistan after partition. Locate Dudhwa National Park in this region.

The newer, younger deposits of the flood plains are called khadar. They are renewed almost every year and so are fertile, thus, ideal for intensive agriculture.

The Peninsular Plateau

The Aravali Hills lie on the western and northwestern margins of the peninsular plateau

It is composed of the old crystalline, igneous and metamorphic rocks. It was formed due to the breaking and drifting of the Gondwana land and thus, making it a part of the oldest landmass.

This plateau consists of two broad divisions, namely, the Central Highlands and the Deccan Plateau.

The part of the Peninsular plateau lying to the north of the Narmada river covering a major area of the Malwa plateau is known as the Central Highlands. The Vindhyan range is bounded by the Central Highlands on the south and the Aravalis on the northwest.

The flow of the rivers draining this region, namely the Chambal, the Sind, the Betwa and Ken is from southwest to northeast, thus indicating the slope.The Central Highlands are wider in the west but narrower in the east..

The Deccan Plateau is a triangular landmass that lies to the south of the river Narmada. The Satpura range flanks its broad base in the north while the Mahadev, the Kaimur hills and the Maikal range form its eastern extensions.

The Deccan Plateau is higher in the west and slopes gently eastwards. An extension of the Plateau is also visible in the northeast– locally known as the Meghalaya and Karbi-Anglong Plateau. It is separated by a fault from the Chotanagpur Plateau. Three Prominent hill ranges from the west to east are the Garo, the Khasi and the Jaintia Hills.

The Western Ghats are higher than the Eastern Ghats. Their average elevation is 900– 1600 metres as against 600 metres of the Eastern Ghats. The Eastern Ghats stretch from the Mahanadi Valley to the Nigiris in the south.The Eastern Ghats are discontinuous and irregular and dissected by rivers draining intothe Bay of Bengal.

The Western Ghats cause OROGRAPHIC RAIN by facing the rain bearing moist winds to rise along the western slopes of the Ghats.

The height of the Western Ghats progressively increases from north to south.

The highest peaks include the Anai Mudi (2,695metres) and the Doda Betta (2,637 metres). Mahendragiri (1,501 metres) is the highest peak in the Eastern Ghats.

One of the distinct features of the peninsular plateau is the black soil area known as Decean Trap. This is of volcanic origin hence the rocks are igneous. Actually these rocks have denuded over time and are responsible for the formation of black soil.

The Indian Desert

Lies towards the western margins of the Aravali Hills.

UNDULATING SANDY PLAIN covered with sand dunes. This region receives very low rainfall below 150 mmper year.

Streams appear during the rainy season. Soon after they disappear into the sand as they do not have enough water to reach the sea. Luni is the only large river in this region.

BARCHANS (CRESCENT shaped dunes) cover larger areas but longitudinal dunes become more prominent near the Indo-Pakistan boundary.

The Coastal Plains

The western coast, sandwiched between the Western Ghats and the ArabianSea, is a narrow plain. It consists of three sections. The northern part of the coast is called the Konkan (Mumbai – Goa), the central stretch is called the Kannad Plain while the southern stretch is referred to as the Malabar coast.

Eastern coast is broader than western coast. In the northern part, it is referred to as the Northern Circar, while the southern part is known as the Coromandal Coast. Large rivers such as the Mahanadi, the Godavari, the Krishna and the Kaveri have farmed extensive delta on this coast. Lake Chilika (largest salt water lake in India,

lies in Orissa, to the south of Mahanadi delta) is an important feature along the eastern coast.

The Islands

Lakshadweep Islands group lye close to the Malabar coast of Kerala. This group of islands is composed of small coral isalnds. Earlier they were known as Laccadive, Minicoy and Amindive. In 1973 these were named as Lakshadweep. It covers small area of 32 sq km. Kavaratti island is the administrative headquarters of Lakshadweep. great diversity of flora and fauna in this group of islands.

Andaman and Nicobar islands

the elongated chain of islands located in the Bay of Bengal extending from north to south. bigger in size and are more numerous and scattered. The entire group of islands is divided into two broad categories – The Andaman in the north and the Nicobar in the south. It is believed that these islands are an elevated portion of submarine mountains , close to equator and experience equatorial climate and has thick forest cover. great diversity of flora and fauna in this group of islands too. India’s only active volcano is found on Barren island in Andaman and Nicobar group of Islands.

The northern mountains are the major sources of water and forest wealth. The northern plains are the granaries of the country. They provide the base for early civilisations. The plateau is a storehouse of minerals, which has played a crucial role in the industrialisation of the country. The coastal region and island groups provide sites for fishing and port activities. Thus, the diverse physical features of the land have immense future possibilities of development.

Mountain ranges in the eastern part of India forming its boundary with Myanmar are collectively called as Purvanchal

CLIMATE

Climate refers to the sum total of weather conditions and variations over a large area for a long period of time (more than thirty years).

Weather refers to the state of the atmosphere over an area at any point of time.

The elements of weather and climate are the same, i.e. temperature, atmospheric pressure, wind, humidity and precipitation.

Monsoon’ refers to the seasonal reversal in the wind direction during a year.