Infancy and Childhood

Chapter 10

1. Study of Development Developmental Psychology – study of how people grow

and change through life Early childhood experiences effect people as

adolescents and adults Study of development helps uncover roots of

developmental problems, such as low self-esteem Psychologists use longitudinal and cross-sectional

method to study change Longitudinal – observe group over a period of time,

years even decades, time consuming, expensive Cross-sectional – select sample of people of different

ages, compare at one point in time, quicker, cheaper Developmental psychologists concerned with two main

issues:1. Ways heredity and environment influence development2. Whether development occurs gradually or in stages

Roles of Nature and NurtureNature – heredityNurture – environmentIN human development, heredity primarily

effects maturationMaturation – automatic sequential process

of development resulting from geneticsEx – crawl, stand, walkRate of maturation determined by genetics,

difficult to alter

Roles of Nature and NurtureCritical period – stage or point in development

during which a person or animal is best suited to learn a particular skill or behavior pattern

Young children seem to learn language more easily that older children and adults

Gesell – psych., believed maturation played most important role in development

Watson – environment has greatest impact, much stronger that heredity

Today, psychologists agree that nature and nurture play key roles in child development

Stages vs. ContinuityStage development– period or level in

development process distinct form othersEx. Sitting, crawling, walkingMaturation theorists – when child's legs strong

enough to support him, infant stands and soon begins to walk

Piaget – prolific stage theorists, focused on cognitive development

Continuous development – happens slowly and gradually

Ex – growth in height and weightDebate remains between stage and continuity

theory in psychology community

Physical DevelopmentExamples:Changes in reflexesGains in height and weightMotor developmentPerceptual development

Height and WeightInfants typically double birth weight in 5

months, triple it in one yearGrow ten inches in height in first year of lifeSecond year, another 4-6 inches typical, 4-

7 lbs in weightAge 2 through adolescence, typically gain

2-3 inches, 4-6 lbs per year

Motor DevelopmentAt first, babies just reflexes and random

movementsSoon, begin purposeful movements, or motor

developmentMD proceeds in stages (roll, sit, stand, walk, etc)Timetable different bteween infants and culturesUganda, infants often walk before 10 monthsUS, often do not start walking until 1 yearPossible explanations: Uganda, more time riding

on parents, close contact, upright position, vs. more time in US in cribs, lying down

ReflexesReflexes inborn, not learnedEssential to survivalSome examples: breathing, sneezing,

coughing, yawning, blinkingRooting reflex – babies reflexively suck and

swallow what touches cheeks or corners of mouth

Without rooting, babies would not eat, evolutionary

Moro “startle” reflex – babies pull up legs and arch backs in response to sudden sounds or bumps

Babinski reflex – babies fan toes when soes of feet are touched

Perceptual Development Process by which infants learn to make sense of sights,

sounds, tastes, etc. Infants seem to be preprogrammed to survey

environment, learn about it Infants prefer to look at most complex things they are

capable of seeing well Infants prefer faces to other images Older children understand depth perception better than

newborns, back away from illusion “drop offs,” a learned reaction through experience

Image on p. 233 Hearing, more developed at birth than sight Newborns immediately recognize strong odors

3. Social Development Ways in which infants and children learn to

relate to others Ex. Sequential: cling to mom, venture off,

contact strangers, play w/ toys by self, play w/ toys with others.

Factors which affect SD: 1. Attachment2. Parenting styles3. Child care4. Child abuse and neglect5. Self-esteem

AttachmentEmotional ties that form between peopleAs dependent infant, feelings of

attachment essential to survival

Development of AttachmentAinsworth, attachment in infants around worldInfants initially prefer being held by anyone

over being aloneBy 4 mos., infants develop attachments to

mothers, grows stronger by 6-7 mos.By 8 mos., some infants develop fear of

strangers, or stranger anxietySame age, infants develop separation anxiety,

show distress when mothers leaveAttachment to primary caregiver due to:

contact comfort and imprinting

Contact ComfortHarlow experimentInfant monkeys chose cloth monkey over wire

monkey with bottle/foodPicture, p. 235Contact comfort – instinctual need to touch and

be touched by something soft, such as skin or fur

CC need stronger than need for foodHarlow – infant monkeys w/ cloth mothers had

greater sense of security which allowed them to explore new toys in cage, monkeys w/ wire mothers fearful of toys

ImprintingProcess by which animals form immediate attachments

shortly after birth, attach to first moving objects they see

Konrad Lorenz, present at birth of goslings, allowed them to follow them, form attachment through imprinting

Picture on p. 235Children, however, do not imprint on first moving

object, takes several months to form attachment to mother

Secure vs. Insecure AttachmentSA: primary caregivers are affectionate and

reliable, infants form secure attachment, cry when they leave, happy upon return

IA: caregivers unreliable, unresponsive, infants do not mind when caregiver leaves, do not seek contact w/ caregiver upon return, insecure infants may cry when picked up

Secure infants, often lead to secure children, more well adapted than I-children, more successful

Styles of ParentingDiffer along 2 dimensionsWarmth/coldnessStrictness/permissiveness

Warm or Cold?Warm - show affection towards childCold – do not show affection toward childStudies show children do better with warm

parentsChildren of warm more likely to develop

sense of right and wrongChildren of cold more likely to merely try to

escape punishment

Strict or Permissive Strict – many rules, supervise children closely, often

concerned with order Permissive – few rules, watch children less closely, less

concerned about order, structure Parents fit into these two categories for many reasons Authoritative parents – combine warmth with positive

strictness children often independent, achievement oriented Authoritarian parents – obedience for its own sake,

expect children to follow rules without question, often cold and rejecting personalities

Children often resistant to or dependent on others, tend to be less friendly and spontaneous

Child CareCare by those other than parentsStudies found children accustomed to CC

suffered less separation anxiety from parents, still bonded however

CC children tend to be more:SocialIndependentSelf-confidentCC Children also tend to be:More aggressive (with less attention, may

compete with other children more)Less cooperative

Child Abuse and Neglect 5 % US parents admitted to physical abuse - beating,

hitting, kicking that results in bodily injury. Neglect – more common, failure to give adequate food,

shelter, clothing, emotional support, schooling Factors associated with child abuse and neglect: Stress History of child abuse Acceptance of violence as coping mechanism for stress Lack of attachment to children Substance abuse Rigid attitudes about parenting

Child Abuse and Neglect Abused children:1. Higher risk of psych problems, such as

anxiety and depression, others2. Tend to be insecure3. Less self – confidence4. More likely to become aggressive themselves Child abuse tends to run in families Children imitate parents behavior Children often adopt parents strict view on

discipline, see violence as normal

Self-EsteemValue or worth people attach to themselvesHigh self-esteem helps people cope with

difficulties

Influences on Self EsteemWays parents react to children, warm but

structured bestUnconditional positive regard – parents love

and accept their children no matter how they behave

Children develop high self esteemConditional positive regard – parents show love

only when child behaves in acceptable fashionChildren may feel good only when meeting

parents expectations, may be overly needy, seek approval, low self-esteem

Sense of competence at something raises self esteem

Gender and Self-Esteem5-7, children begin to value thesmelves on

basis of physical appearance and performance in school

Grade school:Girls better at reading and genral academic

skillsBoys better in math and physical skillsMay be affected by gender roles, what boys

and girls are supposed to be good at

Age and Self-EsteemCompetence grows with ageHowever, self-esteem tends to decline

during elementary school yearsLow point around 12 or 13 yrs old,

increases during teenage years

4. Cognitive DevelopmentDevelopment of people’s thought

processesTwo psychologists who have made great

impact: Jean Piaget, Lawrence Kohlberg

Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive DevelopmentPiaget, Paris, worked on Binet intelligence

testFound children gave certain types of wrong

answersWrong answers fit patterns

Assimilation and AccommodationPiaget believed humans organize new info in two ways:

Assimilation, AccommodationAssimilation – new info placed into categories that already

existEx: child’s family has a Black Lab, child sees new species

of dog, Poodle, adds to category of ‘doggie’ based on similar characteristics

Accommodation – new info needs a new categoryEx: family has Black Lab, child sees cat and calls

“doggie”, corrected by parents, adds new category, “cat.”Piaget theorized development happens in stagesSequence same for all, though some may go faster or

slowerPiaget’s four stages: sensorimotor, preoperational,

concrete operational, formal operational

Sensorimotor StageInfants start off acting reflexively, react to

environment, do not initiateBy one month, act with more purposeSenorimotor stage – begin to understand there

is a relationship between physical movements and results they sense and perceive

By 4-8, become fascinated with cause and effect, I push, it moves

Sensorimotor StageBefore six months, do not realize that

objects out of sight still existObject permanence – begin to understand

that object exist even when they cannot be seen or touched, typically around eight months

Piaget thought this happened due to brain development

At 8 months, children could picture missing item in mind, did not lose image when hidden

Preoperational StageBegins about 2Begin to use words and symbols, language to

represent objectsOne dimensional thinking, see only one aspect of a

situation at a timePreop. children do no understand law of

conservation – properties of substance (weight, volume, number, stay same even if shape or arrangement has changed, basic properties conserved

Ex: image on p. 243, child thinks tall beaker contains more water, even though witnesses tall beaker poured into fat, short beaker

Preoperational StageP. 243