Indigenous Education

W. James Jacob • Sheng Yao ChengMaureen K. PorterEditors

Indigenous EducationLanguage, Culture and Identity

123

EditorsW. James JacobUniversity of PittsburghPittsburgh, PA, USA

Maureen K. PorterAdministrative and Policy StudiesUniversity of PittsburghPittsburgh, PA, USA

Sheng Yao ChengInstitute of Disadvantaged

Students’ LearningNational Chung Cheng UniversityChia-Yi, Taiwan

ISBN 978-94-017-9354-4 ISBN 978-94-017-9355-1 (eBook)DOI 10.1007/978-94-017-9355-1

Library of Congress Control Number: 2014958666

Springer Dordrecht Heidelberg New York London© Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht2015This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part ofthe material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation,broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or informationstorage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodologynow known or hereafter developed.The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publicationdoes not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevantprotective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this bookare believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors orthe editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for anyerrors or omissions that may have been made.

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Contents

1 Global Review of Indigenous Education: Issues of Identity,Culture, and Language. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1W. James Jacob, Sheng Yao Cheng, and Maureen K. Porter

Part I Thematic Issues on Indigenous Education

2 Policy Debates and Indigenous Education: The Trialecticof Language, Culture, and Identity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39W. James Jacob, Jing Liu, and Che-Wei Lee

3 ICT and Indigenous Education: Emerging Challengesand Potential Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63Rebecca A. Clothey

4 Formal and Informal Indigenous Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77Terry Wotherspoon

5 Indigenous Higher Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99Duane W. Champagne

6 East or West? Tradition and the Development of HybridHigher Education in Asia: Focus on China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109John N. Hawkins

Part II Language

7 Strategies for Overcoming Linguistic Genocide: Howto Avoid Macroaggressions and Microaggressions thatLead Toward Indigenous Language Annihilation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127W. James Jacob

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8 Sustaining Indigenous Identity Through LanguageDevelopment: Comparing Indigenous LanguageInstruction in Two Contexts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139Carol J. Ward and David B. Braudt

9 Language-in-Education Policies in Africa: Perspectives,Practices, and Implications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171Connie Ssebbunga-Masembe,Christopher Byalusaago Mugimu, Anthony Mugagga,and Stephen Backman

10 The Sámi People in Scandinavia: Government Policies forIndigenous Language Recognition and Support in theFormal Education System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187Mina O’Dowd

11 Learning from the Moa: The Challenge of MaoriLanguage Revitalization in Aotearoa/New Zealand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207Roger Boshier

12 Heteroglossia: Reframing the Conversation AroundLiteracy Achievement for English Language Learnersand American Indian/Alaska Native Students . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227Evelisa Natasha Genova

Part III Culture

13 Somos Incas: Enduring Cultural Sensibilitiesand Indigenous Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241Maureen K. Porter

14 History, Culture, and Indigenous Education in the PacificIslands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281Richard Scaglion

15 Reclaiming Indigenous Cultures in Sub-Saharan AfricanEducation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301Edward Shizha

16 Indigenous Knowledges in Education: AnticolonialStruggles in a Monocultural Arena with Referenceto Cases from the Global South . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319Anders Breidlid and Louis Royce Botha

17 The Role of Schools in Native American Languageand Culture Revitalization: A Vision of Linguistic andEducational Sovereignty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341Teresa L. McCarty and Tiffany S. Lee

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18 Between the Community and the Individual: Identityin Intercultural Education in Mexico . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361Rocío Fuentes

Part IV Identity

19 Beyond the Cultural Turn: Indigenous Identityand Mainstream Identity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381Sheng Yao Cheng

20 Indigeneity and Global Citizenship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395Jerome M. Levi and Elizabeth Durham

21 Identity and Indigenous Education in Peruvian Amazonia . . . . . . . . . . . . 429Bartholomew Dean

22 Intersections of Identity and Education: The NativeAmerican Experience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 447Hilary N. Weaver

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463

Brief Author Bios

Stephen Backman is an international education practitioner who has worked inthe fields of literacy, language policy, teacher education, curriculum development,and education systems strengthening in Africa for more than 10 years. He receivedhis Ph.D. from Michigan State University in Curriculum, Teaching and EducationPolicy with a research focus on language policy in education. Backman currentlyworks for RTI International as the Deputy Chief of Party for the Malawi Early GradeReading Activity, a 3-year USAID activity providing support for improving theinstruction and learning of reading in Malawi through teacher training, curriculumdevelopment, community mobilization, and policy support. His previous assign-ments in other USAID projects include: the Chief of Party of the Malawi TeacherProfessional Development Support Program with Creative Associates (2011–2013)and the Chief of Party of the Southern Sudan Technical Assistance Program withAED and FHI360 (2010–2011). In addition to these assignments, Backman hasconducted field research on language policy in education in Africa, the ethnographyof education, and international development. He has taught at both the elementaryschool and university levels while leading a number of study abroad and field studyprograms to East and Southern Africa. Throughout these various activities Backmanhas been a strong proponent for the use of local languages as the medium ofinstruction in African schools, especially in the development of initial literacy skills.

Roger Boshier is Professor of Educational Studies at the University of BritishColumbia, Vancouver, Canada. He was born in Hastings, New Zealand, where heendured corporal punishment (caning), lazy teachers, and uninspired curriculumat the Hastings Boys’ High School. However, with the unsolicited help of theHeadmaster, he made an early escape from high school and, coasting on a miracle(or the timely intervention of an unknown benefactor) in 1960, landed at the lively(and inspired) Wellington Teachers’ College. At the time, Wellington was enlivenedwith protests against the American war in Vietnam, racist rugby in South Africa andFrench nuclear testing in the Pacific. Boshier joined the Teachers’ College MaoriClub and became a leader of the New Zealand anti-Vietnam war and anti-nuclear

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testing movements. After a short sojourn as a teacher, he did a Ph.D. in Psychologyat Victoria University of Wellington—a leading centre for research on Maori issueswhere he became a Junior Lecturer in Psychology. Later he took a position at theUniversity of Auckland. After Auckland continuously denied him sabbatical leavehe took off for Canada and never came back. In 1996 he ran for election to the BritishColumbia legislature and very decisively (and luckily) snatched defeat from thejaws of victory. Despite having resided in Canada for 40 years, Boshier is a patrioticNew Zealander and has several academic projects there—most involving Maori. Hisbiggest project is a biography of Selwyn Muru—Maori painter, sculpture, activist,playwright, broadcaster, oratory expert, and, with Ralph Hotere and Para Matchitt,one of the remaining rascals of the 1950s “Tovey-generation” from NorthlandCollege. Boshier sat in Matiu te Hau’s Maori language classes and, as such, hasfirst-hand experience of the real deal!

Louis Botha is currently teaching as an Associate Professor at Oslo and AkershusUniversity College. He works within the field of education, looking broadly at issuesof hegemony and counter-hegemony in knowledge production. More specifically,his main research interests include indigenous knowledges and cultural-historicalactivity theory (CHAT), but also explores marginalizing and empowering processesin areas of education such as North–South collaborations, mentoring relationshipsand qualitative research.

David B. Braudt is a distinguished young social scientist whose training isdiverse and continuing. He is currently a graduate student at the University ofNorth Carolina at Chapel Hill and a predoctoral trainee at the Carolina PopulationCenter. His research interests include social stratification, education, internationaldevelopment, and statistical methods. These interests have taken him to many placesand exposed him to a variety of cultures. As part of those travels he became fluent inPortuguese, an ability which allowed him to approach the case study of Timor-Lestein a manner otherwise inaccessible to non-Portuguese speakers. His contributionhere is a continuation of research he began while attending King’s College at theUniversity of Cambridge.

Anders Breidlid is Professor in International Education and Development at OsloUniversity College. His Ph.D. is from the School of Oriental and African Studies(SOAS), University of London. He is Former Dean of Faculty of Education andRector of Bislet University College, and Chair of the Board of the Centre forInternational Education (LINS) until 2007. He initiated the establishment of theMasters Programme in Multicultural and International Education, Oslo UniversityCollege as well as the Development Studies Programme at Sagene Teacher TrainingCollege. In Sudan he established Arapi Teacher Training Institute, South Sudan. Hehas been a research fellow at the University of Cape Town and at universities in Cubaand Chile. Breidlid has headed various research projects funded by the NorwegianResearch Council. His main professional interests are: international educationand development, the globalization of educational discourses (the global archi-tecture of education), international politics, human rights, HIV/AIDS, indigenous

Brief Author Bios xi

knowledges, education in conflict and African literature. He has published a numberof articles and books on education and development as well as on African historyand fiction. Breidlid has research experience from Sudan, South Sudan, SouthAfrica, Kenya, Cuba, Chile, and the USA. He has also done consultancy work forvarious NGOs in countries in Africa and Latin America. His recent books include:HIV/AIDS in Sub-Saharan Africa (2009) (with J. Baxen), A Concise History ofSouth Sudan (2010) (with A. Androga and A.K. Breidlid), and Education, Indige-nous Knowledges and Development in the Global South. Contesting Knowledges fora Sustainable Future, was published by Routledge in 2013.

Duane Champagne is a member of the Turtle Mountain Band of Chippewa fromNorth Dakota. He is Professor of Sociology, Law, and American Indian Studies,Co-chair of the UCLA Native Nations Law and Policy Center, Senior Editor forIndian Country Today, and Past Acting Director of Tribal Learning Community andEducational Exchange (TLCEE). Champagne was Director of the UCLA AmericanIndian Studies Center from 1991 to 2002 and Editor of the American Indian Cultureand Research Journal from 1986 to 2003, and again in 2011 to 2013. He haswritten or edited over 125 publications. Champagne’s research and writings focuson issues of social and cultural change in both historical and contemporary NativeAmerican communities. He has written about a variety of indigenous communitiesincluding: Cherokee, Tlingit, Iroquois, Delaware, Choctaw, Northern Cheyenne,Creek, California Indians, Israeli Bedouins, and others. His most recent books areNotes from the Center of Turtle Island and Captured Justice: Native Nations UnderPublic Law 280.

Sheng Yao Cheng is currently Professor in the Graduate Institute of CurriculumStudies and Center for Teacher Education at National Chung Cheng University(CCU) in Taiwan. Cheng also serves as the Director of the Institute for Disadvan-taged Students’ Learning at CCU; Board Member of Chinese Comparative Edu-cation Society-Taipei; Program Chair of Comparative and International EducationSociety (CIES) Higher Education Special Interest Group (2009–2013); InternationalAdvisor of the National Center for University Entrance Examinations (Japan); Co-Director of Global Education, Training, and Leadership Institute; Affiliated FacultyMember, University of Pittsburgh Institute for International Studies in Education;Fulbright Visiting Scholar (2011–2102); and the Executive Editor of the Journalof Comparative Education. Cheng received his Ph.D. in the Division of SocialScience and Comparative Education at the University of California, Los Angeles,in 2004 and the topic of his dissertation focused on the politics of identity andindigenous schooling between Taiwan Aborigines and American Indians. Cheng’srecent research interests include higher education, comparative education, sociologyof education, international educational reforms, and remedial teaching programs.

Rebecca Clothey is a faculty member at Drexel University’s School of Educationin Philadelphia, USA. She has had an interest in international education since sheattended an international baccalaureate boarding school in India as a youth. Shehas lived on three continents and joined the faculty of Drexel University in 2006,

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when she was hired away from a position in Beijing, China. She served as theDirector of Drexel’s Higher Education Program from spring 2007 to spring 2010and served as the Director of Drexel’s Global and International Education Programfrom spring 2008 to summer 2012. Clothey lived in China for 5 years workingand researching in various higher education institutions throughout the country,including working at the Beijing Institute of Education, Capital Normal University,Southwest Jiaotong University, and Xinjiang Normal University. Clothey’s researchinterests include internationalization, equity and access in education, indigenouseducation, higher education policy, and Chinese education. She has been awardedtwo Fulbright Fellowships for her research, one to China and one to Uzbekistan.Most recently, she published the co-edited volume, Post-Secondary Education andTechnology: A Global Perspective on Opportunities and Obstacles to Development(with Stacy Austin-Li and John Weidman, Palgrave MacMillan). She has a Ph.D.in Administrative and Policy Studies from the University of Pittsburgh School ofEducation.

Elizabeth Durham graduated from Carleton College in 2012 with a Bachelor’sdegree in Anthropology/Sociology. She was a 2012–2013 Fulbright Student Fellowto Dschang, Cameroon, where she conducted anthropological research on attitudesand rumors regarding HIV/AIDS, government anti-AIDS programs, and the role oftraditional practitioners in fighting this epidemic. She is a member of the class of2015 at Linacre College, University of Oxford, where she is pursuing an M.Phil.in Visual, Material, and Museum Anthropology. Her budding research interestsinclude medical anthropology, collective memory, museum studies, Francophoneand Anglophone Africa, and African diasporas in the USA and Europe, particularlyFrance and England.

Rocío Fuentes holds a B.A. in Psychology from the National University ofMexico, a Ph.D. in Spanish Linguistics, and a graduate certificate in educationfrom the University of Pittsburgh. Currently, she is an Assistant Professor ofModern Languages and the Coordinator of the Foreign Language Teacher Educationand Outreach Program at Central Connecticut State University. Fuentes’ researchfocuses on the policies of intercultural education in Latin America, educationaldiscourse analysis, and the development of intercultural competence by foreignlanguage learners and teachers.

Evelisa Natasha Genova both a painter and a writer, is a recent Masters ofEducation graduate from Harvard University whose recent professional roles haveincluded Implementation Coordinator and Management Consultant, Special Educa-tion Educator, and a Policy Research Consultant for the Oneida Indian Nation inWisconsin. As a settler woman, born of Italian immigrant parents now in Toronto,her academic research and professional work is ignited by a lifelong commitmentto working responsibly between Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal contexts, with theparticular accountability and trust that this cross-cultural relationship demands.Working with an asset-based approach, her continued research recognizes thelongstanding importance of Aboriginal perspectives as critical narratives that must

Brief Author Bios xiii

disrupt the status quo of the Americas. Genova examines educational policies andpractices that affect First Nations communities to better serve a shared goal ofstrong, self-sufficient, and proud native peoples in urban, rural, and traditionalsettings.

John N. Hawkins is Professor Emeritus and former Chair of the Social Scienceand Comparative Education Division of the Graduate School of Education andInformation Studies at the University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA). He is alsoDirector of the Center for International and Development Education, an organizedresearch center focusing on global trends in higher education. He served for 12years as UCLA’s Dean of International Studies. He is an author of several booksand research articles on education and development in Asia. He has conductedresearch throughout Asia since 1966 when he first visited the People’s Republic ofChina. Hawkins is also Co-Director of the Asia-Pacific Higher Education ResearchPartnership, which is based at the East–West Center in Hawaii.

W. James Jacob is an Associate Professor in the School of Education at theUniversity of Pittsburgh. His research interests include higher education manage-ment; HIV/AIDS multisectoral prevention, capacity building, and principles of goodgovernance; indigenous education issues of culture, language, and identity as theyrelate to post-secondary education; quality assurance; organizational development;higher education strategic planning; and organizational effectiveness. He is the co-editor of two book series related to the development of comparative, international,and development education scholarship: International and Development Education(Palgrave Macmillan) and Pittsburgh Studies in Comparative and InternationalEducation (Sense Publishers). His most recent books include Policy Debates inComparative, International, and Development Education (with John Hawkins,Palgrave Macmillan, 2011), Beyond the Comparative: Advancing Theory andIts Application to Practice (with John Weidman, Sense Publishers, 2011), andInequality in Education: Comparative and International Perspectives (with DonaldB. Holsinger, Comparative Education Research Centre, University of Hong Kongand Springer, 2008). Jacob received his Ph.D. in Education from the GraduateSchool of Education and Information Sciences at the University of California,Los Angeles, in 2004 and a Master’s of Organizational Behavior and M.A. inInternational Development from Brigham Young University in 2001. Since 2007,Jacob has served as the Director of the Institute for International Studies inEducation at the University of Pittsburgh.

Jing Liu is Assistant Professor in Graduate School of International Development,Nagoya University, Japan. Currently, he is working on the “Re-Inventing JapanProject” funded by the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science. This project aimsat fostering a new generation of leaders for development through the Japan-ASEANUniversity Partnership. His research interests include sociology of education,ethnography of education, comparative education, policy analysis, inequality ineducation, migration issues, development education, and rural development. Hegraduated with a Ph.D. in 2013 from Nagoya University, where he completed

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a dissertation titled The Development of Inequality in Public School Admission:Public Discourses on Ze Xiao and Practices in Urban China. His recent publicationsinclude a chapter “Light and Shadow of Public Education for Migrant Children inUrban China” in an edited book Living on the Boundaries: Urban Marginality inNational and International Contexts (Emerald), a co-authored chapter with ShokoYamada, “Between Epistemology and Research Practices: Emerging ResearchParadigms and the Tradition of Japanese Comparative Education” in an edited bookBeyond the Comparative: Advancing Theory and Its Application to Practice (SensePublishers), and a journal article with W. James Jacob, “From Access to Quality:Migrant Children’s Education in Urban China” published in Educational Researchfor Policy and Practice. In 2009, Liu also contributed to the Systematic Monitoringof Education for All: Training Modules for Asia-Pacific published by UNESCOBangkok Office. He is member of comparative education societies in Hong Kong,Japan, and the USA. Since 2011, he has served as Coordinator of the PostgraduateStudent Workshop for the Comparative Education Society of Hong Kong AnnualConferences.

Che-Wei Lee (Paljaljim Rusagasag) is a member of the Paiwan people from one ofthe 16 officially-recognized Taiwan Aborigines. He currently serves as a ProgramCoordinator at the Institute for International Studies in Education at the Universityof Pittsburgh’s School of Education, and is a Ph.D. Candidate in the Social andComparative Analysis in Education Program in the Department of Administrativeand Policy Studies. His research interests include indigenous higher education,indigenous methodologies, comparative education, international organization anddevelopment education, anthropology of education, and cultural anthropology.Recent publications include a chapter with Kuan-Ting Tang “Reconstructing Sub-ject and the Tenuous Praxis of Liberating Education: A Critical Ethnography ofan Aboriginal Community-based School” in an edited book The Compilation ofIndigenous Peoples 2009, which was published by the Council of IndigenousPeoples, Executive Yuan.

Tiffany S. Lee is Dib4 [izhin7 (Blacksheep) and Naa[an7 (Oglala Lakota) fromCrystal, New Mexico and Pine Ridge, South Dakota. She is an Associate Professorin Native American Studies at the University of New Mexico. Her research involvesexamination of youth perspectives with regard to language reclamation and identity.She also investigates socio-culturally centered educational approaches for NativeAmerican students. Her latest publications include “Critical language awarenessamong Native youth in New Mexico” (in press) in Beyond Endangerment –Language in the Lives of Indigenous Youth New York: Routledge and “‘You shouldlearn who you are through your culture’: transformative educational possibilities forNative American youth in New Mexico” (in press, with N. Lopez) in Cultural Trans-formations: Youth and Pedagogies of Possibility. Boston, MA: Harvard EducationPress.

Brief Author Bios xv

Jerome Levi (M.Phil. Cambridge, A.B., Ph.D. Harvard) is Professor of Anthropol-ogy at Carleton College in Northfield, Minnesota. He teaches and publishes widelyon anthropological approaches to the study of ethnicity, religion, economics, andindigenous rights, and has conducted extensive fieldwork with indigenous peoplesin Mexico (focusing on the Tarahumara/Rarámuri and Tzotzil-Maya), as well as inthe Southwest United States, South Africa, Tanzania, Kenya, Israel, and the WestBank. Over the years, his work on the human rights of indigenous peoples hasbeen presented to the United States Congress, the World Bank, and the UnitedNations.

Teresa L. McCarty is the George F. Kneller Chair in Education and Anthropologyin the Graduate School of Education and Information Studies at the Universityof California, Los Angeles, and the Alice Wiley Snell Professor Emerita ofEducation Policy Studies at Arizona State University. Her research, teaching, andoutreach focus on educational language policy, Indigenous/multilingual education,youth language, critical literacy studies, and ethnographic studies of education.A fellow of the American Educational Research Association, the Society forApplied Anthropology, and the International Centre for Language Revitalization,she has also been honored with the 2010 George and Louise Spindler Awardfor distinguished and inspirational contributions to the anthropology of education.Her books include A Place To Be Navajo – Rough Rock and the Struggle forSelf-Determination in Indigenous Schooling (Erlbaum, 2002); Language, Literacy,and Power in Schooling (Erlbaum, 2005); “To Remain an Indian”: Lessons inDemocracy from a Century of Native American Education (with K. T. Lomawaima,Teachers College Press, 2006); Ethnography and Language Policy (Routledge,2011); Language Planning and Policy in Native America – History, Theory, Praxis(Multilingual Matters, 2013); and Indigenous Youth and Multilingualism (with L.T.Wyman and S.E. Nicholas, Routledge, 2014).

Christopher B. Mugimu earned his Ph.D. in Education from Brigham YoungUniversity (USA) in 2004. He is currently an Associate Professor and Chair forthe Department of Foundations and Curriculum Studies, College of Education andExternal Studies at Makerere University. His research interests include: compar-ative, international, and development education; higher education; assessment oflearning; teacher education; and contemporary curricula issues such as HIV/AIDSeducation, language of instruction policies, indigenous education, and open educa-tion resources (OERs) provision in Africa.

Anthony Mugagga Muwagga is currently the Deputy Principal of the Collegeof Education and External Studies at Makerere University. He has taught thephilosophy of education and teachers professional ethics in the Department ofFoundations and Curriculum Studies at Makerere University since 1998. He holdsa Bachelor of Arts in Social Sciences, Bachelor of Philosophy, Master’s of Artsin EPP, Master of Education (Occasional), and a Ph.D. from Makerere University,PGDE and Diploma in Child Rights School and Class Management from LundUniversity.

xvi Brief Author Bios

Mina O’dowd was awarded her Ph.D. in International and Comparative Educationin 2000 by Stockholm University. Her work thus far includes school-based researchon social competence and teacher expectations, work on education policy andtheir implications for learning and lifelong learning. She has also written on thephilosophy of education and the concept of knowledge, while much of her researchdeals with education policy and its implications for practice and learning. Overall,the main theme in O’Dowd’s work is social justice and the manner in which policyand practice in education and in other arenas not only fail to ensure social justice, butrather directly or indirectly contribute to the exploitation of individuals and groupsof individuals on the basis of race, gender, social background or ethnicity. O’Dowdhas recently returned from Bangalore in India, where she has been Visiting Professorat the Institute of Social and Economic Change. O’Dowd is Professor of Educationat Lund University in southern Sweden.

Maureen K. Porter Ph.D. is an anthropologist of education educated in Wiscon-sin, Germany, Kentucky, and California. Her previous professional experience at theU.S. Department of Education and as Assistant to the Commissioner of Educationin Minnesota provided opportunities to work with policy makers and communityorganizers working on indigenous participation and success. At Stanford Universityshe worked with scholars and teachers dedicated to making curricula and schoolsmore respectful and culturally-responsive for Native students and committed toengaging in social justice work that situated the long-term struggles of nativepeoples as part of global social justice and human rights movements. Her leadershipin the field of international service-learning sustained her work with NGOs inBolivia and Peru, where, over the course of a decade, they collaborated withindigenous Quechua people to build schools and community centers. Ethnographicresearch and multi-media productions on the role of traditional dance in Andeanschool life and an intercultural, multi-vocal set of podcasts (about potatoes andglobal warming made with fourth graders in North and South America) are justsome of the recent products that embody her engaged scholarship and participatoryapproach.

Richard Scaglion is University Center for International Studies Research Pro-fessor of Anthropology and former Director of the Asian Studies Center at theUniversity of Pittsburgh. His primary ethnographic focus in the Pacific Islands hasbeen in Melanesia, but he has broad interests in comparative Austronesia, especiallyPolynesia. Scaglion has conducted long-term field research with the Abelam peopleof Papua New Guinea beginning in 1974. He is the former director of customarylaw development for the Law Reform Commission of Papua New Guinea; has beena Visiting Fellow at the Australian National University, the University of Hawai’i,and the East–West Center; and maintains a second home in Honolulu. He is editoror co-editor of Polynesian Outliers: The State of the Art, Homicide Compensation inPapua New Guinea, Customary Law in Papua New Guinea, and is author or editorof numerous other books and articles about Pacific Island cultures.

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Edward Shizha is an Associate Professor in Contemporary Studies and Youthand Children’s Studies at Wilfrid Laurier University in Brantford, Canada. He haspublished widely in refereed journals and contributed a number of book chaptersin the areas of education and globalisation, education and development, post-colonialism, and indigenous knowledges in Africa. Dr. Shizha has two forthcomingedited books, Restoring the Education Dream: Rethinking Educational Transfor-mation in Zimbabwe (African Institute of South Africa, Pretoria) and IndigenousDiscourses on Knowledge and Development in Africa (Routledge, with Ali Abdi).He is the co-author of Citizenship Educational and Social Development in Zambia(Information Age Publishing Inc., 2010 with Ali Abdi and Lee Ellis) and Educationand Development in Zimbabwe: A Social, Political and Economic Analysis (SensePublishers, 2011 with Michael Kariwo) and co-editor of Indigenous Knowledge andLearning in Asia/Pacific and Africa Perspectives on Development, Education, andCulture (Palgrave Macmillan, 2010 with Dip Kapoor).

Connie Ssebbunga-Masembe is a graduate of Makerere University (Uganda) andthe University of Liverpool (UK). He is a specialist in applied linguistics withextensive research, consultancy, and classroom experience in general education,science education, literature education, and English as a second language. He wasuntil recently the Dean of School of Education at Makerere University. He iscurrently Professor in the Department of Social Sciences and Language Educationat the College of Education, Makerere University. His research interests includeamong others language of instruction policies, teacher education, gender educa-tion, open education resources, educational linguistics, literacy and development,HIV education, educational assessment, evaluation, supervision, management, andinclusive education.

Carol J. Ward is Associate Professor of Sociology at Brigham Young Universityand received a Ph.D. from the University of Chicago in 1992. Her research interestsinclude issues related to race/ethnicity, gender, education, and development effortsamong rural populations, particularly American Indian communities in the USAand indigenous groups in Mali. Recent research includes an assessment of theimpact on individuals and families of changes in food assistance programs servingreservation communities. This research included attention to health conditions andfood security of participants in WIC, Food Stamps, FDIR and other programs. Otherresearch, published in Native Americans in the School System: Family, Communityand Academic Achievement (AltaMira Press 2005) identified a diverse range ofinfluences on the high dropout rate among Northern Cheyenne high school studentsas well as factors contributing to school success. More recent research has addressedthe impact of math and science curriculum reforms on Tribal College studentretention and completion. She and her colleagues have published their researchfindings in a variety of social science, education, and health journals. She teachescourses in related substantive areas as well as qualitative, survey, and appliedmethods.

xviii Brief Author Bios

Hilary N. Weaver DSW (Lakota) is Professor and Associate Dean for AcademicAffairs in the School of Social Work, University at Buffalo (State University of NewYork). Her teaching, research, and service focus on cultural issues in the helpingprocess with a particular focus on indigenous populations. She currently serves asPresident of the American Indian Alaska Native Social Work Educators Association.Weaver has presented her work regionally, nationally, and internationally includingpresenting at the Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues at the United Nationsin 2005, 2006, 2007, 2008, and 2013. She has numerous publications includingthe text, Explorations in Cultural Competence: Journeys to the Four Directions(2005) and is currently compiling an edited book, Social Issues in ContemporaryNative America: Reflections from Turtle Island. Weaver has received funding fromthe National Cancer Institute to develop and test a culturally-grounded wellnesscurriculum for urban Native American youth, the Healthy Living in Two Worldsprogram.

Terry Wotherspoon is Head and Professor of Sociology at the University ofSaskatchewan. He is also Adjunct Professor at Xi’an Jiaotong University, LanzhouUniversity, and Northwest University for Nationalities in China. He has degreesin Sociology and Education from the University of Saskatchewan and a Ph.D. inSociology from Simon Fraser University. He has engaged in research and publishedwidely on issues related to education, immigrant and minority populations, socialpolicy, indigenous peoples, and social inequality. His research has been funded byseveral agencies, including the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council,Saskatchewan Learning, the Laidlaw Foundation, and the Prairie Centre of Excel-lence for Research on Immigration and Integration. A fourth edition of his book TheSociology of Education in Canada (the first edition of which was recognized in 1998with a book award from the Canadian Association for Foundations of Education)is being published in 2014 by Oxford University Press. He has also coauthoredor edited several other books, including The Legacy of School for AboriginalPeople: Education, Oppression, and Emancipation (with Bernard Schissel); FirstNations: Race, Class and Gender Relations (with Vic Satzewich); and MulticulturalEducation in a Changing Global Economy: Canada and the Netherlands (with PaulJungbluth). He was the recipient, in 2002, of the Canadian Education Association’sWhitworth Award for Educational Research. He was a founding member of thePrairie Centre of Excellence for Research on Immigration and Integration, andserved as Chair of the Board of Governors for the third phase of the PrairieMetropolis Centre. He is currently Managing Editor of the Canadian Review ofSociology.

List of Acronyms and Abbreviations

AANDC Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development CanadaAD/A.D. Anno DominiADB Asian Development BankAERC Aboriginal Education Research CentreAI/AN American Indian or Alaska NativesAICF American Indian College FundAIDESEP Asociación Interétnica de Desarrollo de la Selva Peruana (Intereth-

nic Association for the Development of the Peruvian Rainforest)AIDS Acquired immune deficiency syndromeA.M. Ante MeridiemANA Administration for Native AmericansANC African National CongressASDT Associação Social Democratica Timorense (Timorese Social Demo-

cratic Association)ASHE Association of the Study of Higher EducationAYP Adequate yearly progressBEd Bachelor of EducationBBC British Broadcasting CorporationBC Before ChristBCE Before Common EraBIA Bureau of Indian AffairsBIE Bureau of Indian EducationCD Compact discCDA Critical discourse analysisCDKC Chief Dull Knife CollegeCD-ROM Compact Disc-Read Only MemoryCE/C.E. Common EraCGEIB General Coordination of Intercultural Bilingual EducationCIA Central Intelligence AgencyCIPEY Council of Indigenous Peoples Executive Yuan

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xx List of Acronyms and Abbreviations

CMEC Council of Ministers of Education, CanadaCONAMAQ Consejo Nacional de Ayllus y Markas del Qullasuyu (National

Council of Ayllus and Markas of Qullasuyu)CSIR Council for Scientific and Industrial ResearchCUSO Canadian University Service OverseasDAC Department of Arts and CultureDC District of ColumbiaDEPRS Distance Education Project for Rural SchoolsDGEI Dirección General de Educacin Indgena (General Directorate of

Institutional Assessment)DHRA Department of Household Registration AffairsDOE Department of EducationDoH Department of HealthDST Department of Science and TechnologyDTI Department of Trade and IndustryDVD Digital Video DiskEIB Educación Intercultural Bilingüe (Intercultural Bilingual Educa-

tion)ELL English Language LeanersERIC Education Resources Information CenterERO Education Review OfficeETS Educational Testing ServiceEU European UnionEUR EuroFEINCE Federación Indígena de la Nacionalidad Cofán del Ecuador

(Indigenous Federation of the Cofan Nationality of Ecuador)FEINE Federación Ecuatoriana de Indígenas Evangélicos (Federation of

Indigenous Evangelists of Ecuador)FOISE Federación de Organizaciones Indígenas de Sucumbio del Ecuador

(Federation of Indigenous Organizations of Sucumbio, Ecuador)FPE Free primary educationFRETILIN The Revolutionary Front for an Independent East TimorHE Higher educationHEI Higher education institutionHIV Human immunodeficiency virusICT Information and Communications TechnologyIIRSA Initiative for the Integration of the Regional Infrastructure in South

AmericaIK Indigenous knowledgeIKS Indigenous knowledge systemsILO International Labour OrganizationINE Instituto Nacional de Estadísticas (National Institute of Statistics)INEGI Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Geografía (National Institute of

Statistics and Geography)

List of Acronyms and Abbreviations xxi

INLI Instituto Nacional de Lenguas Indígenas (National Indigenous Lan-guages Institute)

IPACC Indigenous Peoples of Africa Coordinating CommitteeIPO Indigenous Peoples OrganizationIWS Internet World StatsKMT KuomintangL1 First language/mother tongueLIEPs Language-in-Education PoliciesLINCS Learning Integrated with Needed Construction and ServiceLMS London Missionary SocietyMDGs Millennium Development GoalsMIT Massachusetts Institute of TechnologyM-leaning Mobile learningMOEC Ministry of Education and CultureMoI Medium of instructionMT(s) Mother tongue(s)MTV Maori Television ServiceNACA Native American Community AcademyNCAI National Congress of American IndianNCLB No Child Left BehindNCTE National Council of Teachers of EnglishNGOs Non-governmental organizationsNIKSO National Indigenous Knowledge Systems OfficeNSC National Senior CertificateNYC New York CityNZARE New Zealand Association for Research in EducationOCW Open CourseWareOECD Organization for Economic Co-operation and DevelopmentOFICL Office for Israeli Constitutional LawOISE Organización Indígena Secoya de Sucumbiós del Ecuador (Secoya

Indigenous Organization of Sucumbio, Ecuador)PBS Public Broadcasting ServicePdH Puente de Hózho (Bridge of Beauty)Ph.D. Philosophiae Doctor (Doctor of Philosophy)PINGO Pastoralists Indigenous Non-Governmental OrganisationsPIRLS Progress in International Reading Literacy StudyPMG Parliamentary Monitoring GroupPNG Papua New GuineaPRATEC Andean Project for Peasant TechnologiesRNCS Revised National Curriculum StatementROC Republic of ChinaSASAS South African Social Attitudes SurveySDP Strategic Development PlanSEK Swedish KronaSEP Secretaría de Educación Pública (Secretariat of Public Education)

xxii List of Acronyms and Abbreviations

SMS Short messaging serviceSSA Sub-Saharan AfricaTCUs Tribal Colleges and UniversitiesTDB Tséhootsooí Diné Bi’ólta’ (Navajo School at the Meadow between

the Rocks)TEK Traditional ecological knowledgeTV TelevisionUDSM University of Dar es SalaamUDT União Democratica Timorense (Timorese Democratic Union)UIS UNESCO Institute for StatisticsUK United KingdomUN/U.N. United NationsUNAIDS Joint United Nations Programme on HIV and AIDSUNDP United Nations Development ProgrammeUNESCO United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural OrganizationUNICEF United Nations International Children’s Emergency FundUNPFII United Nations Permanent Forum on Indigenous IssuesUNTAET United Nations Transitional Administration in East TimorUNWGIP United Nations Working Group on Indigenous PopulationsUS/U.S. United StatesUSA United States of AmericaUSSR Union of Soviet Socialist RepublicsWHO World Health OrganizationWWI World War IWWII World War II

List of Figures

Fig. 1.1 The Global Indigenous Education Tree . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

Fig. 2.1 Endangered indigenous languages in China, Mexico,Taiwan, Uganda, and the United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

Fig. 7.1 Breakdown of endangered languages by global region . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129Fig. 7.2 Indigenous Language Stigma Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131

Fig. 8.1 Ethnic identity formation and indigenous language instruction . . . . 144Fig. 8.2 Role of indigenous languages in identity formation processes . . . . . 164Fig. 8.3 External context and internal group factors influencing

indigenous language instruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166

Fig. 9.1 Phases and factors in language policy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182

Fig. 10.1 Map of the Sámpi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189

Fig. 14.1 Pacific regions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283

Fig. 16.1 Perceptions of science versus indigenous knowledge systems . . . . . 330

Fig. 18.1 Indigenous discourse in degree and direction about theexpected effects of intercultural education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373

Fig. 18.2 Official discourse in degree and direction about theexpected effects of intercultural education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374

Fig. 19.1 The formation of indigenous identity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385Fig. 19.2 Life Stages Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390Fig. 19.3 The Cultural Identity Axis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392

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List of Tables

Table 2.1 Indigenous languages in five countries. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43Table 2.2 Ten most populous ethnic minority groups in China, 2010 . . . . . . . 45

Table 3.1 Comparison of media use in different countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

Table 7.1 World languages by global region of origin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128Table 7.2 Indigenous languages in select countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129

Table 8.1 Indigenous language groups in Timor-Leste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142

Table 9.1 Language media of instruction in African countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174

Table 14.1 Schools and enrollments in PNG, 1970 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293

Table 16.1 National senior certificate passes by race, 2007 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328

Table 19.1 Two-way cultural identity table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392

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