Harappa

HarappaSUBMITTED BY-ANJALI SINGHDEEPALI CHOUDHARYNISHANT AGRAWALASHUTOSH AGNIHOTRI

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ContentsIndus PlainLargest Civilization in Ancient WorldHarappan CivilizationTimingCity StructureCultureTrade & EconomyPictograms/ Writing1st Urban SanitationCurrent SanitationFall of Indus River Civilization / Climate Change

Ancient Civilizations in IndiaIndia has had civilizations as far back as 200,000 years agoFrom 8000-5000 B.C.E. there were Neolithic villages west of the Indus River valley in the Iranian PlateauBecause water covers much of the oldest remains, archaeologists and historians arent sure exactly how far back in time Harappan civilization stretches. The earliest strata indicates that by 2500 B.C.E., Harappan civilization was well established.

Largest Civilization in Ancient WorldA Civilization of large scale cities.Indus River was largest known Civilization in Ancient World.Mohenjo Daro and Harappa were urban giants, Bronze Age Manhattans.Over 200,000 people in Harappa at height of the civilization.

Location Dried-up tributaries of Indus River: Known as Ravi River and Saraswati River

Intro to Harappan CivilizationLike the Nile and Tigris/Euphrates river valleys, the Indus Valley deposited alluvial soil across its flood plain, allowing early farmers to establish agriculture. Indus river people domesticated poultry, elephants, sheep, and goats. This civilization was the 1st to cultivate cotton by ~5000 B.C.E., for the production of cloth. (Predates Egyptian production)

Intro to Harappan CivilizationBy ~3000 B.C.E. the Dravidian People had built a complex society with large urban centers.Harappan civilization controlled an area of roughly 500,000 sq. miles. The Harappan empire was at least twice as big as either Egypt or Mesopotamia.

Harappan CivilizationHarappa and Mohenjo-Daro were the major cities (pop. 35-40,000) and regional centers. There were about 300 smaller settlements along the Indus River. City of Mohenjo-Daro emerged with Harappa in 2600 BC.This civilization with writing system, was re-discovered in 1920.The people used copper and bronze knives, spheres, and arrowheads.There were centralized administrative buildings for each city and controlled management of their geologic area.

Images: archaeologyonline.net

TimingIndus Valley Civilization Re-discovered in early 1920s.Existed from 4000BC to 500BC.High Period 2900BC to 1900BC.Far older than the Bible, Greek or Roman Civilizations.Same time-line as Ancient Egyptian Civilization.

at same time as Pharaoh Tuts tomb in Egypt9

PLAN OF HARAPPA

Harappan CivilizationBy 2500BCE, communities had been turned into urban centers.6 urban centers3 in India: Gonorreala, Dokalingam, Mangalore3 in Pakistan: Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro, DikiIn total, over 1052 cities and settlements have been found. The city was named Harappa, because it was the first city discovered of the Harappan civilization.

Excavation of Harappa.

Successive CitiesHarappan cities did not develop slowly, which suggests that whoever built these cities learned to do so in another place. As the Indus flooded, cities were rebuilt on top of each other. Archaeologists have discovered several different cities, one built over the other, each built a little less skillfully. The most skillful was on bottom. It would appear that builders grew less able or less interested in perfection over time. Each city is a marvel, and each greatly advanced for its time.

Harappan CivilizationThe twin cities of Mohenjo-dara and Harappa were a mile square, with defensive outer walls.Cities were divided into lower dwellings and the citadel housed important buildings. The higher and upper portion(i.e. citadel) of the city was protected by a construction which looks like a fort. The ruling class of the towns perhaps lived in the protected area. The other part of the towns was lower in height than the former and common men lived in this area.In the excavated sites, the Harappan settlements were found built of mud bricks, burnt bricks and chiselled stones.

The size of bricks remained the same everywhere. The ratio of brick size was 1:2:4.STREETSThe main streets of the cities at both Harappa and Mohenjodaro were generally oriented from north to south, with connecting streets running east to west.The streets were laid out in perfect grid system. The street had rounded corners to allow the turning of carts easily.These streets divided the city into 12 blocks.The streets were broad varying from 9 feet to 34 feet.They ran straight to a mile. They were suitable for wheeled traffic.Lanes were joined with the streets and intersected at right angles.Each lane had a public welt. Street lamps were provided for welfare of public.

HOUSES-The nature of the buildings shows that the town dwellers were divided into various social classes.The rich and the ruling class lived in the multi-roomed spacious houses and the poorer section lived in small tenements.The public building and big houses were situated on the streets. The modest houses were situated on the lanes.Smaller houses had two rooms, while larger houses had many rooms. There were courtyards attached to big buildings.The average house appeared to have stood at least two storeys high. Some of the buildings were probably multi-storied.The houses were built on plinths rising above the street level with flights of steps recessed in the wall at the front door.

8. The doors of the houses opened on to the side lanes rather than on the main streets.9. Most of the houses had baths, wells and covered drains connected with street drains. Ordinary buildings had little ventilation arrangements, as doors and windows were rarely fixed in the outer walls.10. The staircases of big buildings were solid; the roofs were flat and were made of wood.11. The portion of the buildings where contamination with water was possible, burnt bricks were used. For other parts sun-dried bricks were used.12. The Citadel a mud-brick mound around 12 metres (39ft) high is known to have supported public baths, a large residential structure designed to house about 5,000 citizens, and two large assembly halls.13. These citadels always face west which served as sanctuaries for the cities population in times of attack and as community centres in times of peace.

The citadel at Harappa measuring 1400 ft X600 ft on mound 40 ft high which faced foundation with brick embankment 45 ft. thick.The citadel at Mohenjodaro included a very large building that may have been a palace. GREAT BATH-One of the largest buildings was the Great Bath measuring 180 feet by 108 feet. The bathing pool, 39 feet long, 28 feet wide and 8 feet deep was in the center of the quadrangle, surrounded with verandahs, rooms and galleries.The pool could be filled and emptied by means of a vaulted culvert, 6 feet and 6 inches high.

The walls of the pool were made of burnt bricks laid on edge, which made the pool watertight. The pool was filled with water from a large well, situated in the same complex. Periodic cleaning of the pool was done by draining off the used water into a big drain. The Great Bath building had six entrances. It consists of a large rectangular pool with steps leading into it from the narrower ends. At the foot of the stairs is a small ledge with a brick edging that extends the entire width of the pool, such that people coming down thestairs could move along this edge without actually stepping into the pool itself. It was surrounded by a cloister, which opened onto many small rooms that may have housed priests of the citys cults.It was waterproofed with bitumen.Brick colonnades were discovered on the eastern, northern and southern edges.

The preserved columns have stepped edges that may have been used to hold wooden screens or window frames.Two large doors led into the complex from the south and other entrance was from the directions of north and east.A series of rooms are located on the eastern edge of the building and in one room is a well that may have supplied some of the water needed to fill the tank. The Assembly Hall: An important feature of Mohen-jo-daro was its 24 square meters pillared hall. It had five rows of pillars, with four pillars in each row. Kiln baked bricks were used to construct these pillars. Probably, it was the Assembly Hall or the ruler's court. It is said that it also housed the municipal office which had the charge of town planning and sanitation.

GRANARY HARAPPAIt is a brick structure that was built on a massive brick foundation over 45 meters north south and 45 meters east-west. Two rows of six rooms that appear to be foundations are arranged along a central passageway that is about 7 meters wide and partly paved with baked bricks. Each room measures 15.2 by 6.1 meters and has three sleeper walls with air space between them. A wooden superstructure supported in some places by large columns would have been built on top of the brick foundations, with stairs leading up from the central passage area. Small triangular opening may have served as air ducts to allow the flow of fresh air beneath the hollow floors

Intro to Indus Valley Cities

Cities. Of Harappa & Mohenjo-Daro: Were constructed of the same type and shape of bricks. Both served as capitols of their respective provinces. They were laid out in grids. These people were incredible builders. The remains of the cities signifies there were no social class in this civilization.

City Structure

There is no evidence indicating royal authority or a significant military. There are city walls, a large granary, and a fortified citadel in each of the two major cities, indicating that Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro were organizational centers. Image from: Spiffykiffy.wordpress.com

COURTYARDIt was considered to be the most fascinating culture of its time.1052 towns and villages once were part of this civilization.The advanced architecture of the Harappans is shown by their impressive dockyards, granaries, warehouses, brick platforms, and protective walls. The massive citadels of Indus cities that protected the Harappans from floods and attackers were larger than most Mesopotamian ziggurats.

Image from: Mohenjador.net

StreetsEverywhere there are straight streets & well built homes! Cities are well organized with roads in a perfect city grid layout.At MD, narrow streets & alleyways are off major streets, leading down into private neighborhoods.The streets of the Indus cities are oriented towards the cardinal directions.

HousesHouses were one or two stories high, made of thick, baked brick walls, with flat roofs, and high ceilings to keep the rooms cool during the hot summers.Each was built around a courtyard, with windows overlooking the courtyard. The outside walls had no windows. The dwelling places in the cities indicate a large degree of social stratification, but nearly all houses had indoor plumbing with showers and toilets.

LOWER TOWNCrafts Quarters are identified by large quantities of manufacturing debris, such as stone beads, shell ornaments, glazed faience ornaments, stone tools and gold working.

Image from: Mohenjador.net

The Grainery of HarappaA large brick structure that was built on a massive brick foundation over 45m x 45m.Two rows of 6 rooms, each arranged along a 7m wide central hall.Each room is 15.2m x 6.1m and has 3 sleeper walls with air spaces in between.

Image from: Mohenjador.net

RINGSTONES

Ringstones were used as supports for wooden poles and timbers for doors, gates, and fake walls made of fabric, wood or woven fronds.

Water / Irrigation SystemsSometime in the third millennium B.C., the Harappan civilization of the Indus Valley built water systems that in many ways would rival and surpass any other water system, except that of the Romans, until the middle of the 19th century. It was the Harappan civilization that gave us the plumber and the first indoor plumbing. The mains that carried wastewater to a cesspit were tall enough for people to walk through. Even today, nothing like this exists for nearly half of the world's population."

Earliest Form of Sanitary EngineeringThe ancient Indus systems of sewage and drainage that were developed and used in cities throughout the Indus Empire were far more advanced than any found in contemporary urban sites in the Middle East and even more efficient than those in some areas of modern Pakistan and India today.

1st known toilets and running water in residential buildings in the world.By 2500BC, highly developed drainage system where wastewater from each house flowed into the main drain.

First Urban Sanitation SystemThe people had water borne toilets in each house. The houses were lined with drains covered with burnt clay bricks (burning makes clay harder, more dense). The system had manhole covers, chambers, etc., to facilitate maintenance. It was the first form of sanitary engineering.From a room that appears to have been set aside for bathing, waste water was directed to covered drains, which lined the major streets.

Houses and Running WaterEach home had its own private drinking well and its own private bathroom. Clay pipes led from the bathrooms to sewers located under the streets. These sewers drained into nearly rivers and streams.

Town Planning / Sanitary SewersScientists have found giant reservoirs for fresh water. They have also found that even the smallest house at the edge of each town was linked to that town's central drainage system. They not only drained waste water out, but also had a system to pump fresh water into the homes, similar to modern plumbing. After the decline of the Indus Valley Civilization, the science of engineering disappeared from India.Today, many towns in So. Asia still do not even come close to the detail, organization and depth of hydro-engineering that was used over 4500 years ago!

The Pool/ Great BathAbout 2200 B.C., Mohenjo Daro's people built what archaeologists regard as the most spectacular feature yet discovered: a pool 39 long, 23 wide, and 8 deep. The brick walls were sealed with bitumen, and the floor was slanted toward a corner drain. There are two flights of steps into this commodious tank, used 4,000 years ago.

Mohenjo-Daro BathThe Great public bath at Mohenjo-Daro. The earliest public water tank; 2 staircases led down into the tank.Predates Roman baths by @2000 years !

Harappan CultureOne striking feature of Harappan civilization was that throughout the large territory there was a remarkable degree of standardization in not only in architectural styles, but also weight and measures and even brick sizes.The layout of the major cities indicates that they were planned before they were built, rather than rising up organically as the population grows, like today.

Harappan Burial Rituals

There are very few grave sites throughout the Harappan lands; in other civilizations, grave burials normally help historians understand the beliefs of ancient cultures. This lack of evidence means that there arent as many preserved luxury goods. Simple burials. Early Harappan burial sites yielded simple wooden coffins which were entombed in a rectangular pit with burial offerings in pottery vessels. Offerings: Gold, agate, jasper, steatite, and greenstone. In addition, cremation of Human remains and bones were also stored in pottery burial urns.

Images: archaeologyonline.net

Standardized Weights & MeasuresCubical weights were found in graduated sizes in Harappa. These weights conform to the standard Harappan binary weight system that was used in all of the settlements. Probably for controlling trade and quite possibly for collecting taxes.The smallest weight is 0.856g and the most common weight is @13.7g. (a 1/16 ratio)

Trade & EconomyIt was mainly an urban culture Majority agricultureTraded with MesopotamiaMostly brick houses and fortified administrative and religious centersSeals were used to identify property and shipmentWheel-made pottery & animal cultivation

Image: chemistryland.com

Agricultural BaseTerraced fieldsFishing with hooksEarthen walls were built to control the Rivers annual flooding. Crops grown include wheat, barley, peas, melons, rice, vegetables, fruits and sesame.This civilization was the 1st to cultivate cotton for the production of cloth. Several animals were domesticated, including the elephant, sheep, pigs, zebus (cow), and water buffalo.

Image: fao.org

EconomyThese people were traders across Persian Gulf. Inhabitants of the Indus Valley traded with Mesopotamia, So. India, Afghanistan, and Persia.Between 2300-1750 B.C.E. the Harappan people traded pearls, gems, copper, and ivory for Mesopotamian wool, leather, and olive oil. Trade networks linked this culture with related regional cultures and distant sources of raw materials including lapis lazuli and other materials for bead making.

Pictogram WritingThe Harappan people used pictographic script.3500 specimens of the script survive in stamp seals carved out of stone, in molded terra cotta, faience amulets, pottery fragments, and in other inscribed objects.Along with the pictographs are more realistic pictures of animals, cultic scenes, and deity worship.The origins of Indus writing can be traced to the Ravi Phase in Harappa: from 3300 2800BC.

Image from: thenagain.info

Language / WritingIn addition to inconvenient water, Harappan civilization remains mysterious because historians cant read Harappan script. The civilization consisted of literate people who used Dravidian language to communicate.Harappan script seems to have used 400 characters that were both phonetic and logographic on thousands of clay seals and copper tablets.

ArtTheir art works were very small and used as personal possessions. Harappan artisans produced many beautiful ornaments and statues.Some art statuary seems to have an early Mesopotamian / Assyrian influence.

Indus Plains Today

Image from: Mohenjador.net

Global Climate Change 2It is believed that there was a significant amount of global climate change, because of expansion of arctic air which may have caused drought.Using NE Arabian Sea sediment cores, geochemist Michael Staubuasser examined the link between the abrupt climate change @4200 BP (2200BC) and the collapse of the Harrappan Civilization in the Indus River Valley.Oxygen isotope shifts in a sediment core revealed a sharp decline in the outflow from the Indus River 4200BP that transformed the Indus River Valley Civilization from a highly urban phase to a rural post-urban phase. Cultural centers such as the large cities of Mohenjo Daro & Hrappa, were almost completely abandoned. The Saraswati River was totally dry by 1900BC.

Fall Of Harappan CivilizationThe reduction of average rainfall over the Indus River watershed restricted Harappan farming in the Indus Valley and left large city populations unsustainable.

Annual Precipitation

River AvulsionHarappa lies on an old terrace of the Ravi River.River avulsion also has important archaeological significance for this region. The tributaries of the Indus (Ravi, Sutlej, Sarawati) have had a very dynamic nature. The Earliest Phase of the Ravi River was 3300-2800 BC. This is when Pre-Harappan regional culture emerged and subsequently the great Indus River Civilization.By 2600BC, The Indus valley was verdant, forested and teeming with wildlife. Since then, there has been frequent avulsion and sediment deposition. Harappa now lies some 20 km south of the present Ravi River. Both ancient site and modern town are located on south bank of a channel that often carries water during the summer monsoon floods, which was once the main course of the Ravi.The Ravi River meandered @ Harappa. At least 3 meanders of different ages were identified through soil analysis @ Harappa.

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Climate Change BackgroundIn So. Asia, the Himalayas create the monsoonThe monsoon provides the water that supports agriculture in this regionAs the monsoon declined over time it shifted eastAs precipitation in the region declined, river dried up and the Indus Valley cities died.

Monsoon and Population ShiftAs the Monsoon shifted East to Ganges Plain many Indus people followed monsoon and migrated to Ganges Plain @ 1500BCSame time as Arian invasion from the North. Arians : Civilized Ones.

The EndImage from: Mohenjador.net