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Individual Differences

Defining Psychological Abnormality

Eating Disorders – Anorexia and

Bulimia

Biological & Psychological

models of abnormality

Statistical Infrequency

Deviation from social

norms

Deviation from ideal mental health

Failure to function

adequately

Biological Model

Cognitive Model

Psychodynamic Model

Behavioural Model

Clinical Characteristics

Explanations

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Objectives: • Outline and evaluate the following

definitions of abnormality: – Statistical Infrequency – Deviation from social norms – Deviation from ideal mental health – Failure to function adequately

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Statistical infrequency •  Behaviours that are statistically rare or

deviate from the average/statistical norm as illustrated by the normal distribution curve, are classed as abnormal. Any behaviour that is atypical of the majority would be statistically infrequent, and so abnormal.

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Statistical Infrequency

A very unusual behaviour will be

more than 2 standard

deviations from the mean

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Deviation from social norms •  Behaviour that does not follow socially

accepted patterns. These unwritten social rules are culturally relative and era-dependent.

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Deviation from Social Norms

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Deviation from ideal mental health

•  Deviation from optimal psychological well-being. Shown through a lack of positive self-attitudes, personal growth, integration, autonomy, environmental mastery, and resistance to stress. This prevents the individual self-actualising.

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The factors that drive or

motivate individuals, according to

Maslow (1954)

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Six elements for optimal living

1. Self-attitudes 2. Personal growth 3. Integration 4. Autonomy 5. Perception of reality 6. Environmental mastery

Jahoda (1958)

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Failure to function adequately •  A model of abnormality based on an inability

to cope with day-to-day life caused by psychological distress or discomfort. There is an inability to fulfill Individual, Social and Organisational roles.

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Rosenhan and Seligman (1989) suggested 7 features: 1.  Suffering 2.  Maladaptiveness 3.  Vividness and unconventionality of

behaviour 4.  Unpredictability and loss of control 5.  Irrationality and incomprehensibility 6.  Observer Discomfort 7.  Violation of moral and ideal

standards.

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All definitions are culturally relative….

Normal Abnormal

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Cultural relativism

•  We cannot judge behaviour properly unless it is viewed in the context from which it originates, because different cultures have different norms of behaviour and so interpretations of behaviour may differ.

•  Ethnocentrism is when only the perspective of one’s own culture is taken.

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Biological (Medical) Model •  mental disorders are similar to physical

illnesses – they have physical causes such as brain dysfunction, biochemical imbalance, infection, genetics.

•  can be described in terms of clusters of symptoms which can be identified, leading to the diagnosis of an illness.

•  diagnosis leads to appropriate medical treatments.

•  diathesis stress is the new idea – genes pre-disposition and environment interact.

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Infection • micro-organisms that cause disease eg

Flu in schizophrenia

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Genetic Factors •  inherited predispositions to certain

illnesses – twin studies look for concordance

•  in a twin study looking at schizophrenia found:

MZ = 48% DZ =17%

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Biochemistry •  Inbalance of neurotransmitters eg not

enough serotonin or nor-adrenaline in depression.

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Biochemistry

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Neuroanatomy • Structural abnormality or brain damage

Reductionism •  However this theory

can be said to be reductionist because it reduces behaviour down to one factor.

•  For example……

•  This is a problem because the cause of the behaviour may not be this simplistic, there is evidence that other factors such as…….. may also be involved.

Determinism •  However this theory

is determinist because it suggests that behaviour has a root cause and we do not have free will to choose our behaviour.

•  In this case behaviour is determined by ….

•  This is a problem because there may be a variety of causes creating the behaviour. There is evidence that other factors such as…….. may also be involved.

Nature Nurture •  However this theory

can be said to fall within the …………. side of the nature nurture debate. This is because………..

•  This is a problem because there is evidence that factors from the other side of the debate …………. are also involved, such as…….., meaning that in reality the explanation is interactionist.

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Psychodynamic Model -Assumptions

•  Conflict between the id, ego, and superego.

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Psychodynamic Model -Assumptions

•  Psychosexual Development Stage Description Picture

Oral 0-2

Anal 2-4

Phallic 4-7

Latency 7- puberty

Genital puberty - marriage

Mouth source of pleasure

Withholding or expelling faeces

Genitals “I’m a boy!!”

Same sex friendships learning to be a girl/boy

Genitals – sexual expression

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Psychodynamic Model -Assumptions

•  Fixation at psychosexual stages due to conflict.

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Oedipus Complex •  I want to marry my Mum •  I can’t because Dad will be cross • He might chop off my penis (castration

anxiety) •  I’d better do as he says •  I’ll be like Dad and then Mum will love

me • Copy Dad’s behaviour (anaclictic

identification)

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Electra Complex •  I want to marry my Dad •  I can’t because Mum has married Dad and he

loves her because she has had me •  I haven’t got a penis (penis envy) Mum hasn’t

either •  Dad loves Mum because she is a mother and

cares for us •  If I act like a mother Dad will love me •  I’ll copy Mum (anaclictic identification)

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Psychodynamic Model -Assumptions

•  Defence mechanisms that help control conflict.

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Behavioural Model Assumptions

•  Based on principles of learning. •  All behaviour is learned through

association (classical conditioning) reinforcement (operant conditioning) or social learning.

•  Abnormality is caused by learning maladaptive behaviours.

•  What was learned can be unlearned, using the same principles.

•  The same laws apply to human and non-human animal behaviour.

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Behavioural Model

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Classical Conditioning of Fear

•  A fear of dogs may be learned in the following way: –  Child is bitten by dog; pain fear –  Dog is paired with pain –  Eventually Dog fear

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Operant Conditioning of Fear

•  A fear of dogs may be continued in the following way: – Avoiding Dogs reduces the likelihood of being bitten – Avoiding Dogs removes fear –  Removal of fear is rewarding –  Behaviour is reinforced

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Fear of Dogs via social learning

•  Mother , who is a role model for daughter, is afraid of dogs. –  Child identifies with mother and wants to be like

her –  Child copies mother’s behaviour –  Child becomes afraid of dogs (vicarious learning)

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Evaluation

•  Underlying causes ignored •  Treat symptoms not cause •  Behavioural therapies work well

for phobias •  Environmentally deterministic •  Use of animals •  Ecological validity of lab

experiments •  Oversimplified – reductionist •  Ethical implications

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Cognitive Model

• Cognitive (thought) dysfunction underpins abnormality

•  Individuals are Information Processors • A breakdown in cognitive processing

causes abnormality • Faulty thinking can affect emotions and

behaviour

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Cognitive Model

Depression

Early Experience

Dysfunctional Beliefs Life Event

Assumptions Activated

Biased Information- Processing

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“I am helpless and inadequate”

I am worthless, there’s no chance of the future being any

better ”

“The world is full of obstacles that I will

never master”

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Life Events •  Life Events Trigger the faulty processing

learned in childhood – Lock and Key Approach: –  Physical abuse by Father in childhood – helpless

and worthless –  Physical Illness in later life – I can’t get better

and will die

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Examples • You fail a mock exam, Your boy/girl

friend is whispering in someone elses’ ear.

• Maladaptive response

Thinking Feelings Behaviour

Outcome

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Evaluation: •  It is easy to see how negative thinking

may lead to depression. •  Thoughts could be a cause of the

disorder but could also be an effect. •  Cognitive-behavioural model is more

effective at treating mental disorders than either model on its own.

•  Neurophysiology in particular the amygdala pathway may under pin the cognitive processes.

•  The person can be helped to change.

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Multi-dimensional Approach

• Diathesis

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Multi-dimensional Approach

• Stress:

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Eating Disorders •  There has been a large increase in the

number of people suffering from eating disorders over the past 20 years or so. The increase has been so great that Barlow and Durand (1995) described it as an epidemic

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Eating Disorder Definition •  A Dysfunctional relationship with food •  Faulty cognition relating to food •  Emotional responses to food.

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Anorexia Definition •  Gross undereating •  Anxiety Disorder •  Use of eating behaviour as a method of

control

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Clinical Characteristics - Anorexia Nervosa

• According to DSM-IV, there are four criteria for anorexia nervosa: – Weight is less than 85% of that

expected – Amenorrhoea – (absence of

menstruation) – Body Image Distortion – Anxiety about becoming fat

• Over 90% are adolescent females

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Bulimia Definition •  Gross over eating and purging •  Mood Disorder (depression) •  Use of eating and purging to medicate

depressed feelings

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Clinical Characterisitics - Bulimia Nervosa

• According to DSM-IV, bulimia nervosa is defined by the following five criteria: – Binge eating – Purge (self-induced vomiting, excessive

exercise, going without meals, laxatives) – Frequency of binge and purge (twice a week

or more) – Body image distortion

• Starts in early adulthood (20’s onwards)

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Similarities Similarity Anorexic Bulimic

Distorted body image See themselves as “normal” size in mirror

See themselves as larger in the mirror

Obsessive Thinking Fear of food – need for control

If I binge/purge I will feel better

Dysfunctional eating behaviour

Don’t Eat Binge Purge

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Differences Difference Anorexic Bulimic

Weight Reduces Fluctuates around normal

Eating patterns Don’t Eat Binge Purge

Age of onset Early teens Early adulthood

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The Biological Approach

Genetic factors - Twin studies – Monozygotic (MZ) twins share exactly the

same genes – Dizygotic twins (DZ) share 50% of the same

genes – If inherited expect to find more cases of

both twins having ED in MZ twins than in DZ twins

– concordance rates - the extent to which a certain trait in both twins is in agreement

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Holland et al. (1988) and Kendler et al. (1991) studied anorexia and bulimia in twins

16% 26%

56%

5%

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Biochemical factors •  Links between anorexia and serotonin

and also noradrenaline

• Biochemical abnormalities could be the result of semi-starvation, rather than its cause

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Neuro-anatomy •  It is possible that anorexics and bulimics

have disturbed hypothalamic functioning Damage = No Hunger

Damage = No feeling of being full

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The Behavioural Approach

Classical conditioning –  learned association between being overweight

and anxiety – weight loss is associated with relief from

anxiety •  Operant conditioning

– food avoidance gets attention, and is rewarding

– those who are slim are admired - rewarding

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Modelling – Eating disorders

are much more common in Western societies Women are rewarded for looking slim

– Role models available to young women are slim

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• Culture-bound Syndrome – Anorexia and bulimia

are rare in Chinese cultures, and this may be because being overweight is rare too

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The Psychodynamic Approach • Sexual development

– Sexual fears (fear of increasing sexual desires or a fear of becoming pregnant)

– Sexual abuse as children

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The Psychodynamic Approach

• Family systems theory – The family may

play a key role in the development of anorexia (Minuchin et al., 1978)

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The Psychodynamic Approach • Struggle for

autonomy – A struggle for a

sense of identity and autonomy, and in conflict with the mother

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The Cognitive Approach

• Distortion of body image – Over-estimation of one’s

body size – Distorted beliefs – Women tend to rate their

ideal body weight as significantly lower than the weight men say they find most attractive

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Objectives:

• Outline the Aims, Procedures, Findings, Conclusions and criticisms of: – One study of the genes on the development

of anorexia – One study of the effect of body image on

the development of anorexia and bulimia