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Page 1: Indigenous Students within Higher Education€¦ · Indigenous-focused programs, Indigenous faculty, Indigenous community members, and occasionally non-Indigenous faculty who have

Indigenous Studentswithin Higher Education

www.brocku.ca www.oise.utoronto.ca

www.sfu.ca

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In this e-book we focus on exploring thecomplex contexts and realities ofIndigenous students in higher educationand the important role of Indigenousstudent services. When Indigenous1

students pursue studies at higher educationinstitutions their transition will be like that ofmany other students entering into a newcontext with new levels of autonomy andnew expectations but unlike their fellowclassmates their very identities have beenpoliticized and add different layers onto thetransition experience. Like their classmates,Indigenous students have unique familybackgrounds and cultural experiences thatmay find resonance with other studentsfrom similar backgrounds but unlike theirclassmates they consciously and/orunconsciously carry the history ofcolonization and the scars that colonial actshave inflicted on themselves, their families,and their peoples. They are entering intoinstitutions of higher learning that at onepoint required enfranchisement (theunwilling relinguishing of Indian status) as acondition of admission as required by anamendment to the 1876 Indian Act.

The majority of faculty, staff andadministrators in higher education fail toappreciate the impact of colonial relationson Indigenous students’ transition topostsecondary institutions and are largelyunaware of how alien and unwelcomingcampuses can be to Indigenous students.

Many students face these challenges alone while others access support throughIndigenous-focused programs, Indigenousfaculty, Indigenous community members,and occasionally non-Indigenous facultywho have extensive experience workingwithin Indigenous contexts. Indigenousstudent services in many higher educationcontexts have also provided support andother resources to assist Indigenous studentsboth in their transition experience and inthe successful completion of their studies.

Setting the Context: Contested Spacesin Higher Education

(Dawn Zinga Brock University)

Higher education is meant to challengewhat students know and expose them to avariety of ways of thinking. Many studentsreport questioning their beliefs andunderstandings of the world as theycomplete their education. Highereducation is an important period in lifethat is not meant to question a students’core identity and culture yet this is whatmany Indigenous students face in theirpursuit of a degree and more opportunities.According to Battiste (2013), educationand its associated institutions are “neitherculturally neutral nor fair” (p. 159) andCanadian education systems have beencreated out of a “patriarchal, Eurocentricsociety.” Thus, the higher education

Indigenous Studentswithin Higher EducationIntroduction by Dawn Zinga (Brock) and Michelle Pidgeon (SFU)

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contexts continue to oppress individuals onthe basis of gender, group identification,and cultural background while also servingto reaffirm the privilege and status ofmainstream individuals. These systemssimultaneously devalue and subjugateIndigenous students as not fitting themainstream mold while seeking to assimilatethem into “proper” university material andglobal “citizens”. The education systems’self-perpetuating cycle ensures those who are seen to be mainstream areindoctrinated in the beliefs and ideologiesthat act to subjugate and devalue beliefs,ideologies and peoples who do not fit the prescribed mold. Thus, the individualstudents, staff, administrators and instructorswithin these institutions also serve toperpetuate the imposition of colonialpower.

Colonial power and colonial histories areembedded within the structures, policies,procedures and classrooms of highereducation contexts and continue tofunction largely unexamined andunquestioned by the individuals in chargeof these institutions. Yet, at the same time,administrators seek out Indigenous studentsand then cannot understand why theirspecialized outreach programs forIndigenous students are not more effective.Deer (2011) argues that while highereducation institutions recruit Indigenousstudents and seek to make campusesmore welcoming by providing space andopportunities for ceremonies, creatingsupport centres, increasing the number of Indigenous faculty and staff as well asestablishing new buildings designedaround Indigenous worldviews they

Over the past decade, therehas been a push to makehigher education campusesmore welcoming for Indigenousstudents.

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simultaneously fail to interrogate andexamine the systemic inequalities that exist within their institutions.

This failure to consider how the institutionalstructures themselves reinforce colonialrelations of power and privilege is furthercompounded by a lack of understandingaround the complexity of Indigenousidentities within colonial institutions. Alfredand Corntassle (2005) state that Indigenousidentity is “constructed, shaped and lived inthe politicized context of contemporarycolonialism” (p. 597) and Palmater (2013)writes about the ways Indigenous identity isdefined in conjunction with the attempt tolegislate who is or is not Indigenous throughthe Indian Act and the division of individualsinto status or non-status. Indigenous studentsare the only students attending highereducation who may have a legislativelydefined identity and they are usuallyrequired to self-identify as Indigenous toaccess specialized student services. Highereducation institutions demonstrate littleappreciation for the multiple political layersassociated with Indigenous identity and thecomplexities of Indigenous and colonialrelations.

According to Deer (2011), how elementaryand secondary schools understand andteach about Canadian identity furtherpromotes dominant post-colonial influencesthat can interfere with Indigenous identityand Indigenous students’ self-concept. Thisimpacts higher education contexts asmainstream students arrive with limitedability to question these post-colonialunderstandings of Canadian identity andan investment in understanding a particularview of Canada that is rarely about toaccommodate the tangled colonial historythat has coloured relationships betweenCanada and Indigenous peoples. In theclassroom, this expresses itself as a failure tounderstand the experiences of Indigenousstudents and as a force that also continuesto perpetuate systemic inequalities as the norm.

Over the past decade, there has been apush to make higher education campusesmore welcoming for Indigenous students.While initiatives to ‘indigenize’ the academyare often well intentioned, those putting theinitiatives in place do not always mindfullyand respectfully consider the implications oftheir initiatives.

Pidgeon (under review) points to highereducation initiatives related to space andthe display of Indigenous as an example ofsuch initiatives. The setting aside of spacesfor Indigenous ceremonies and the displayof Indigenous art are important steps butshe stresses that such initiatives need to bedone mindfully and respectfully so that theinitiative both recognizes and valuesIndigenous peoples while also working toeducate mainstream individuals andcombat racism. These initiatives should notbe undertaken without an understanding ofthe complex histories and the associatedwounds that have been experienced by

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Higher education is meantto challenge what studentsknow and expose them toa variety of ways ofthinking. Many studentsreport questioning theirbeliefs and understandingsof the world as theycomplete their education.

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offered by specialized student services. AsPidgeon will discuss, Indigenous studentfocuses services has a history on highereducation campuses an the wholisticapproach has been the most successful.Indigenous student services is one of manyimportant pieces in shifting the contextsand climates within higher education suchthat lived realities of Indigenous studentsare included and welcome. ■

References

Alfred, T. & Corntassel, J.J. (2005). Being Indigenous:Resurgences Against

Contemporary Colonialism. Government and Opposition,40 (4): 597-614. doi: 10.1111/j.1477-7053.2005.00166.x.

Battiste, M. (2013). Decolonizing Education: Nourishing theLearning Spirit. Saskatoon, SK: Purich Publishing.

Deer, F. (2011). Aboriginal Identity: A Perspective onHegemony and the Implications for Canadian Citizenship.Education, 17 (3): 2-16.

Palmater, P. (2011). Beyond Blood: Rethinking IndigenousIdentity. Saskatoon: Purich.

Pidgeon, M. (under review). Contested spaces ofreciprocal relationships and institutional responsibilities toIndigenous higher education. In Jahnke, H., Styres, S., Lilley,S. & Zinga, D. (Eds.), Contested Places: Theory, Practice,and New Directions in Indigenous Education. Toronto, ON:University of Toronto Press.

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Indigenous students and communitiesthrough there both forcible and voluntaryinvolvement with Canadian educationsystems. Thought must also be given to aconsideration of whether or not the initiativemay be a form of appropriation or if it is agenuine respectful act.

On an individual level, non-Indigenousstudents, faculty, staff and administratorshave a choice in how they contribute tothe environment and climate experiencedby Indigenous students in higher education.They can choose to close their eyes touncomfortable realities and continue onperpetuating them or they can chose toeducate themselves and resist systemicinequalities. Using one’s voice can be assimple as speaking up when an inequality isbeing perpetuated or challenging a policythat negates other people’s experiences orlived realities. It can be exposing others toknowledge they may not be aware of orsupporting someone when that person’sviewpoint is being shut down as invalid orirrelevant. Sometimes it can be listening toanother perspective and being open tobeing challenged and educated abouthow your own actions or lack of actionmay have reinforced inequalities oralienated Indigenous individuals. Suchactions can contribute to the creation ofeducational settings in which Indigenousstudents and other Indigenous individualsfeel welcome and accepted. It is importantwork that leads to opening up importantspaces to talk about ways of movingforward together towards positive changethat does not reproduce or perpetuatesystems of inequality.

Another way of addressing inequality andassisting Indigenous students in navigatingthe challenging climates within highereducational contexts is found in the support

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The relationship1 between policy andIndigenous2 education in Canada hasbeen contentious to say the least and one that has been predominatelydictated by the Crown’s relationship toCanada’s first peoples3. Initially throughthe Royal Proclamation of 17634, and then later the Indian Act 18765, AboriginalK-12 education is a federal responsibilitywhile constitutionally, education for non-Aboriginal peoples is a provincialoversight6.

From a decolonizing perspective,respecting the diversity of over 60 differentIndigenous nations7, which represent asmany cultures and languages is critical tocounter the colonially imposedgovernment defined parameters andterms8. This acknowledgement of diversityof nations is critical to shifting the policydiscourses that aim to see Aboriginalpeoples as homogenous to one thatspeaks to diversity as empoweringAboriginal nations’ self-determination.

During the 1800s to 1950s, Aboriginaleducation had the purpose of assimilatingAboriginal peoples into society. Removingthe Indian from the child was the intentionalpurpose of schooling, and main directive ofResidential schools9. Education at this timehad little focus on post-secondaryaspirations or attainment outside of thepreparation of Indigenous peoples to dolow skilled jobs (e.g., housekeeper, farmer)(Battiste & Barman, 1995; Royal Commissionon Aboriginal Peoples, 1996; Truth andReconciliation Commission of Canada

(TRC), 2015b)10. The federal and provincialpolicies remained essentially unchangeduntil the later part of the 50s and into the1960s, when more Aboriginal communitiesand organizations (e.g., the National IndianBrotherhood, now the Assembly of FirstNations) became influential across severalareas including education, policy, andlegal advocacy. This leadership andadvocacy signaled that important political,social, and cultural change was coming forIndigenous peoples.

For example, in 1969, the Minister of Indian Affairs, Jean Chrétien, presentedStatement of the Government of Canadaon Indian Policy, which aimed to set out anew relationship between Aboriginalnations and the federal government(Chrétien, 1969). The challenge was thatthis document did not include Indigenousperspectives on their own futures; inresponse the National Indian Brotherhoodreleased the document entitled IndianControl over Indian Education to outlinean Indigenous vision for education of theirpeoples: parental responsibility; programs,curriculum, and values; teachers andcounselors; facilities and services; andresearch (National Indian Brotherhood,1972; Pidgeon, Muñoz, Kirkness, & Archibald,2013). The National Indian Brotherhood(1972) clearly stated, “We want educationto give our children the knowledge tounderstand and be proud of themselvesand the knowledge to understand theworld around them” (p.1). This position hasnot changed since the 1970s; in a recentstatement regarding the constitutional

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The relationship between policy andIndigenous Education in CanadaMichelle Pidgeon (SFU), Dawn Zinga (Brock) and Sandra Styres (OISE)

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right of Indigenous peoples to educationacross the life span, the Assembly of FirstNations (2012) stated:

Section 35 (1) of the Constitution Act of1982 recognizes Aboriginal and Treatyrights and affirms First Nations inherentright to self-government including thecreation of laws and systems for theprovision of lifelong learning for FirstNations populations. First Nations expectthe Crown, not only to recognize theirjurisdiction to lifelong learning, but alsoto “fulfill their Constitutional, Treaty andinternational obligations to First Nationspeoples by supporting the design and implementation of First Nationscomprehensive learning systems withadequate and sustainable resourcing”(p. 5).

These philosophical differences on theresponsibility of education and thepurpose of education continued toinfluence how Aboriginal education wassupported and experienced within the K-12 system. Given the disparities in health,education, and other social indicatorsbetween Aboriginal and non-AboriginalCanadians, the Royal Commission onAboriginal Peoples (RCAP) (1996) wasestablished to better understandAboriginal and non-Aboriginal historicaland contemporary relations throughnational consultation and research11. TheRCAP report dedicates one entire volumeto the educational experiences ofCanada’s First Nations, from assimilationistpolicies and practices (e.g., residentialschools), the Aboriginal post-secondaryfunding program and the impacts thatsuch limited funding opportunities havehad had on post-secondary educationalattainment, and the establishment ofspecific Aboriginal programs, services, and even institutions (Fisher et al., 2006;RCAP, 1996). And now, we see therecommendations from the Truth and

Reconciliation (TRC) (2015) reports,resonating familiarity with RCAP (1996)recommendations and clearly implicatingthe Canadian educational system infailing Aboriginal children, and the rest ofCanada in its continued apathy towardsAboriginal peoples in this country.

Moving Forward… Statistics and researchreports continue to demonstrate that theeducational system’s fractures are still notall healed. There is still much work to bedone at the policy and practice levels tocreate a higher education system thatsupports Indigenous learners and theircommunities with respectful, relevant,reciprocal, and responsible education(Kirkness & Barnhardt, 1991). As a societywe are still dealing with: the educationalattainment gap between Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal peoples (White,Beavon, Peters, & Spence, 2009); theintergenerational trauma of residentialschools; systemic, overt, and covert formsof racism in educational policies andpractices (Royal Commission on AboriginalPeoples, 1996); and chronic underfundingat the K-12 and PSE systems forinfrastructure, positions, and scholarships(Howe, 2004; Malatest & Associates Ltd.,2004; Usher, 2009).

There has been a steady increase in thehigh school completion rates of Aboriginalyouth, with more and more being “post-secondary ready” – i.e., prepared to entercollege or university upon graduation. Thechallenge is that within this growth, there isclear differentiation of completion ratesbetween on- and off-reserve schools, withon-reserve high school completion ratesstill remaining low across each provinceand territory (Richards, 2013). High schoolcompletion rates impact readiness of thisgroup to enter into university or college;and for the non-completers it directlyinfluences when they may choose topursue further education (e.g., waiting

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until they are older than 21 to enter asmature students)12. One must also considerthe connection between the K-12 tohigher education, and how Aboriginalstudents are being prepared to be readyfor higher education. Within the K-12system across the country there havebeen concerted efforts to make K-12 abetter place for Aboriginal students, with the aim of increasing high schoolgraduation rates. For example, BritishColumbia’s Ministry of Education has beenarticulating policies with its school districts

and Aboriginal communities called“Aboriginal Education EnhancementAgreements13” yet only 2 of the over 50agreements specifically mention post-secondary education (Kitchenham, Fraser, Pidgeon, & Ragoonaden, 2016).Approaching support services from astrengths- or gifts-based approach honorsthe cultural integrity of the Indigenousstudent (Pidgeon, 2016; Pidgeon, Archibald,& Hawkey, 2014). Within this discussion thereis recognition that barriers exist, whetherstructural, social, economic, etc., thathinder Aboriginal student success.

As a direct result of assimilationist policiesand ongoing colonial practices there aresystemic problems within the Canadianeducation systems and society. There is stillmuch work to be done to have policiesand practices that are inclusive andrespectful of Indigenity. There are many

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From a decolonizing perspective,respecting the diversity of over 60different Indigenous nations,which represent as many culturesand languages is critical tocounter the colonially imposedgovernment defined parametersand terms.

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Indigenous and non-Indigenous peoplesworking to make systemic changes acrossour educational system. The work will notbe in vane. It will take time, and it will bean ongoing process, and it is time for all ofus to further support Indigenousempowerment and self-determination. ■

References

Assembly of First Nations. (2012). A portrait of First Nationsand education. Retrieved from http://www.afn.ca/uploads/files/events/fact_sheet-ccoe-3.pdf

Battiste, M., & Barman, J. (Eds.). (1995). First NationsEducation in Canada: The Circle Unfolds. British Columbia:University of British Columbia.

Chrétien, J. (1969). Statement of the Government of Canadaon Indian Policy. Retrieved from Ottawa: http://www.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/eng/1100100010189/1100100010191

Fisher, D., Rubenson, K., Bernatchez, J., Clift, R., Jones, G.,Lee, J., . . . Trottier, C. (2006). Canadian federal policy andpostsecondary education Vancouver: The Centre forPolicy Studies in Higher Education & Training (CHET).

Furi, M., & Wherrett, J. (1996, February). Indian status andband membership issues. (BP-410E). Ottawa: Library ofParliment Retrieved from http://www.parl.gc.ca/content/lop/researchpublications/bp410-e.pdf .

Howe, E. (2004). Education and lifetime income forAboriginal people in Saskatchewan. In J. P. White, P. S.Maxim, & D. Beavon (Eds.), Aboriginal policy research:setting the agenda for change (Vol. 1, pp. 175-192).Toronto: Thompson.

Kitchenham, A., Fraser, T. N., Pidgeon, M., & Ragoonaden,K. (2016). Aboriginal Education Enhancement Agreements:Complicated Conversations as Pathways to Success.Retrieved from http://www.bced.gov.bc.ca/abed/research/AEEA-Final_Report_June_2016.pdf

Malatest, R. A., & Associates Ltd. (2004). Aboriginal peoplesand post-secondary education: What educators havelearned. Retrieved from Montréal:http://www.millenniumscholarships.ca

National Indian Brotherhood. (1972). Indian control ofIndian education. Ottawa: Author.

Pidgeon, M. (2016). Aboriginal Student Success &Aboriginal Student Services. . In D. Hardy Cox & C. Strange(Eds.), Serving Diverse Students in Canadian HigherEducation: Models and Practices for Success (pp. 25-39).Montreal: McGill University Press.

Pidgeon, M., Archibald, J., & Hawkey, C. (2014).Relationships matter: Supporting Aboriginal graduatestudents in British Columbia, Canada. Canadian Journal ofHigher Education, 40(1), 1-21.

Pidgeon, M., Muñoz, M., Kirkness, V. J., & Archibald, J.-a.(2013). Indigenous control of Indian education: Reflectionsand envisioning the next 40 years. Canadian Journal ofNative Education, 36(1), 5-35.

Richards, J. (2013). Are we making progress? Newevidence on Aboriginal outcomes in provincial and reserveschools (408). Retrieved from Toronto, ON:http://www.cdhowe.org/pdf/Commentary_408.pdf

Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples. (1996). Gatheringof strength, Volume 3 Report of the Royal Commission onAboriginal Peoples (RCAP). Ottawa: Minister of Supply andServices.

Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples (RCAP). (1996).Report of the Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples.Ottawa: Minister of Supply and Services.

Statistics Canada. (2013). The educational attainment ofAboriginal peoples. The National Household Survey (NHS)2011. (99-012-X2011003). Ottawa: Statistics Canada Retrievedfrom http://www12.statcan.gc.ca/nhs-enm/2011/as-sa/99-012-x/99-012-x2011003_3-eng.pdf .

Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada (TRC).(2015a). Honoring the truth, reconciling for the future:Summary of the final report of the Truth and ReconciliationCommission of Canada. Retrieved from Ottawa:http://www.trc.ca/websites/trcinstitution/File/2015/Honouring_the_Truth_Reconciling_for_the_Future_July_23_2015.pdf

Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada (TRC).(2015b). The Truth and Reconciliation Commission of

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Canada: Calls to Action. Retrieved from Ottawa:http://www.trc.ca/websites/trcinstitution/File/2015/Findings/Calls_to_Action_English2.pdf

Usher, A. (2009). The Post-Secondary Student SupportProgram: An examination of alternative delivery mechanisms.Retrieved from Toronto: http://www.educationalpolicy.org/publications/pubpdf/INAC.pdf

White, J. P., Beavon, D., Peters, J., & Spence, N. D. (Eds.).(2009). Aboriginal education: Current crisis and futurealternatives. Toronto, Ont: Thompson Educational Pub.

1 In the founding of Canada as a British Colony, Aboriginalpeoples residing in what is now Canada were not seen asequal nations. Instead, the land was seen by Europeans asa terra nullius (nobody’s land) and free for the taking. Overtime, this relationship between European settlers anddocuments such as the Royal Proclamation of 1783 andthe Indian Act 1876 (and its subsequent amendmentswhich are binding to this day), set out the relationshipbetween the Crown and Aboriginal peoples. The term“unceded territories” acknowledges the fact that the landthat is known as Canada was occupied prior tocolonization and Aboriginal peoples did not relinquish theirrights to these lands through treaty or other means.Aboriginal peoples did not legally give up their territoriesand lands; they were dislocated from their lands throughpolicy and practices of colonization in what we now referto as Canada. (Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples(RCAP), 1996) (also see: https://www.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/eng/1100100013778/1100100013779 )

2 Indigenous peoples, including First Nations, Métis, andInuit, are the fastest growing population in Canada,according to Statistics Canada (Statistics Canada, 2013).In the 2011 National Household Survey (NHS) there are1,400,685 people self-identified as having an Aboriginalidentity, representing 4.3% of the total Canadianpopulation, an increase from 3.8% in the 2006 Census(Statistics Canada, 2013).

3 The terms Indigenous and Aboriginal interchangeably torefer, broadly, to the first peoples of Canada (formerly

referred to as “Indians”), including First Nations, Métis, andInuit peoples and, where appropriate, more specific termsthat speak to how groups self-identify (e.g., Mi’kmaq, Cree,Sto’lo, Inuit)

4 For more information on the Royal Proclamation seehttps://www.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/eng/1370355181092/1370355203645

5 For more information on the Indian Act see http://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/acts/i-5/

6 It is important to acknowledge that the Crown does notview Aboriginal higher education is not seen as a legalresponsibility, but Aboriginal peoples saw their earlynegotiations with the Crown to include education acrossthe life-span from early childhood to post-graduateeducation (RCAP, 1996; Stonechild, 2006).

7 There are others who do not fit neatly into one of the threerecognized groups of Indigenous people. There are thosewho come to learn of their Aboriginal ancestry later in life –e.g., as a result of being adopted out into non-Aboriginalfamilies, particularly during “the 60s scoop,” a period whenAboriginal children were taken into foster care and adoptedout (Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples (RCAP), 1996).This could also result from a family’s decisions to not disclosetheir Aboriginal identities to their descendants. The history ofcolonization, government policy, and politics regarding whois defined as Indigenous and by whom (e.g., community,federal government) has had profound impacts onIndigenous individuals, families, communities, and nationsthat continue across society today (Royal Commission onAboriginal Peoples (RCAP), 1996; Truth and ReconciliationCommission of Canada (TRC), 2015a, 2015b).

8 Colonially imposed terms include is “First Nations,” whichresults from the Indian Act of 1876, while amended overtime, its defined power of relationship of the Crown overAboriginal education has remained essentially unchanged.The Métis are a unique cultural group who have FirstNations and European ancestry, their own language andcultural practices, and are recognized as one of threeAboriginal groups within Canada in the 1982 Canadian

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Charter of Rights and Freedomsix. The third group, the Inuit,are Indigenous peoples who live in the Artic and northernregions of Canada (Royal Commission on AboriginalPeoples (RCAP), 1996).

9 Residential School. Residential schools (e.g., boardingschools) and Indian day schools were primarily operatedfrom the early 1800s to 1996 across Canada by variousreligious orders with the aim of assimilation and removingthe “Indian” from the child (e.g., no Aboriginal languageor cultural practices were allowed). The Truth andReconciliation Commission (TRC) (2010-2015) sought towitness and document the intergenerational trauma fromresidential schools. It had the mandate to learn the truthabout what happened in the residential schools and toinform all Canadians about what happened in the schools.... Reconciliation is an ongoing individual and collectiveprocess, and will require commitment from all thoseaffected including First Nations, Inuit and Métis formerIndian Residential School (IRS) students, their families,communities, religious entities, former school employees,government and the people of Canada. (Truth andReconciliation Commission of Canada (TRC), , para. 3-4).

This commission documented the stories of survivors ofresidential schools, hearing more than 6,750 testimoniesand collecting documents, pictures, and other artifactsalong the way. The TRC final reports spanning 10 volumesdocumenting the notable atrocities such as physical,emotional, and sexual abuse, death in care, and theintergenerational trauma that resulted from children beingtaken away from their families, their cultures, and theirhomes (Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada(TRC), 2015a). The Calls to Action speaks directly to theresponsibility that education has in reconciliation (Truthand Reconciliation Commission of Canada (TRC), 2015b).

10 Aboriginal persons who did pursue their universitydegrees (or became ministers of religion, thus educated)and were under the jurisdiction of the Indian Act of 1876,lost their federal status as First Nations persons, which hadintergenerational repercussions for their descendants (Furi& Wherrett, 1996). Amendments to the Indian Act in 1951and Bill C-31 in 1985 sought to rectify such “acts” that

resulted in disenfranchisement and to align the outdatedpolicy with the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms:

The amendments were intended to remove discrimination,restore status and membership rights, and increase controlby bands over their affairs.  The federal governmentcontinues to maintain control over who is registered as anIndian and the rights that flow from registration.  The billrepresented a compromise between the positions ofAboriginal women and non-status Indian groups, and thenational status Indian organization, the AFN. (Furi &Wherrett, 1996, p.4)

However, the legacy of disenfranchisement still has lastingimpact of many Indigenous families who were directlyaffected by these policies.

11 http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/royal-commission-on-aboriginal-peoples/

12 The common conception is a mature learner is someonewho is over 21 years of age. See Ryerson, University ofWestern Ontario, and Memorial University for examples:

http://www.ryerson.ca/undergraduate/admission/admissions/mature.html;

http://welcome.uwo.ca/admissions/admission_requirements/mature_and_senior_applicants.html;

http://www.mun.ca/regoff/calendar/sectionNo=REGS-0289 .Other institutions, like Simon Fraser University, see maturelearners as 23 or older, e.g., https://www.sfu.ca/students/admission-requirements/profile-mature.html

13 See http://www.bced.gov.bc.ca/abed/agreements/ formore information about the AEEA in British Columbia.

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Canada has approximately 1.3 millionpeople who self-identify as First Nations,Métis, or Inuit (Statistics Canada, 2015).Within our public universities and colleges,approximately 3% of the total studentpopulation is Aboriginal. However, there isvariation by province, particularly due toAboriginal population density, migration,and institutional type. For example,geographic areas with higher number ofAboriginal peoples tend to also influenceinstitutional Aboriginal student populations(e.g., the University of Northern BritishColumbia has an Indigenous studentpopulation of approximately 10%) andIndigenous specific institutions tend tohave predominately Aboriginal students(e.g., over 90%).

Historically, Aboriginal post-secondaryparticipation was limited due toassimilationist policies and practices, suchas Residential schools, which preparedchildren for work rather than highereducation and the Indian Act, whichremoved status from those First Nationswho chose to attend university. This issue iscomplex and also influenced by the lackof relevant programs, services, andfinancial support resulted in little to nouniversity or college attainment prior to the 1960s (Royal Commission on AboriginalPeoples, 1996; Stonechild, 2006). Therewere some major national events thatoccurred in the 1950s-1960s that changedthis history. The first was the organization of

Aboriginal peoples formally speaking back to federal government policies and practices (e.g., National IndianBrotherhood, 1972), the establishment ofthe Aboriginal Post-Secondary Program by the federal government (MillenniumScholarship Foundation, 2006), and moreAboriginal students completing highschool ready to enter higher education.With these, and other societal shifts, post-secondary institutions began providingculturally relevant academic programs(such as Native Teacher Education andNative Studies). In providing access tothese programs, Aboriginal communities,governments, along with universities andcolleges recognized that Aboriginallearners also required support in theirtransition to and support in staying on their academic journeys, which led to theestablishment of Native Student Services,which is more commonly referred to today as Aboriginal Student Services orIndigenous Student Services.

In Canada, the first of these culturallyrelevant wholistic support services toIndigenous students were established inthe late 1960s by the University of Albertaand the University of Calgary, twoinstitutions who lead the way fordeveloping culturally relevant academicprogramming (Pidgeon & Hardy Cox,2005). With provincial government supportthrough grants aimed to support therecruitment and retention of Aboriginal

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Wholistic Models of Success of Indigenous Student Services:A home away from homeMichelle Pidgeon, Simon Fraser University

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students (e.g., BC Provincial AdvisoryCommittee, 1990) the field developedfurther in the 1990s across the country. Todate approximately 95% of all Canadianpublic universities and colleges have someform of Aboriginal student services.

Wholistic service provision is a model that isbased on Indigenous cultural frameworksthat are informed by the local Aboriginalnations on whose territories the institutionresides (e.g., Figure 1). Wholistic means thatthe student’s emotional, cultural, physical,and intellectual needs are addressedthrough relationships and connections totheir family, community (on-campus andoff-campus), local community and nationand beyond (Pidgeon, 2005, 2016). The 4Rs surrounding these realms speak toIndigenous understandings of whatuniversity and colleges should be doing tosupport Indigenous student success(Kirkness & Barnhardt, 1991). For example,establishing relevant programs and services,respecting Indigenous knowledges,maintaining reciprocal relationships, andtaking responsibility for the work to be doneto support Indigenous students and theircommunities.

To address the physical realms, students are often provided a physical space oncampus that may be a separate building ora unit of offices designated for AboriginalStudent Services. These spaces ofteninclude a lounge, study rooms, computerroom, office and meeting space, kitchen,and cultural ceremony space. Physicalneeds of the students include financialsupport, housing, and day care which aresupported through workshops, informationsessions, referrals, and/or information isaccessible online. Also important is physicalwellbeing and with a kitchen students canprepare individual or group meals (e.g., acommunity soup and bannock day),workshops are held on healthy eating and exercise, and often they will have

fundraisers to support the work of theAboriginal Student Association on campus.

Intellectual realms are also supportedthrough provision of silent study spaces andcomputer rooms where students can go todo their studies. Intellectual supports includebut are not limited to through peer-tutoringprograms and Elders, who the students can talk with for support. The value ofcommunity in supporting the intellectualrealm cannot be undervalued for studentsreceive and provide encouragement andsupport to each other.

The cultural realm must be discussed inrelation to the over 60 different Aboriginalgroups in Canada and a pan-Indianapproach to cultural ceremonies is highlyinappropriate. Many of our students cometo higher education with a strong sense ofwho they are culturally having been raisedwithin their culture, speaking the language,tending to traditions, and attending culturalevents and ceremonies. However, otherscome to university or college exploring andseeking a better understanding of who theyare as Indigenous peoples. They may havebeen disconnected from their culture do tothe colonial assimilative practices (e.g.,residential school, adoption, foster care) or

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Figure 1: Wholistic Indigenous Framework

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their families have not (due to complexreasons) not continued to pass on theknowledge and teachings of their Aboriginalancestors. The range of who is Indigenouson our campuses is vast, especially when wethink of internationalization and the mobilityof Indigenous peoples. Therefore, culturalpractices and ceremonies within ourcampuses needs to be respectful of thatdiversity, honour the nations on which theyreside, and support students in their owncultural integrity, where ever they maybe inthat journey.

Ceremonies and Elders also are a vitalcomponent of the wholistic model forsupporting Indigenous student success.Recognizing the vast scope and depth ofcultural ceremonies, it is important tounderstand the territory and nation(s)cultural practices on which the university orcollege resides. Ensuring the proper culturalprotocols are done regarding ceremoniesincludes following traditional teachings andalso working within an institutional spacethat has fire regulations and other policies.Cultural ceremonies such as sweat lodgeand smudging on campus have resulted inAboriginal student services staff workingwith campus enforcement and local firedepartments to have a protocol for policiesand procedures that support these culturalevents on campus. Such initiatives havefurther developed relationships andunderstanding across campuses regardingIndigenous culture and practices.

Therefore, Aboriginal Student Services isnot just a physical space but for manyAboriginal students, these centres are“homes way from home,” where they can also get support for their emotionalrealm from peers, Elders, and a sense ofconnection and community. Emotionalsupports also include Aboriginal counsellorsand/or referrals to on-campus counsellingor community counselling. Many Centreswill do wellness workshops and ceremonies

supporting student’s mental andemotional health.

The 4Rs speaks to the work done withinAboriginal student services to supportIndigenous student success and alsoprovide insight into the relationship building,as the previous example demonstrated,that occurs with academic and studentaffairs units outside of Aboriginal studentservices. Aboriginal student serviceprofessionals are the site of knowledge on most campuses for Indigenity and areoften consulted or sought out to provideinformation sessions or sit on committeesthat may have some connection toAboriginal issues. They are also the “watchdogs” on campus where they are mindfulof broader campus initiatives, policies,programs, and events that may beneglectful of the Indigenous perspectiveand they have to speak up for Indigenouspeoples in these spaces (Pidgeon, 2014).

Indigenous student services provide amodel for supporting Indigenous learners’success that is grounded in culture,relationships, respect, and relevance(Shotton, Lowe, & Waterman, 2013).Understanding that Indigenous studentsuccess is not only to be measured byinstitutional norms such as GPA andcompletion rates is key (HeavyRunner &DeCelles, 2002; Pidgeon, 2008). For manyIndigenous students, simply attending onecourse is a success. For others it meansachieving their goals (e.g., going tograduate school) and giving back to theircommunity. For others it is about eitherlearning about, maintaining, and/or beingempowered in who they are as Indigenouspeoples while they pursue their education.Therefore, Indigenous student success can be understood through a wholisticframework, such as in Figure 1, wherebythe interconnections of the physical,emotional, cultural, and intellectual areintertwined with the individual, community,

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and nation. Success is complex and eachindividual’s journey is somewhat unique.This framework of understanding successand service provision allows that student tosee themselves reflected in the supportsand services provided by Indigenousstudent services, and ideally across theinstitution.

There has been much change in theacademic climate for Indigenous peoples,however, much more work has to be done if we are to see any gains in theeducational disparity between Aboriginaland non-Aboriginal Canadians. As anation, we are working together towardsreconciliation (Truth and ReconciliationCommission of Canada (TRC), 2015).Within higher education the conversationsof Indigenity, Decolonization, and nowReconciliation are in the minds and heartsof many. Aboriginal student services willplay a vital role in supporting campusesbecoming more hospitable to Indigenousstudents and be a bridge for reconciliationfor others on campus. It is important to bemindful that reconciliation does not meanthe responsibility of this work lies solely withIndigenous peoples on our campuses, itdoes mean that all of us are responsible forthe work of better understanding andsupporting Indigenity and in this case,Indigenous student success. ■

References BC Provincial Advisory Committee. (1990). Report for theProvincial Advisory Committee on post-secondaryeducation for Native learners. Retrieved from Victoria:

HeavyRunner, I., & DeCelles, R. (2002). Family educationmodel: Meeting the student retention challenge. Journal ofAmerican Indian Education, 41(2), 29-37.

Kirkness, V. J., & Barnhardt, R. (1991). First Nations andhigher education: The four R’s- respect, relevance,reciprocity, responsibility. Journal of American IndianEducation, 30(3), 1-15. Retrieved fromhttp://www.jstor.org/stable/24397980

Millennium Scholarship Foundation. (2006). Changingcourse: Improving Aboriginal access to post-secondary

education in Canada. Retrieved fromhttp://www.millenniumscholarships.ca/images/Publications/mrn-changing-course-en.pdf

National Indian Brotherhood. (1972). Indian control ofIndian education. Ottawa: Author.

Pidgeon, M. (2005). Weaving the story of Aboriginalstudent services in Canadian unviersities. Communique,5(3), 27-29.

Pidgeon, M. (2008). Pushing against the margins:Indigenous theorizing of “success” and retention in higher education. Journal of College Student Retention:Research, Theory & Practice, 10(3), 339-360.doi:10.2190/CS.10.3.e

Pidgeon, M. (2014). Moving beyond good intentions:Indigenizing higher education in British Columbiauniversities through Institutional responsiblity andaccountability. Journal of American Indian Education,53(2), 7-28.

Pidgeon, M. (2016). Aboriginal Student Success &Aboriginal Student Services. . In D. Hardy Cox & C. Strange(Eds.), Serving Diverse Students in Canadian HigherEducation: Models and Practices for Success (pp. 25-39).Montreal: McGill University Press.

Pidgeon, M., & Hardy Cox, D. (2005). Perspectives ofAboriginal student services professionals: Aboriginalstudent services in Canadian universities. Journal ofAustralian & New Zealand Student Services(25), 3-30.

Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples. (1996). Gatheringof strength, Volume 3 Report of the Royal Commission onAboriginal Peoples (RCAP). Ottawa: Minister of Supply andServices.

Shotton, H., Lowe, S. C., & Waterman, S. J. (Eds.). (2013).Beyond the asterisk: Understanding Native students inhigher education. Sterling, VA: Stylus.

Statistics Canada. (2015, 2015-11-30). Postsecondaryenrolments by institution type, registration status, province,and sex. Retrieved from http://www.statcan.gc.ca/tables-tableaux/sum-som/l01/cst01/educ71a-eng.htm

Stonechild, B. (2006). The new buffalo: The struggle forAboriginal post-secondary education in Canada.Winnipeg: University of Manitoba Press.

Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada (TRC).(2015). Honoring the truth, reconciling for the future:Summary of the final report of the Truth and ReconciliationCommission of Canada. Retrieved from Ottawa:http://www.trc.ca/websites/trcinstitution/File/2015/Honouring_the_Truth_Reconciling_for_the_Future_July_23_2015.pdf

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EDITORIAL FEATURE16

Education in any country is importantand it’s key that every child has thechance to achieve their full potential.

In Canada, it is no different and the Ministryof Education in the province of Ontariostrives to provide education and supportto pupils of all communities. Here theyoutline to Adjacent Government theircommitment to every child in the provinceand steps that have been taken to reachthese goals.

How important is it for each child inOntario to benefit from education?

Vibrant communities and a prosperoussociety are built on the foundation of astrong education system, and the task ofthe government is to help the province ofOntario’s 2 million students reach their fullpotential.

In 2014, the Ontario government launchedAchieving Excellence: A Renewed Visionfor Education in Ontario. Its 4 goals are:Ensuring Equity, Promoting Well-being,Enhancing Public Confidence andAchieving Excellence. The vision reaffirmsthe province’s commitment to helping alllearners in the province’s educationsystem develop the knowledge, skills andcharacteristics that will lead them tobecome personally successful, economicallyproductive and actively engaged citizens.

Ontario’s publicly funded educationsystem partners with parents, guardiansand communities to help developsuccessful graduates. With a provincial five-year graduation rate of 85.5% – wenow have 190,000 additional students whohave graduated since 2004 – studentswho would not have done so had therate remained at the 2004 level.

How does Ontario’s Ministry ofEducation support schools and pupilsin First Nations?

In keeping with our Aboriginal EducationStrategy, the ministry continues to focus onreaching 2 primary objectives: improvingstudent achievement and well-beingamong First Nation, Métis and Inuit students,and closing the achievement gap betweenIndigenous students and all other studentsin Ontario.

The government is also committed tocontinuing to build positive relationshipswith Ontario First Nations and working in aspirit of mutual respect through allinteractions. Although the Ministry ofEducation does not provide direct fundingfor the operation of First Nation schools,the ministry works in partnership with FirstNations and the federal government toachieve the goal of the AboriginalEducation Strategy.

An education for every childThe Ministry for Education in Ontario answers Adjacent Government’squestions on the importance of every child in Canada benefitingfrom world class education…

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We know that strong partnerships betweenthe ministry, school boards, schools,educators, families, students and communityorganisations are essential in our work. Toreach our goals, we have taken importantsteps in making system-wide changes

including targeted funding, professionaldevelopment and the integration of FirstNation, Métis and Inuit perspectives intothe curriculum. 

How important is it for all youngCanadians to understand Indigenoushistories and culture?

All students, both Indigenous and non-Indigenous, are enriched by learning aboutthe histories, cultures and perspectives ofFirst Nation, Métis and Inuit peoples inCanada. Also, students are more engagedin their learning when they see their owncommunities and cultures reflected in thecurriculum.

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“Ontario’s investments in its publiclyfunded education system are payingdividends. The province’s stronggraduation rate and international testscores confirm our success. But we arenot complacent; we know that morework needs to be done to continueimproving Ontario’s system and helpevery student reach their full potential.”

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EDITORIAL FEATURE18

Since 2003, the Ontario Ministry of Educationhas engaged a broad range of Indigenousstakeholders and academic expertsduring the curriculum review process toensure that the curriculum is more inclusiveof First Nation, Métis and Inuit histories,cultures, contributions and perspectives.

Thanks to the contributions of our First Nation,Métis and Inuit partners, every Ontariostudent is building a greater awarenessand understanding of Indigenous histories,cultures and perspectives. The teaching ofthe histories, culture and perspectives ofIndigenous people – including residentialschools – is now a mandatory part of theteacher training curriculum.

In 2014, Ontario sent First Nations andTreaties maps to every elementary andsecondary school in the province to helpraise awareness about treaties. Thesemaps and the accompanying teachingresources are helping students to learnabout the significance of the treaties andthe shared history of First Nations and non-Indigenous Ontarians. Our province hasdesignated the first week of November asTreaties Recognition Week to promotepublic education and awareness abouttreaties and treaty relationships.

How can this help to develop greatercommunity throughout the country?

Ontario’s diversity is one of the province’sgreatest assets. Embracing this diversityand moving towards inclusivity andrespect will help us reach our goal ofmaking Ontario’s education system themost equitable in the world.  Everyone inour publicly funded education system –

regardless of background or personal circumstances – must feel engaged andincluded.

How important is integration in schoolsin order to bring together differentcommunities?

Ontario schools need to be places whereeveryone can succeed in a culture oflearning and high expectations. Thegovernment’s work over the past decadehas been focused on helping all childrenand youth reach their full potential bygiving them the tools to help overcomeobstacles. We are seeing the results, whichincludes a culture shift in schools thatrecognises diversity as a contributor tosuccess, and not a barrier. The fundamental

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principle driving this work is that everystudent has the opportunity to succeed,regardless of ancestry, culture, ethnicity,gender, gender identity, language, physicaland intellectual ability, race, religion, sex,sexual orientation, socio-economic statusor other factors. 

“We know that strong partnershipsbetween the ministry, school boards,schools, educators, families, studentsand community organisations areessential in our work. To reach our goals,we have taken important steps inmaking system-wide changes includingtargeted funding, professional develop -ment and the integration of First Nation,Métis and Inuit perspectives into thecurriculum.” 

How does the ministry supportAchieving Excellence throughoutOntario with investments such as therecent $7M for First Nations Métis andInuit students?

Ontario’s Aboriginal Education Strategy setsthe foundation for improving achievementamong Aboriginal students in provinciallyfunded schools and supports life-longlearning beginning in the early years and continuing through postsecondary, trainingor workplace opportunities. In 2016-17,Ontario’s targeted investments for Indigenouseducation will be more than $71mn.

Some of the more recent investments willhelp provide all school boards with anew senior-level position dedicated tosupporting First Nation, Métis, and Inuiteducation initiatives. This initiative clearlydemonstrates Ontario’s support for the

education recommendations of theTruth and Reconciliation Commission. Inaddition, this new position will promote agreater awareness of Indigenous histories,cultures, perspectives and contributionsamong all students, while developinggreater community and familyengagement.

Ontario’s support for Indigenous studentsis part of the province’s overall annualeducation budget, which is estimated tobe $22.9bn for 2016-17.

How can investments such as this helpto deliver world class education for all?

Ontario’s investments in its publicly fundededucation system are paying dividends.The province’s strong graduation rate andinternational test scores confirm oursuccess. But we are not complacent; weknow that more work needs to be done tocontinue improving Ontario’s system andhelp every student reach their full potential.Equity remains a key goal of our educationsystem, and through our many investmentsin education, we are committed to helpingall of our students achieve success inschool and beyond. �

Ministry of Education Government of Ontariowww.edu.gov.on.ca/eng

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Dr. Dawn ZingaAssociate Professor and ChairDepartment of Child and Youth StudiesBrock University

[email protected]

Tel: +1 905 688 5550, ext. 3152

Dr. Michelle PidgeonAssociate Professor Faculty of EducationSimon Fraser University

[email protected]

Tel: +1 778 782 8609

Dr. Sandra StyresAdjunct ProfessorDepartment of Child and Youth StudiesBrock University

Assistant Professor of Language, Literacyand Curriculum in Aboriginal EducationDepartment of Curriculum, Teaching & LearningOISE/University of Toronto

[email protected]

www.brocku.cawww.sfu.ca

www.oise.utoronto.ca