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PAPER: 3

Detail Study Of Bharatanatyam, Devadasis-Natuvnar, Nritya And

Nritta, Different Bani-s, Present Status, Institutions, Artists

Module 6 Legal Battle Of The Devadasis

Devadasi / देवदासी women were charming, intelligent, cultured with

an ethnic style and an attractive personality. They were

accomplished artistes who were dedicated to sing and dance in the

temples. Devadasis believed the ultimate manifestation of Bhakti is

to serve God as a slave and performed certain functions as part of

their worship that fulfilled both artistic and social needs. Their talent

and flair for music and dance were natural. They were proud of their

artistic legacy. They were allowed to lead the God’s procession in the

temples they were associated with because they were considered as

auspicious omens. The kings, priests and the noblemen enjoyed their

performances and gave them a respectable position in the society.

The Nayaks / नायक and Marathas in South India supported the best

of the devadasi artistes. The decline of the court dancer began as

early as 18th century when British presence became strong in the

South. Royalty declined in power and prestige. All artistes,

craftsmen, scholars and poets were affected by this political change.

They were deprived of their very emotional, social and economic

sustenance. Only a few of them managed to survive because of their

courage and extraordinary talent.

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As the years passed the position of the devadasis saw a slow decline

in the society. With the fall of the royal patronage their arts suffered

an eclipse. When they were forced to satisfy the vulgar passions of

their patrons, their arts also acquired a disreputable character and

became synonymous with prostitution. The community was abused

and there was a clamor to abolish the system. Over the years, dance

and devadasis became synonymous to such an extent that reformers

targeted to abolish all kinds of dance along with the devadasis. Most

of the devadasi families moved to Madras Presidency and some to

the other parts of Tamil Nadu. The men from the community became

dance teachers and the ladies married and settled as housewives.

The Battle

The first anti-nautch blow was struck in 1893. The newspaper ‘Hindu’

condemned the practice of nautch / नाच performances held for

visiting dignitaries to the Madras Presidency. The paper appealed to

the dignitaries to boycott such nautch parties. The anti-nautch

movement started was on the way to achieving its goal through the

complete abolishing of the practice of dedicating girls to temple

service and performance of dance in temples and other public

places. An organization known as the Hindu Social Reform

Movement handed a memorandum to this effect to the Governor.

This move was highly condemned as nautch was flourishing as the

only colorful entertainment available.

In 1927, the Council of State in Delhi debated the motion of a

Madras member that sought a ban on this practice of dedicating girls

in temples to serve as devadasis. In spite of the opposition from

some members, The Hindu Religious and Charitable Endowments Act

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(HR & CE) was amended in 1929 to allow temples to do away with

the duties of devadasis in temples.

The temples were forced to take back the lands (maanyam / मान्यं) that were given to devadasis. As a chain reaction, wealthy patrons

also disowned all association with devadasis. This put the women

into a great crisis. Bangalore Nagaratnamma / नगरत्नम्मा, a devadasi

was then an eminent personality with high level contacts. The

devadasis came together and put up a fight under her leadership and

formed the Madras Devadasi Association. This move eventually

failed due to Dr. Muthulakshmi Reddy’s strong opposition. Dr.

Muthulakshmi Reddy was the first woman from this community to

enter medical profession. She strongly felt that girls of her

community should be relieved from slavery and get educated. She

demanded a ban on dancing in the temples. This was opposed by E.

Krishna Iyer, a lawyer who pleaded for the preservation of the

artistic tradition of music and dance. E.Krishna Iyer took the bold

step of organizing a dance performance of young dancers from

Thanjavur to prove his point that dance needed public support to

survive as an art form. Gradually many dancers got opportunity and

recognition from the sabhas / सभा. Thus dance moved out of the

temples and away from ceremonial processions. The new wave and

bold step gained popularity against the rapid reformative zeal led by

Dr. Reddy.

Viscount Goschen, the Governor of Madras, and Baron Irwin, the

Governor General, gave their assent to the Bill on 13th May 1929.

The Provincial Government was entrusted with the responsibility to

have control over the management of the temples for the good of

public. With the help of the Bill, the devadasi community developed

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a sense of self-respect and dignity and the community itself

understood the evils of the system.

The abolishing of the system

Public opinion was in favour of the abolition of the devadasi system.

Muthulakshmi Reddy introduced the Prevention of Dedication of

Hindu Temples Bill in the Madras Legislative Council on 24th January

1930. After making certain modifications by the Select Committee,

the Bill was circulated for the purpose of eliciting public opinion. At

this juncture, the press in Tamil Nadu got involved in the

propaganda, for creating awareness and generating public opinion in

favour of the Bill. Newspapers published and circulated leaflets,

which contained the articles of Muthulakshmi Reddy. Tamil

newspapers published the supporting stands of various organizations

and associations for the Bill regularly to seek their support and boost

the passing of the Bill. The Tamil Dravidian political parties endorsed

their full-fledged support to the Bill. The Dravidian parties published

an article based on spiritual research. In the article, it revealed that

Sundaramurthy Nayanar, a Sivaite leader of the past, himself

recognized the abolition of women’s dedication to the temples, and

it raised a question why modern Sivaites were not ready to accept

the reform. This article created an overwhelming response among

the public.

At the same time Margret Cousins, Secretary of Women’s India

Association felt that there was no need for the circulation of

the Bill. In support of this Bill, the Indian Ladies Magazine made

public the resolution passed in the fifth All India Women’s

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Conference held at Madras in November 1930. It pleaded for the

boycott of those temples where the devadasi service was still

practiced and to prevent the dedication of girls to temples by

punishing the culprits. The announcement for boycotting the

temples was a revolutionary move.

The efforts of the press created support among the public for the

passing of the Bill. The government was thus prompted to take an

urgent and effective step. In the mid-half of 1930, the Government

of Madras issued an order to the effect that the dedication of

women to the temples was abolished by law. The dedication of

minor girls to the temples was considered as a crime. In the same

year, Travancore State also abolished the evil system. Even after the

orders it was not completely uprooted. With the support of the

temple trustees it was surviving in some areas. All India women’s

Conference appealed to the Hindu Religious Endowment Board of

Madras to call upon all trustees of the temple under its jurisdiction

totally to eradicate the devadasi service and the ceremony of

dedication of girls in such temples by issuing an order. The

newspapers wrote that the devadasi system was a bad omen for the

Hinduism. The existence of the evil would result in moral

degeneration of the youth and this evil would bring shame to our

country in the international arena. Before the issue of the order

Muthulakshmi Reddy resigned from the Council due to the arrest of

Mahatma Gandhi. But she continued her work of the Council for the

above purpose. She wrote a letter to C. Rajagopalachari, the leader

of Tamil Nadu Congress Committee. In the letter, she expressed that

“the dedication of girls to the temple was a social sin exactly

as growing palm trees for the production of toddy.” The Anandha

Bodhini newspaper published this letter. Rajagopalachari wrote that

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he was burdened with the Independence movement and was unable

to help in this effort.

In the meantime, Maharaja of Bobbli, the Premier of the Madras

Presidency attended a public meeting, in which the devadasi women

performed dance feast. Muthulakshmi Reddy criticized this

occurrence. E. Krishna Iyer, targeted her for her efforts through

reports. He said that the system should be allowed to exist until

other girls would be trained to perform the dances. Hearing this, she

criticized his view and questioned if he was willing to transform other

girls to devadasis. The Anandha Bodhini paper supported her efforts

and requested the public to support her. The paper appealed to

parents not to force their girls into the evil. On the other hand, the

temple trustees did not care for the law; they continued with

pottukattuthal / ऩोटू्टकटु्टथऱ ceremonies in rural and far-flung

areas. The paper advised the public to leave the evil, which was

hated by Gandhi and eminent leaders of the country. It further

added that to restrict many venereal diseases, strict measures should

be taken against the evil.

Movaloor Ramamirtham Ammal / मोवऱूर रामाम्रिथम अम्मऱ, born in a

devadasi family, came out from the evil and bravely fought for the

abolition of the system. She worked for the well-being of those

devadasis who were exploited by the system and had managed to

escape. She wrote a book ‘Dasikalmosavalaiallathu Mathi Petra

Minor / दाम्रसकल्मोसवाम्रऱयाल्ऱाथू माथथ ऩत्रा म्रमनोर ’ (The Treacherous

Net of Devadasis or the Minor Grown Wise). In this book, she dealt

with the lives and struggles of devadasis. This book was a novel,

based on self-experience. It explained how and why the escaped

devadasis came forward to establish a social organization for the

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benefits of other devadasis. The book brought mass awareness

among the public. In an article in the newspapers, she asked a

question, why were dances and songs would be necessary for Gods

in the Temples while the orthodox Brahmins and priests argued that

such ancestral arts should continue in the temples. With the

constant awareness created by the papers, public support increased

for the abolition of the evil.

In the Princely State of Pudukottai / ऩुदकु्कोटट्टइ the devadasi system

was abolished by amending the Hindu Laws of Inheritance so as to

benefit the female heirs in the family. The public in general

wholeheartedly welcomed the abolition. Soon a similar Act was

passed in the Madras Legislative Council as an amendment to the

Hindu Religious Endowment Act. In spite of the law it was very

regrettable that even in some city temples, the devadasi system

continued. This was partly due to the non-interference policy of the

government, and partly due to the ignorance of the masses and the

apathy of the so-called educated class. Thus the papers asked its

readers to be aware of the existing laws regarding female

emancipation.

The press reproduced the presidential address of Muthulakshmi

Reddy in the Andhradesa Kalvanthula Conference held in Tenali on

13th August 1932. Her address elaborately discussed the evils and

the devadasi system, the Legislative efforts taken to abolish the evil

and the role of the public to be played in this issue. She strongly

suggested that without the public support a reform could not be

made. She appealed to the mothers not to dedicate their female

children to the Hindu temples.

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On 7th of August 1939 a new Bill related to the abolition of devadasi

system was introduced in the Madras Legislative Council by Mrs.

Ammanna Raja. She requested to send the Bill for the consideration

of the Select Committee. But C. Rajagopalachri, the Premier of

Madras Presidency announced that the Bill should be circulated for

gathering public opinion. This opinion was widely criticized by the

press. The Bill had the provisions for the abolition of dedication of

women, reorganization for the marriage of devadasis, the property

rights of the children on the devadasis, and the arrangements for

receiving their due share from the temple revenue even though they

left their service. After public circulation, the Bill was sent to the

Select Committee consisting of three women and five men.

Muthulakshmi Reddy pointed out that the dedication of girls over

the age of eighteen years was performed secretly; it exposed the

failure of reform acts. She sought the support from the parents of

girls until the evil was thoroughly abolished. She noted that the

legislations would create the external changes only, whereas the

internal change could be created only by awareness.

Several newspapers brought out stories with photographs about the

pathetic situations of young girls forced into pottukatuthal / ऩोटू्टकटुथऱ ceremony and then to prostitution and later becoming

victims of several diseases. This created a strong opinion against the

evil. Most of the people expected that the bill would be passed

earlier but the Second World War put a hurdle on the way. All the

efforts ended in vain. During the Ministry of O.P. Ramasamy

Reddiyar, another Bill was introduced by Dr. Subbarayan on 9th

October 1947 in the Madras Legislative Assembly to abolish the

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devadasi system. The Bill was sent to Select Committee under the

chairmanship of Mrs. Ammanna Raja. After the committee stage,

the Bill became Law on 17 January 1948 and called Act No. XXXI of

1947. It was also known as Madras Devadasis (Prevention of

Dedication) Act, 1947. According to the Act, all forms of devadasi

system were henceforth abolished in the Madras Presidency.

This Act, popularly known as the Devadasi Abolition Act, is an

important social legislation in the history of emancipation of Indian

women. The reformers found a lot of difficulties to enact this

legislation and implement it with success. Even though the

conservative press made negative efforts against the Legislations;

the majority of the papers defended them with social conscience.

Thus, the press justified the right things, persuaded the government

for them and stimulated the public for the noble cause regarding the

emancipation of women.

The situation was very difficult for existing devadasi families. Many

of them had no choice but to leave the temple town where they had

lived for generations. Some families migrated to other temple towns

in search of patronage. Several small towns quietly employed them

for temple service. For example, Muthukani Ammal / मुथूकनी अम्माऱ

of Viralimalai / ववराम्रऱमऱाई performed duties in that temple as well as

danced during the festivals even after the Bill was passed. Most

devadasis, however, moved to Madras in the late 19th century.

Madras was the center of commerce and trading where prospects of

new temples being built were high. They were allowed to live near

the temple to become professional dancers and musicians,

continuing their traditional lifestyle and seeking patronage from the

rich and famous. The dance and music programs of the devadasis

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became an integral part of the official and social gatherings of the

British officials. The resourceful composers came up with lyrics

combining Telugu and English or Tamil and English. Composer

Sivarammayya / म्रिवराम्म्या composed a javali / जावऱी in Telugu and

English in Karaharapriya raga / करहरविया राग. The last of the

devadasis were left only with their dance art. The court dance was

stopped with Indian royal territories attached to the British rule.

Ritual dances in the temples were banned. The only alternate was to

perform on the stage as kutcheries like the music kutcheries.

Many of the business aristocrats from George Town, Madras, rebuilt

the temples and established traditional rituals in them. Many

devadasi families with long cultural lineage survived the 20th century

at George Town, Madras. Veena Dhanammal / ववणा धन्नम्मऱ with

eight generations behind her, Kanchipuram Dhanakoti Ammal / धनाकोटी अम्मऱ with five generations to boast about, were some

example families who made the best of the new patronage.

The revivalists tried to present the idealistic view of the institution of

devadasi. According to this, it was the model of the ancient temple

dancer as pure, sacred and chaste woman, devoted only to the lord

of the temple. They stressed that the dance of devadasi was a form

of natya yoga that enhanced an individual's spiritual plane. The

revivalists wanted to preserve the traditional form of sadir dance by

purifying it. As a consequence of purification, some modifications

were introduced into the content of the dance, since the revivalists

mostly belonged to Brahmin dominated Theosophical circles. Many

Brahmin girls started to learn the dance from devadasis and

nattuvanars / नटू्टवनार.

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Pioneers like Madam H.P. Blavatsky and Colonel H.S. Olcott, the

founders of the Theosophical movement, had undertaken an

extensive tour of South India and propagated the revival of devadasi

institutions and the associated art of sadir. They gained support from

some sections of the native elite. In 1882, the Theosophical Society

of India had set up its headquarters in Adayar, Chennai, with the set

goal of working towards the restoration of India's ancient glory in art,

science, and philosophy.

The Theosophical Society, Adayar provided necessary funds and

support to Rukmani Devi Arundale to revive the spirituality of the

dance art. She re-appropriated the devadasi dance traditions to a

respectable position. For this she brought in changes in the dance

repertoire by excluding items perceived as erotic in their description

of a deity. She also systematized the dance in a way that

incorporated the extension and use of space associated with dance

traditions such as ballet. The product of this transformation was

Bharatanatyam, which she taught professionally at a school

established by her in Madras called Kalakshetra.

E. Krishna Iyer, the votary of dance, learnt the art and performed on

stage in a female costume. He defended the dancer in an article

published in a Tamil daily called Dinamani on 28th February 1948. He

used every avenue to support the dance of the devadasis. E. Krishna

Iyer had his training in Bharatanatyam under Natyacharya Melattur

Natesa Iyer. He founded and nurtured two leading institutions in

Madras. He has to his credit the resuscitation of folk dances and

music which due to long neglect were in danger of extinction. He

conducted two folkdance festivals in Delhi and took the Tamil

tradition to the capital. S.P.S. Sarangapani Iyengar with the help of

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Chockalingam, founded the institution of fine arts to give training to

youngsters in dance. P. Sambamoorthy / ऩी. साम्भामुर्त ि and V. Raghavan / वी. राघवन, occupants of the chairs in music and Sanskrit

respectively at the University of Madras carried on an untiring

propaganda through books and monographs, to elevate the taste of

the audience. In this task they received considerable support from

several organizations. The pressure of the social changes made the

devadasis withdraw from the stage. They could not make careers as

teachers or performers. Many of the business aristocrats from

George Town, Madras, rebuilt the temples and quietly re-established

traditional rituals in them.

The devadasi community was never a caste. The ladies were the

mistresses of men from different castes. Their offspring, later called

themselves as Isai vellalars / इसाई वेल्ऱाऱर , meaning those who

nurture music. Some women of the devadasi community married

musicians, dance teachers, politicians and businessmen and led a

peaceful life. They never wanted to be reminded of their art nor did

they teach dance to their children. Very few of them retained their

art and passed it on to younger generations in their families.

Balasarswathi / बाऱासरस्वती, Mylapore Doraikannu Ammal / मायऱाऩोर दोरेकन्नू अम्मऱ , Mylapore Gowri Ammal / मायऱाऩोर गोवरी अम्मऱ ,

Kumbakonam Banumathi / कुम्भकोणम भानुमाथथ, Pandanallur

Jayalakshmi / ऩंडनल्ऱुर जयऱक्ष्मी, Thanjavur Rajalaksmi / तंजावुर राजऱक्ष्मी, Tiruvarur Tilagam / र्तरुवारुर र्तऱगम, Tiruvarur Gnanam / र्तरुवारुर ग्नानम , Ammani Ammal / अम्मनी अम्माऱ , and Veena

Dhanammal / वीणा धन्नम्मऱ were some of the courageous and

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talented dancers who passed on their art to many students for

posterity.

Any art, especially music and dance, depends heavily on its patrons.

In the yester years, it was the royal families, and now it is the public.