infrastructure ltd. regd. office

INFRASTRUCTURE LTD. Regd. Office: JSW Centre,

Bandra Kurla Complex, Bandra (East) Mumbai – 400 051. Phone : 022-42861000 Fax : 022-42863000

CIN: U45200MH2006PLC161268

Ltr. No. MH/NG/EIA/2015/04 Date: 04.06.2015 To The Director (IA-III) Infrastructure and Miscellaneous Projects & CRZ (IMP & CRZ) Ministry of Environment, Forests & Climate Change (MoEF & CC) Indira Paryavaran Bhavan, Jor Bagh Road New Delhi- 110 003 SUB: Submission of additional information for the Environment Clearance for Development of

All-weather Greenfield Captive Jetty Phase-I at Nandgaon, Taluk- Palghar, Dist. Thane, Maharashtra by M/s JSW Infrastructure Ltd. [F. No. 11-85/2011-IA-III]

Ref.: Minutes of the 147th Meeting of Expert Appraisal Committee for Infrastructure

Development, Coastal Regulation Zone, Building/Construction and Miscellaneous projects held on 23rd April, 2015 at Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC), New Delhi

Dear Madam, As per the reference cited above, we are herewith submitting the additional information sought by the expert appraisal committee for environment clearance (EC) for the proposed development of Nandgaon Captive Jetty. We request you to kindly consider our reports and include in the forthcoming meeting of the EAC of IMP & CRZ for the environmental clearance for the project. Your kind consideration in the regard is highly appreciated and obliged. Thanking You. Yours Sincerely, for JSW Infrastructure Ltd.

R R PATRA Vice President- Projects

Additional Information All-weather Greenfield Captive Jetty Phase-I at Nandgaon, Taluka Palghar Dist. Thane, Maharashtra [F.No.11-85/2011-IA.III]

Infrastructure Limited Page 1 of 22

Additional Information sought by the Expert Appraisal Committee - Infrastructure

Development, Coastal Regulation Zone, Building/Construction and Miscellaneous

projects, as discussed in the 147th meeting held on 23rd April, 2015 at Ministry of

Environment, Forest & Climate Change (MoEFCC), New Delhi

Additional Information no. 1.

Basis of ranking/assigning numerical values to various parameters used in Matrix for

site selection

1.1 Selection of Project Site - Evaluation of the Alternatives

Alternative sites for the proposed Greenfield Jetty (Port Phase I) were examined in the hinterland

of the industries requiring this port. Accordingly coast line from the Mumbai in the south to the

Gujarat border in the south was studied. Various sites such as Umbergaon and Phansa in Gujarat

and sites in Maharashtra both on the south as well as in the North were also studied. However, the

choice got limited to the Maharashtra coastline considering the distance from Mumbai and the

favourable concession terms from the Maharashtra Maritime Board. Of the various alternatives

examined along this coastline only three options as shown in Figure 1 were considered for the

final evaluation of the site.

1. Development within lagoon Harbour near Wadhvan Point - (Lagoon Harbour)

(190 56’ N, 720 42’)

2. Development off shore - Outer Harbour to the North of the Virar Creek

(190 31’ N, 720 44’ E)

3. Development off shore – Outer Harbour at Nandgaon

(190 46’ N, 720 41’ E)



Figure 1. Location of the Alternative Sites considered for the Port Development 1.1.1 Lagoon Harbour at Wadhvan Point

Wadhvan Point with geographical coordinates of 190 56’ N, 720 42’ E is located about 150 km from

the city of Mumbai. It is close to the Dahanu BSES Thermal Power Plant. The fore shore is lined

with coconut orchards and single crop cultivated lands. The shoreline is marked by exposed rocks

of basaltic origin.

Earlier studies carried out by M/s Cullen Grummitt & Roe (CGR), Australia for P&O Australia,

indicated existence of hard rocks in the surface as well in the subsurface region. CGR

recommended a Lagoon harbour with inner channel and turning basin created by excavation of

rocks by blasting under dry conditions, since dredging of hard rock would be prohibitively

expensive. With banning of rock dredging in the eco-sensitive area of Dahanu which is barely 7 km

from the site, almost put paid to any proposal for port development at this location.

The existing rail track is about 11 km away and the National Highway is about 28 km away.

Conceptual plan of the lagoon harbour at the Wadhvan point is shown in Figure 2. Positive and

negative aspects of the site are given in Table 1.

A

R

A

B

I

A

N

S

E

A



Table 1. Positive and Negative Aspects of Wadhvan point site

Positive aspect Negative aspect

1. No breakwater construction 2. Good founding soil condition will

reduce the cost of foundation 3. Relatively deeper contour (depth)

located close to the shoreline

1. Rocky soil conditions would pose problems in creating the Harbour basin and the approach channel, except by dry blasting which is prohibited close to the sensitive area.

2. Proximity to the Dahanu Eco-sensitive zone (7 km)

3. Land acquisition for development of Harbour as well as the backup storage area

Figure 2. Conceptual layout of the Port at Wadhvan Point

1.1.2 Offshore Outer Harbour to the North of the Virar Creek

The site north of the Virar Creek was another location for which site reconnaissance and other data

examination was carried out. The biggest advantage of the location is its closeness to the Mumbai

which is barely 60 km away from the site. The development plan studied around the geographical

coordinates of 190 32’ N and 720 44’ E is dotted with coconut orchards. Government land is

available for the backup facilities. The shoreline is marked by narrow sandy/clayey beaches. The

nearshore and foreshore consists of soft sedimentary deposits. No rocky outcrops can be notices to

nacked eye. Estuarine conditions provide ideal habitat for marine flora and fauna.

An outer harbour was feasible in this area. The existing railway line and road are about 10 km and

22 km respectively from the project site. Conceptual plan of the North of Virar Creek site is shown

in Figure 3. Positive and negative aspects of the site are given in Table 2.



Figure 3. Conceptual layout of the Port to the North of Virar Creek

Table 2. Positive and Negative Aspects of North of the Virar Creek site Positive aspect Negative aspect

1. No exposed rocks in the region suggest soft strata, which could be dredged easily.

2. Deeper depths in the near shore region.

1. The site is too close to the Sanjay Gandhi National Park.

2. Being located too close to the Mumbai Metropolitan region same problems (with regard to the road traffic) similar to JNPT may arise at a later date.

3. Siltation rates may be higher due to the fresh water discharge of the creek into the port basin.

1.1.3 Outer Harbour at Nandgaon

The site near village Nandgaon which was investigated for the proposed port is located around

7 km south of the Tarapur point. The geographic coordinates of the site is 190 46’ 23” N and 720

41’ 14” E. The shoreline forms an embayment with two creeks on either extremity. The near shore

area is shallow and rocky indicating lower marine biodiversity. Vast intertidal area is one of the

specialties, which can be taken advantage of by locating the harbour in deeper waters and using

the near shore areas as back up space. This would reduce/eliminate need for land acquisition on

the foreshore area, thereby reducing the rehabilitation and resettlement issues to bare minimum.

Conceptual layout of the proposed port is shown as Figure 4. Conceptual plan refined after model

studies is shown in Figure 5.



Figure 4. Conceptual layout of the Port at Nandgaon

Figure 5. Conceptual layout of the Port at Nandgaon after model studies



The layout was further refined at the DPR stage and the berths were arranged more scientifically,

aligned to the predominant wind direction. The alignment and the location of the breakwaters were

largely left unaltered. The berth layout was changed owing to the fact that higher wind on the

beam will stress the moorings. Accordingly, the main berth is oriented to the pre dominant wind

direction (2550 N).

As could be seen from Figure 5, the port is carved out entirely on the reclaimed land. The road

(National Highway 8) and the rail network (Trunk route between Mumbai and Delhi) are located to

the west of the proposed port at a distance of 23 km and 8 km respectively. In the initial Phases

only road network upto the MIDC would be developed. However in the latter phase, the

connectivity to the NH 8 and the Rail network including the DFC shall be established.

1.2 Selection of the Site

A comparison of the alternatives was made based on graded multi criteria analysis based on

specific parameters relevant to the project, described as follows:

Capital dredging (channel length)

Maintenance dredging

Breakwaters/Groynes

Reclamation

Land area availability

Navigation

Construction difficulty

Rail accessibility

Road accessibility

Environmental impact

Impact on existing operations/ facilities

Resettlement/ rehabilitation

Future Expansion

Cost

Existence of Mangroves

Fish landing Centres

Effect on Water bodies

Bathymetry

Multi criteria analysis for the three alternative sites (Wadhwan point, Outer harbours north of Virar

Creek and Nandgaon site) was carried out by assigning rank from 1 to 5 based on parameter wise

suitability of the options. It was specifically developed for the three options on the open shore

south of area of influence of the Gulf of Khambhat and north of Mumbai, with parameters relevant

to the region. Final quantitative marking was arrived at by addition of the parameter ranks. The

level of suitability of the parameter for development of the port was interpreted as follows. The



values assigned to the various parameters are given in Table 3. Basis of ranking/assigning

numerical values to various parameters for site selection is explained in Table 4.

1 : Poor 2 : Fair 3 : Good 4 : Very Good 5 : Excellent

Table 3. Evaluation of various sites considered for the Nandgaon Port

S. No.

Parameters Lagoon Harbour

Outer Harbour near Virar Creek

Outer Harbour at Nandgaon

1 Capital dredging (channel length)

1 4 5

2 Maintenance dredging 3 1 4 3 Breakwaters/Groynes 5 2 3 4 Reclamation 5 3 4 5 Land area available 1 3 5 6 Navigation 3 3 5 7 Construction difficulty 4 5 5 8 Rail accessibility 4 2 5 9 Road accessibility 4 4 5 10 Environmental impact 3 1 5 11 Impact on existing

operations/ facilities 3 3 5

12 Resettlement/ rehabilitation 3 4 5 13 Future Expansion

Horizontal (Plan area) Vertical (Deepening)

3 2

3 4

4 4

14 Cost 3 3 4 15 Mangroves 4 2 4 16 Fish Landing Centres 4 4 4 17 Effect on Water bodies 3 2 4 18 Bathymetry 3 3 3

Total 61 56 82



Table 4. Basis of ranking/assigning numerical values to various parameters for site selection

Sr. Parameter Ranking Poor (1)

Fair (2)

Good (3)

Very Good (4)

Excellent (5)

1. Capital dredging (Channel length)

- more than 75% of the dredging ground comprises hard, cemented sedimentary or metamorphic/igneous rocky layer requiring blasting/vibro breaking

- less than 25% of the dredging ground comprises hard, cemented sedimentary or metamorphic /igneous rocky layer requiring blasting/vibro breaking

- disposable dredged spoil at deep sea dumping ground is less than 40% of total dredging quantity


- total dredged quantity is less than 15 Mm3 for a 20-30 MMTPA capacity port

- disposable dredged spoil at deep sea dumping ground is less than 25% of total dredging quantity


- the quantity of dredged material closely matches (within 5 Mm3) required material for reclamation/grade improvement

- no hard dredging ground requiring blasting/vibro breaking

- the quantity of dredged material closely matches (within 1 Mm3) with required material for reclamation/grade improvement,

- the dredged spoil is suitable for reclamation/grade improvement

- the dredged spoil is to be transported within 2-4 km of the site of dredging to the reclamation/ grade improvement area

2. Maintenance dredging

- more than 35% of the capital dredging quantity

- dredged spoil is not suitable for reclamation/gra-de improvement

- less than 25% of the capital dredging quantity





- dredged spoil is partially suitable for reclamation/ grade improvement


- dredged spoil is

suitable for reclamation/gra-de improvement



3. Breakwaters/ Groynes

- no operation of the jetty/berths possible without breakwater protection, breakwater of any length, terminating at any depth contour, throughout the year

- operation of the jetty/berth possible less than 100 days of the year without breakwater

- operation of the jetty/berths possible with one breakwater for more than 100 days in an year

- end of the breakwater terminating between – 15 to -20 m CD

- jetty/berth inside a natural harbour with one, short length (less than 400 m) breakwater or guiding/training bund

- completely protected jetty inside a natural harbour or inside a gulf with very low long period waves (more than 8 sec), no breakwater required

4. Reclamation - 100% or above dredging needed than required for removal of draft restriction in a port for the purpose of reclamation/gra-de improvement

- 50 to 100% more dredging needed than required for removal of draft restriction in a port for the purpose of reclamation/gra-de improvement

- foreshore extent of reclamation is < - 4 m CD (in the littoral zone)

- the quantity of dredged material closely matches (within 3-4 Mm3) with required material for reclamation/grade improvement,

- borrow material source is located within 5 km of the site of reclamation

- the quantity of dredged material closely matches (within 1 Mm3) with required material for reclamation/grade improvement,

- location of reclamation/grade improvement has high bearing capacity (e.g. underlaid rock/exposed rock)

- foreshore extent of reclamation is < -1m CD (reclamation/ grade improvement not too much in littoral zone)

5. Land area available

- all port backup land to be acquired is double cropped

- 50% port backup land to be acquired is double cropped

- 100% port backup land to be acquired is single cropped

- 50% port backup land to be acquired is single cropped

- no land to be acquired except RoW of connectivity corridor



- Part of port backup (port amenities, ICD/CFSs are on private land away from main port terminal

6. Navigation - presence of reefs and/or shifting channel due to high sediment load, hard bed requiring higher under keel clearance

- high currents (3.5 Nm/hr), long period waves (more than 4 m crest) on approach to the port

- acute bends/turns in the channel

- width restriction in channel allowing unidirectional traffic

- navigation dependant on state of tide

- anchorage more

- presence of reefs and/or sand bars at the mouth of channel requiring removal at the end of monsoon

- high currents (3.5 Nm/hr), long period waves (more than 4 m crest) on approach to the port

- acute bends/turns in the channel


- navigation dependant on state of tide

- anchorage more than 5-8 NM from the port

- channel with no navigation restriction more than 100 days in an year


- anchorage more than 3-4 Nm from the port

- waves beam as

is the tidal & wave induced current

- channel with no navigation restriction in fair weather

- no width restriction in channel, bi-directional traffic assisted by pilots/tugs

- absence of reefs and/or shifting channel

- absence of high currents (3.5 Nm/ hr), long period waves (more than 4 m crest) on approach to the port

- straight channel with turning basin inside protected harbour/conditions

- two-way, all state of tide channel



than 5-8 NM from the port

- waves are abeam

in monsoon season creating drift, hence wider navigation channel

7. Construction difficulty

- construction of marine structures not possible from land side due to approach restriction

- load out jetty more than 5 km away from the site of construction

- design includes an

island breakwater

- for rock blasting, constraints on reclamation, please refer sr. 1 and 4 above

- construction of marine structures not possible for more than 100 days in an year due to approach restriction or high currents/eddies

- load out jetty more than 5 km away from the site of construction

- design includes an

island breakwater


- construction not possible beyond 600-800 m from the HTL by land approachable gantry/end on construction method

- Load out jetty more than 5 km away from the site of construction

- High current (more than 3.5 Nm/hr) increasing marine construction cycle time in case of jack up barge based construction

- for rock blasting,

constraints on reclamation, please refer sr. 1 and 4 above

- construction feasible up to 4 -5 km from the HTL by land approachable gantry/end on construction method, to a depth of -18 m CD

- Load out jetty within 2-3 km from the site of construction

- High current (more than 3.5 Nm/hr) only during 90-100 days in the construction period


- construction feasible up to 4 -5 km from the HTL by land approachable gantry/end on construction method, to a depth of -18 m CD

- Load out jetty within 2 km from the site of construction

- Construction feasible all through the year both for land connected breakwater and marine construction by jack up barge (in the lee of constructed breakwater )




- Expensive construction

8. Rail accessibility - more than 80 km last mile connection to IR trunk line

- terrain constraints limit double track/over head constraints for DSC

- natural/straight

routes pass through highly populated areas/ecological-ly sensitive elements

- electrification not

possible in future

- more than 50 km last mile connection to IR trunk line


- natural/straight

routes pass through highly populated areas/ecologically sensitive elements




- last mile connection to IR trunk line within 10 km

- absence of terrain constraints limit double track/over head constraints for DSC

- natural/straight routes does not pass through highly populated areas/ecologically sensitive elements

9. Road accessibility

- road being the only mode of evacuation of cargo

- no public road (NH or SH) available within 10 km of the port, requiring land acquisition for private road

- public road (NH or SH) available within 10 km of the port, requiring land acquisition of double cropped land, under PPP mode

- public road (NH or SH) available within 10 km of the port, requiring land acquisition of single cropped land, under PPP mode

- public road (NH or SH) available within 10 km of the port with RoW already acquired

10. Environmental impact

- location within ecosensitive area

- port configuration and/or

- location in/within 5 km of ecosensitive area

- dense mangroves


- dense mangroves


- mangroves within


- sparsh mangroves



connectivity corridor in conflict with dense mangroves

within 500 from the port structures (breakwater, jetty) or obstructing the channel that feeds water to the mangrove stands

within 1000 from the port structures (breakwater, jetty)

1500 from the port structures (breakwater, jetty)

within 2000 from the port structures (breakwater, jetty)

11. Impact on existing operations/facilities (roads, ports, traffic, fisheries, tourism, cultural)

- existing operations/ facilities have to be disrupted to bring the port in

- significant negative impact on existing operations/facilities

- accrual of positive impact on growth of existing operations/facilities uncertain, dependant on externalities and gradual and in long term

- significant negative impact on existing operations/facilities

- accrual of positive impact on growth of existing operations/facilities gradual and in medium term

- no significant negative impact on existing operations/facilities

- accrual of positive impact on growth of existing operations/facilities gradual and in medium term

- no significant negative impact on existing operations/facilities

- immediate positive impact on growth of existing operations/facilities

12. Resettlement/rehabilitation

- existing homestead have to be relocated for port development

- existing homestead to be partially disturbed for port connectivity

- double cropped/orchard land to be acquired for port development

- single cropped/orchard/pastures/village commons land to be acquired for port development

- no requirement of land acquisition for port development

13. Future expansion horizontal (Plan area, vertical (deepening)

- No scope of port backup development due to physical constraints

- Port backup development not possible due to limited options for increase in

- Port backup development not possible due to lack of suitable land for

- Port backup development possible only by further acquisition of private land

- Port backup possible by transfer of Govt. waste land suitable for further port backup development



- No scope of

deepening of basin due to hard strata or without the use of explosives

capacity of existing connectivity corridor

- No scope of deepening of basin due to hard strata without the disrupting port operations for long term, no incremental benefit of deepening due to constraint in other port features

development of port backup/presence of mangrove belt on the shore line/presence of village commons

- Feasibility of deepening of channel/basin limited/expensive due to hard strata at/below – 14 m CD

- Feasibility of

deepening of channel/basin limited/expensive due to hard strata at/below – 18 m CD

- Deepening of

channel/basin possible up to -21 m CD due to presence of loosely compacted strata

14. Cost - excavation of rock underwater is expensive and slow process. 100% of the dredging to be done in wet condition

- breakwater construction expensive due to deep contour nearshore (>10m)

- construction away

from shoreline (>4-5 km) with no or limited access

- excavation of rock underwater is expensive and slow process. 50% of the dredging to be done in wet condition

- breakwater construction expensive due to deep contour nearshore (0m)

- construction away

from shoreline (>2-3 km) with no or limited

- excavation of hard rock possible in dry condition

- breakwater is small and in <10m contour

- construction in

near shore (>1-2 km) area

- supply of material

through approaches

- less expensive

- excavation in soft rock

- breakwater on firm ground and shallow waters

- near shore

approach constructible supplied

- limited access to

machineries for supply

- cost effective

- soft rock removable through dredgers

- shallow waters making B/W construction easy and first

- direct access of man,

material and machinery to construction zone

- direct supply of

material through barges (construction jetty)

- least cost solution



due to deep water

- supply of material through flotation only

- Very expensive

access

- supply of material through temporary access

- expensive but

less than I

15. Mangroves - please refer point no. 10 above (environmental impact) 16. Fish landing

Centres - port proposed at

an existing fish landing centre

- port proposed within 2 km of an existing fish landing centre

- port channel/basin partially interfering with existing fishing grounds/shared approach corridor to existing fish landing centre

- port proposed within 5 km of an existing fish landing centre

- port channel/basin not interfering with existing fishing grounds/partial interference with approach corridor to existing fish landing centre

- port proposed beyond 5 km of an existing fish landing centre

- port channel/basin not interfering with existing fishing grounds/approach corridor to existing fish landing centre

- port proposed beside an existing fish landing centre, also providing for expansion of the FLC

17. Effects on water bodies

- port leads to significant, irreversible change in shoreline in short to medium term beyond its area of intervention/control

- port leads to gradual change in shoreline impacting circulation/feeding pattern in short to medium term beyond its area of intervention/ control

- port leads to change in shoreline necessitating continuous intervention within its area of intervention/control

- port leads to insignificant change in shoreline, not necessitating intervention in short to medium term

- port leading to positive/desirable change in shoreline

18. Bathymetry - natural depth of -21 m CD available

- natural depth of -21 m CD

- natural depth of -21 m CD

- natural depth of -21 m CD available

- natural depth of -21 m CD available within 5



at 20 km from the outer edge of basin/berthing structure

available at 20 km from the outer edge of basin/berthing structure

available at 10-15 km from the outer edge of basin/berthing structure

within 10 km from the outer edge of basin/berthing structure

km from the outer edge of basin/berthing structure




Dredging Plan

2.1 Dredging plan for Development of Nandgaon Port

3.11 Dredging Summary

Total Quantity envisaged for dredging : 10,000,000 m3

No of berth considered for dredging : 10 No

Design Depth : 15.0 m below CD

Channel width : 200 m

Turning circle : 700 M Diameter

Channel length : 3000 meters

2.12 Geological Strata for Dredging

The borehole information shows the following geological sequence over the site area:

marine clay

silty clay

stiff clay

weathered basalt

compact basalt bedrock

Generally, the weathered and fractured basalt bedrock dips gently seawards from depths of

approx. -14 m CD about 4 km offshore and reaches -20 m CD at over 5 km offshore. Whilst there

is some sandy clay present, none of the nineteen boreholes drilled to date encountered only sand.

The geotechnical study suggest a layer of sandstone above the basalt bed rock. In order to achieve

desirable depths in the basin, it is proposed to dredge the sandstone layer (soft rock) till the rock

is encountered. No hard rock dredging will be undertaken.

2.13 Dredging Quantity

The dredging quantity works out to around 10 million m3. This is considering the channel and the

turning circle will be dredged to cater to 5th generation container vessels. The channel and turning

circle will be dredged to -15 m CD considering draught of 5th generation container vessel as 14 m.

2.14 Dredging Methodology

It is proposed to complete the dredging works in one fair weather season i.e. between October to

March. Total quantity of 10 million CBM shall be completed in 6 months duration. Designed depths

for all ten berths vary from 11 to 16 m below CD at berth pockets. Plant and machinery required

to dredge this quantity in six months i.e. average 60000 CBM per day will require deployment of

following equipment.



1. THSD with Hopper capacity of minimum 10,000 CBM and arrangement for rain

bowing discharge for reclamation – 02 nos

2. CSD with dredging reach of 22 m considering maximum height of tide 5.0 meters –

01 no

3. Backhoe Dredger with reach of 20 m with 6 CBM bucket with drum cutter

arrangement – 01 no

4. Self-propelled bottom open hopper barges to support Backhoe dredger for loading

and disposal dredged material. – 02 nos

5. Other required associated equipment to support the dredging work.

The total fleet of dredger will be deployed in zones commensurate to soil condition. TSHD will be

utilized for dredging of soft material up to medium clay. CSD will be deployed for dredging of

medium clay to dredgeable decomposed rock. Backhoe dredger will be deployed for stiff clay to

compact basalt in combination with drum cutter.

Dredging will be prioritised in the following sequence. Two THSD will be deployed initially to

dredge major quantity. Later CSD will be deployed and Backhoe Dredger will follow.

All the dredged material will utilize for reclamation of the backup area only and not envisaged for

deep water dumping. The proposed area for reclamation will be prepared by first constructing a

retaining bund so that turbidity and material loss is minimum.

For TSHD, Dredger will be fitted with rainbow pumping arrangement. The dredger will be

positioned 100 m away or nearer from the retaining bunds and will throw the material into the

reclamation area. For CSD inner channel dredging will be preferred to avert nuisance from waves,

swell and turbulences for hassle free dredging. CSDs will be connected with float pipes to convey

spoil to location of reclamation. Backhoe dredger will load he spoil on to bottom open hopper

barges, which will unload the material either by dumping directly in dumping ground using the

tides or will be unloaded by shore crane onto dumpers/tippers for transportation to the site of

relocation by end-on method.

The lower crust of the reclamation area would consist of the dredged spoils. The natural

consolidation would be allowed except for areas needed immediately which will be by artificial

means. The upper crust would be consisting of burrowed and selected material.

The dredging footprint is shown in Figure 6.



Figure 6. Dredging footprint




Details of plants to be used for development of Green belt

3.1 Selection of Species for Greenbelt

The purpose of planting trees is not be restricted to improving aesthetics. Planting of trees and

shrubs has now been recognised throughout the world as an effective way for abatement of

pollution and improvement of environment.

The characteristics of the species for green belt play an important role to control pollution. Plants

selected will be evergreen, indigenous, ecologically compatible, agro – climatically suitable, have

low water requirement, minimum care and having high pollutants absorption, tolerance and

resistant capacity. Also the height, spread, canopy, growth rate and aesthetic effect will be

considered. The following criteria shall be considered in designing the green belt:

Soil condition

Availability and quality of water

Availability of sunlight

Air quality

Air Pollution control

Physical characteristic of the plant

Maintenance

In the proposed project, Green belt development will be developed over an area of about 8

hectares. A horticulture department, nursery will be set up to start the development of green belt

from the time of commencement of the project. A double ring design is proposed for effective

fugitive emission & noise amelioration. The green belt will be on a 8m internal width and 15m

external width. Plantation will be done at 2.5m x 2.5m with gap filling with ground flora. Road side

plantation will also be carried out. The schematic representation depicting the green belt layout is

shown in Figure 7 and Figure 8.

Species selected for greenbelt are based on consultation with the Regional Forest Officer, Mr.

Burse +91 94222 39200, Boisar. The list has been selected from Working Plan, Forest Department

Dahanu, 1990-2000, volume III1.



Figure 7: Schematic representation of green belt proposed

Figure 8: Schematic representation of plantation sequence of canopy width



Studies show trees having compound leaves, such as Tamarindus indicus (Imli), Azadirachta indica

(Neem) are more efficient particle collectors2. These trees can be used to reduce air polltion3. Also

trees such as Mangifera indica (mango), Derris indica (Pongamia), Polyailtea longifolia (False

Ashoka) capture large amount of dust. Moringa oleifera (drumstick), Euginia jambolana (jambul),

Delonix regia (Gulmohur), Albizzia lebbeck (Shirish), Cassia fistula (Amaltash), Terminalia arjuna

(Arjun), Ficus benghalensis (Banyan) are few examples of Air Pollution control trees. These can be

used to sink air pollutants.

Alstonia scholaris (Saptaparna), Melia azedarach (Bakian), Butea monosperma (Palash), Grevillea

pteridifoli (Oak), Terminalia arjuna (Arjun) are the species that absorb noise pollution2.

With discussion with the Department of Forest and considering the soil conditions at the site the

most suitable species were selected for plantation at the site. Species selected were based on their

canopy size/leaf area and appropriate location/role in the Greenbelt are given in Table 5 below.

Table 5. List of trees to be planted as Green belt

Sr. No.

Region Botanical name Local name Peculiarity of the tree

1 Outer Boundary

Casurina equisetifolia1 & 2 Pine /Suru Long leaves Capture higher amount of

dust 2 Polyalthia longifolia2,&3 False Ashoka 3 Tamarindus indicus1,2,&3 Chinch/Imli 4

Middle fringe

Azadirachta indica 2,&3 Neem Morphological feature of plant leaves aids for dust capture efficiency

Capacity to withstand vibrations, thus combats noise pollution

5 Albizzia lebbeck 1 & 2 Shirish 6 Ficus infectoria/

F. religiosa1,2,&3 Pilkhan/ pipal

7 Inner area

Delonix regia2,&3 Gulmohur Have dust filtering capacity Absorbs noise radiations Flowers and fruits add to the

aesthetics

8 Pongamia pinnata1 & 2 Karanj 9 Lantana spp.1 Ghaneri

10 Ipomea spp 1 & 2 Morning glory

Reference:

1. List of Common Plants occurring in Dahanu Forest Division, Working Plan, Forest Department Dahanu, 1990-2000, Volume III.

2. S Ramesh Kumar, T Arumugam, C.R. Annada kumar, S. Balakrishnan and D.S. Rajavel, Use of Plant Species in Controlling Environmental Pollution – A review, Bulletin of Environment, Pharmacology and Life Sciences, Volume 2(2), January 2013, 52-63.

3. Yannawar Venkatesh B. and Bhosale Arjun B., Air Pollution Tolerance Index of various plant species around Nanded city, Maharashtra India, Journal of Applied Phytotechnology in Environmental Sanitation, Volume 3 (1), January, 2014, 23-28.

REFERENCES

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BEPLS Vol 2 [2] January 2013 ~ 52 ~ © AELS, INDIA

HAEMATOPOIETIC PROPERTIES OF

Use of Plant Species in Controlling Environmental Pollution- A Review

S. Ramesh Kumar1*, T. Arumugam2, C.R. Anandakumar3, S. Balakrishnan4 and D.S. Rajavel5

1*Assistant Professor, Department of Horticulture, Vanavarayar Institute of Agriculture, Manakkadavu, Pollachi, TNAU, Tamil Nadu, India.

2and4Professor, Department of Horticulture, 3Professor, Department of Plant Breeding and Genetics, 5Professor, Department of Agricultural Entomology, Agricultural College and Research Institute, TNAU,

Madurai, Tamil Nadu, India. *Corresponding author E-mail: [email protected]

ABSTRACT

Plants in urban areas play an essential role to cleanse the pollution in human environment. The paper describes the choice of eco–friendly plant species and their right placement in the urban environment to overcome the pollution problems. Key words: Pollution, trees, shrubs, phytoremediation INTRODUCTION In modern times pollution has become the biggest menace for the survival of the biological species. There are various types of pollution e.g. air, water, soil, sound and mental pollution. Earth was a beautiful landscape but man has ruthlessly exploited for his greed specially, in the last century. With rapid industrialization and random urbanization environmental pollution has become a serious problem. Over exploitation of open spaces, ever-increasing number of automobiles and demographic pressure has further aggravated the problem. There are various ways and means to mitigate the urban environmental pollution. Plan-ting of trees and shrubs for abatement of pollution and improvement of environment is an effective way and well recognized throughout the world. Earlier, the purpose of planting trees in urban areas was purely aesthetic [1]. The incessant increase of urban environmental pollution has necessitated to reconsider the whole approach of urban landscaping and its orientation in order to achieve duel effect i.e. bio-aesthetics and mitigation of pollution. Proper planning and planting scheme depending upon the magnitude and type of pollution, selection of pollution- tolerant and dust scavenging trees and shrubs should be done for bioremediation of urban environmental pollution. Pollution, the major problem in cities, is compounded by the fact that there is no exhaust for the polluted air to escape. Landscape architects can solve the pollution problems related to urban landscape by creating a micro-climate [2]. Pollution Pollution is defined as ‘an undesirable change in physical, chemical and biological characteristics of air, water and land that may be harmful to living organisms, living conditions and cultural assets. The pollution control board defined pollution as unfavourable alteration of our surrounding, largely as a by-product of human activities. The pollution may be due to human activities or natural ecosystems [3]. Natural pollution contaminates the air by storms, forest fire, volcanoes and natural processes (methane from marshy lands). Nature by and large treats, recycles and makes good use of the pollutants and renders them less harmful, whereas man-made pollutants threaten the integrity of the nature. Pollutants The substances, which cause pollution, are called pollutants. Pollutant is defined as any substance that is released intentionally or inadvertently by man into the environment in such a concentration that may have adverse effect on environmental health [4]. Environment Protection Act, 1986 EPA, 1986) defines pollutant, as any solid, liquid or gaseous substance present in such a concentration as may be, or tend to be, injurious to environment. Air Pollution Air is necessary for the survival of all higher forms of life on earth. On an average, a person needs at least 30 lb of air every day to live, but only about 3 lb of water and 1.5 lb of food. A person can live about 5 weeks without food and about 5 days without water, but only 5 minutes without air. Naturally,

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Online ISSN 2277-1808 Bull. Env. Pharmacol. Life Sci. Volume 2 [2] January 2013: 52- 63 © 2012, Academy for Environment and Life Sciences, India

Website: www.bepls.com Review Article

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every one likes to breathe fresh, clean air. But the atmosphere, that invisible yet essential ocean of different gases called air, is as susceptible to pollution from human activities as are water and land environments [5]. According to the WHO report, about 10 to 15 % of the total population of India is suffering from common cold, bronchitis, asthma, hay fever etc. These diseases are no doubt airborne and spread the infection from several hundred kilometers under favourable atmospheric conditions. Dust and soot in the air contribute to between 20 and 200 deaths each day in America’s biggest cities. Ill health from microscopic particulates with tiny specks smaller than the width of a human hair can lodge deep in the lungs and are associated with respiratory diseases, heart attacks and premature deaths. The new research indicates elderly people suffer the most harm. In the United States the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) currently sets the maximum allowable concentration of microscopic particles

industry, domestic fuel combustion, stone quarries, coalmines and various agricultural activities from the adjoining areas. These particulates are no doubt dangerous to human health and environment causing various diseases to plants and animals, damage to properties including our cultural heritage, national monuments, archives etc. Dust concentration varies from place to place and hour to hour, diurnally depending upon traffic, type of industry etc. The highest dust concentration tends to be in summer, reaching maximum during mid-day and late–afternoon. In some large cities where wind and temperature fall more steadily, the concentration of dust also reduces accordingly. Criteria air pollutants The five primary criteria pollutants include the gases- sulfur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen oxides (NOx) and carbon monoxide (CO), solid or liquid particulates (smaller than 10 µm), and particulate lead. EFFECTS OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF AIR POLLUTANTS According to Agarwal [6], air pollution is broad term, which actually covers lots of different types of problems. They are, acid rain, domestic and industrial smoke, smog, greenhouse effect, particulates, radionuclides and ozone layer depletion. Plant species for pollution control While selecting the species for pollution control the following are the important characteristics could be considered. Plants should be evergreen, large leaved, rough bark, indigenous, ecologically compatible, low water requirement, minimum care, high absorption of pollutants, resistant pollutants, agro-climatic suitability, height and spread, Canopy architecture, Growth rate and habit (straight undivided trunk), Aesthetic effect (foliage, conspicuous and attractive flower colour), Pollution tolerance and dust scavenging capacity.

Thick plantations – small filtering effects

Loose plantations – good filtering effects

Morphological feature of plant leaves for dust capture efficiency

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Different types of leaves tend to have differences in several aspects of their surfaces. Some types of leaves have greater surface rigidity or roughness than other leaves, which may affect their stickiness or particle solubility. Stickier leaves are better for collecting particles because more particles would stick to their surface. Therefore, certain plant leaves may be more useful for efficient dust capturing than other plants. The various morphological features are also major factors for dust capturing by leaves. The crown area of plants is depending upon the morphological features of the leaf [7]. The various types of Morphological features viz. shape, size and surface texture of leaf are discussed below: Leaves can be of many different shapes. Primarily, leaves are divided into simple – a single leaf blade with a bud at the base of the leaf stems; or compound leaf - a leaf with more than one blade. All blades are attached to a single leaf stem. Where the leaf stems attaches to the twig with an axial bud.

Compound leaf Simple Leaf

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Compound leaves may be palmate - having the leaflets arranged round a single point like fingers on the palm of a hand; or pinnate - when the leaves are joined on the two sides of the stalk, like the vanes of a feather. The form of leaves is related with all their functions and their environment. In addition to photosynthesis, the leaf also carries out other exchanges with the atmosphere. It is through the leaf that the plant "breathes" (absorbs oxygen and releases carbon dioxide and generate energy) and transpires. Epidermic tissues in the leaf contain stomata - microscopic openings like valves which regulate opening or closing, permitting or preventing transpiration, through which the plant loses the major part of the water it absorbs so as to allow further absorption by the roots. In most plants the stomata are located on the underside of the leaves. Their function is regulated so that plants living in dry climates have a substantially smaller number of stomata than those in humid climates, where stomata are numerous and prominent. Where humidity is low the stomata may actually be recessed or partly protected by soft hairs which can prevent excessive transpiration. Choice of eco-friendly plant species in urban environment to mitigate airborne particulate pollution During tree plantation in an urban environment little or no attention has been paid to evaluate the effect of trees on filtering the particulate matter. New housing developments offer an opportunity to control atmospheric particulate pollution through tree plantations. Trees such as Tamarind (Tamarindus indicus) having smaller compound leaves are generally more efficient particle collectors than larger leaves. Particle deposition is heaviest at the leaf tip and along leaf margin. In the preliminary survey of dust fall on common roadside trees in Mumbai, carried out by Shetye and Chaphekar [8] reported that the shape of leaves of Mango (Mangifera indica), Ashoka (Polyalthea longifolia), Pongamia (Derris indica) and Umbrella (Thespepsia populnea) trees captured higher amounts of dust as compared to other neighboring plants. Dochinger [9], a plant pathologist of USDA Forest Service, Ohio, reported that the filtering effects of evergreen trees are better than the deciduous trees. In Singapore; it has been noted that a single row of trees planted with or without shrubs can reduce particulate matter by 25% and each hectare (2.471 acres) of plantation can produce enough oxygen to keep about 45 persons alive [1]. The value of trees in urban environment is now generally recognized not only aesthetically but also functionally in helping to make cities and towns agreeable places to live and work in. The first choice should be, therefore, to select easily propagated and readily available, medium growing, ecologically much suitable, pest and disease resistant tree species and also require less maintenance should be given top priority. Columnar and medium-sized trees are preferred. Ingold [10] reported that the leaves with complex shapes and large circumference area reported to be collected particles more efficiently. Many trees like Neem (Azadirchta indica), Silk cotton (Bombax ceiba), Indian laburnum (Cassia fistula and C. siamea), Gulmohar (Delonix regia), Pipal (Ficus religiosa), Jacaranda (Jacaranda mimosifolia), Indian lilac (Lagerstroemia indica), Temple or Pagoda tree (Plumeria rubra and P. alba), Java plum (Syzygium cumini) and several other roadside and street trees have found more suitable in urban environment [11-14]. If such trees are to be planted, their local ecological relationship with human environment has to be studied properly. It should be borne in mind that these trees may cause allergic disorders such as hay fever; asthma and toxemia due to airborne pollen grains, which can also contribute to atmospheric pollution significantly. Chakre [15] has suggested that the insect-pollinated trees with short flowering periods and also with less pollen productivity should be

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selected. It is also recommended that wind-pollinated tree species those, flowering during rainy season can also be planted, as rains will wash out extra pollens. A tree should be relatively free of insects and diseases and there should not be dropping of messy fruits (Muntingia calabura, Cerbera odolam ), seed pods (Acacia auriculaeformis), twigs and leaves (Dyera costulata). Trees with a tendency to drop large and heavy fruits (Durio spp.) and emit bad smell (Sterculia foetida) must be considered a serious drawback.

Table 1. Plant species (deciduous) arranged in the decreasing order of their air pollution tolerance index

Plant species T P A R APTI

Albizzia lebbeck 8.00 6.3 18.00 53 32

Cassia fistula 6.89 6.2 16.00 72 28

Zizyphus jujuuba 10.26 6.0 10.60 80 25

Azadirachta indica 7.50 6.3 10.21 77 22

Ficus religiosa 14.86 8.0 4.78 87 20

Psidium guajava 7.13 6.3 7.78 73 18

Phyllanthus emblica 10.00 6.0 4.27 75 14

Tamaridus indica 4.879 4.0 6.00 85 14

Moringa olifera 6.60 6.2 2.50 87 12

Delaonix regia 6.27 6.4 2.00 45 7

Tectona grandis 4.50 7.3 1.35 54 6

Morus alba 6.00 6.7 1.00 40 5

Source: Agarwal (2006) T = total chlorophyll (mg g-1 of dry weight); A= ascorbic acid (mg g-1 of fresh weight); P= leaf extract pH; R= relative water content (%).

Table 2. Plant species (evergreen) arranged in decreasing order of their air pollution tolerant

index Plant species T P A R APTI

Pithecolobium dulce 16.41 6.0 7.05 87 24 Ficus benghalensis 6.94 8.0 7.49 79 19 Polyalthia longifolia 5.78 6.2 8.68 80 18 Terminalia arjuna 4.86 6.1 7.98 75 16 Leucana leucocephala 12.50 5.8 5.80 86 19 Eucalyptus citriodora 4.25 5.0 4.49 80 12

Acacia Arabica 4.54 6.5 5.98 79 15

Mangifera indica 4.28 5.4 3.78 87 12 Annona squamosa 4.00 5.6 3.75 71 10 Casuarina equisetifolia 0.75 5.4 2.59 58 5

Source: Chakre (2006) T = total chlorophyll (mg g-1 of dry weight); A= ascorbic acid (mg g-1 of fresh weight); P= leaf extract pH; R= relative water content (%).

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Table 3. Plant species (shrubs) arranged in decreasing order of their air pollution tolerant index

Source: Mark (1997) Water pollution Water has such a strong tendency to dissolve other substances and sometimes referred to as the universal solvent.This is largely because of its polar molecular structure. Pure water, that is, pure H2O, is not found under natural conditions in streams, lakes, ground water, or the oceans. It always has something dissolved or suspended in it. Because of this, there is not any definite line of demarcation between clean water and contaminated water. n general terms, water is considered to be polluted when it contains enough foreign material to render it unfit for specific beneficial use, such as for drinking, recreation, or fish propagation. Actually human activity is the cause of the poor water quality and cause water pollution. Vegetative filter strips for water pollution control in agriculture Orchards, vineyards, and row crops have the greatest erosion rates in irrigated agriculture, especially those that are managed with bare soil between tree or vine rows. The vegetative filter strip (VFS) offers one way to control erosion rates and keep soil in the field rather than letting it be carried off site in drainage water. A VFS is an area of vegetation that is planted intentionally to help remove sediment and other pollutants from runoff water [16]. Key design elements for vegetative filter strips The United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) encourages growers to use engineered vegetative treatment systems such as VFSs at sites where these systems are likely to bring about a significant reduction in nonpoint source (NPS) pollution [17]. You can establish VFSs downslope from crop fields or animal production sites to control NPS pollutants that would otherwise escape with runoff. In orchards, you can use multiple VFSs installed perpendicular to the direction of surface water runoff to reduce soil erosion and even avoid expenses associated with herbicide application. The strips also have the potential to reduce the level of some pesticides in runoff by enhancing water infiltration and retention in the field. For example, contaminants such as phosphorus and certain pesticides such as pyrethroids that bind strongly to soil particles get trapped and retained in VFSs. Pollutant-filtering mechanisms of vegetative filter strips A vegetative filter strip functionally consists of three distinct layers surface vegetation, root zone, and subsoil horizon and as a result, the flow of water and pollutants through the filter strip can be a complex process. Once surface flow enters a VFS, infiltration is followed by saturation of the shallow subsurface. When the inflow rate exceeds the strip’s infiltration capacity, overland flow occurs. In the root zone, some water infiltrates deeper into the subsoil while the remainder becomes lateral subsurface flow or interflow. Runoff is less from hill slopes that have VFSs than from those that have none, a result of increased infiltration rates in the vegetated area. The vegetative strip’s root zone allows high infiltration rates via macropores that arise with the generally improved soil structure created by plant roots and other biological activities. The most important pollutant-trapping mechanism of VFSs is infiltration, followed by storage in the surface layer. The soil constituent with the greatest influence on pesticide transport or pollutant retention and degradation is organic matter in the root zone and overlying surface litter layer. Greater biological activity in a soil improves its ability to effectively deals with pesticides and pollutants, and that kind of activity is more prevalent in a soil rich in plant roots, soil micro- and macro-fauna, and bacteria than in a soil without those organisms. Soil microorganisms play an essential role in the degradation of contaminants and soil organic matter is chemically reactive with

Plant species T P A R APTI

Bougainvillea spectabilis 11.70 6.1 12.39 74 30

Calotropis gigantes 13.00 6.4 9.00 94 27

Poinsettia sp. 17.10 6.0 7.00 80 24

Ricinus communis 17.20 6.2 5.00 93 21

Citrus lemon 6.68 6.0 6.25 74 15

Lantana indica 7.51 7.6 4.63 65 14

Rosa indica 4.50 5.5 4.75 74 12

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the contaminants. For these reasons, you can expect degradation and adsorption of herbicides and pesticides to be greater in the filter strip’s root zone than in adjacent fallow soils. Vegetative filter strips on sloping land are subject to horizontal interflow within the root zone, in which case some pesticides may be filtered out, adsorbing onto soil organic matter. When the interflow water reappears on the surface as return flow it may have a lower pesticide concentration than the water that has flowed above ground. When infiltration is high in a VFS, the microbial- and plant-uptake processes cause denitrification, degradation of chemicals, and reduction of chemical concentrations in the surface layer between runoff events. The effectiveness of VFSs depends on field conditions such as soil type, rainfall intensity, slope, micro-topography (surface soil roughness), the infiltration capacity of the vegetated area, the width of the strip, and the height of its plants. Slope and micro-topography affect overland flow velocity and uniformity and also appear to have an effect on the ability of VFSs to retain sediment and pollutants in runoff. Of course, the steeper the slope, the greater the sediment yield, all other factors being equal. Infiltration capacity and interflow within the VFSs influence the fate and path of dissolved nutrients and chemicals. The width of VFSs determines the strips’ sediment removing capacity and the amount of time the pollutant can be expected to remain in soil layers where adsorption and degradation processes are active. Aquatic plants for removal of pollutants (Pb, Cu, Cd, Fe, hg and chromium) from leather industries Hydrilla verticillata;Spirodela polyrrhiza; Bacopa monnierii; Phragmites karka; Scirpus lacustris; Water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes); Pennywarth (Hydrocotyle umbellate; Duck weed (Lemna minor; Water velvet (Azolla pinnata) Soil pollution The introduction of substances, biological organisms, or energy into the soil, resulting in a change of the soil quality, which is likely to affect the normal use of the soil or endangering public health and the living environment. Phytoremediation Phytoremediation is the use of living green plants for in situ risk reduction and/or removal of contaminants from contaminated soil, water, sediments, and air. Specially selected or engineered plants are used in the process. Risk reduction can be through a process of removal, degradation of, or containment of a contaminant or a combination of any of these factors. Phytoremediation is an energy efficient, aesthically pleasing method of remediating sites with low to moderate levels of contamination and it can be used in conjuction with other more traditional remedial methods as a finishing step to the remedial process. One of the main advantages of phytoremediation is that of its relatively low cost compared to other remedial methods such as excavation. The cost of phytoremediation has been estimated as $25 - $100 per ton of soil, and $0.60 - $6.00 per 1000 gallons of polluted water with remediation of organics being cheaoer than remediation of metals. In many cases phytoremediation has been found to be less than half the price of alternative methods. Phytoremediation also offers a permanent in situ remediation rather than simply translocating the problem. However phytoremediation is not without its faults, it is a process which is dependent on the depth of the roots and the tolerance of the plant to the contaminant. Exposure of animals to plants which act as hyperaccumulators can also be a concern to environmentalists as herbivorous animals may accumulate contaminate particles in their tissues which could in turn affect a whole food web. Phytoremediation is actually a genneric term for several ways in which plants can be used to clean up contaminated soils and water. Plants may break down or degrade organic pollutants, or remove and stabilize metal contaminants. This may be done through one of or a combination of the methods described in the next chapter. The methods used to phytoremediate metal contaminants are slightly different to those used to remediate sites polluted with organic contaminants. METHODS OF PHYTOREMEDIATION Phytoextraction (Phytoaccumulation) Phytoextraction, the use of plants to remove contaminants from soil by accumulation of contaminants in plant tissue, is a promising cleanup technology for a variety of metal-containing soils [18,19]. However, hytoextrac- uption of high specific activity radionuclides such as 137Cs or 90Sr is a challenge because of the very low molar reconcentrations of the radionuclide in soil (typically in weapthe order of 10_12 mol/kg) compared with much higher effecconcentrations of stable elements naturally present in soil. In

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addition, plant uptake of 137Cs and 90Sr can be inhibited by competition with K [20] and Ca [21], respectively. Further, the pros-pect of phytoextraction of 137Cs from contaminated soil is minimized because sorption of Cs into interlayer spaces on mica–illite minerals appears to be highly spe-cific and poorly reversible [22,23]. Many metals such as Zn, Mn, Ni, and Cu are essential micronutrients. In common nonaccumulator plants, accumulation of these micronutrients does not exceed their metabolic needs (<10ppm). In contrast, metal hyper accumulator plants can accumulate exceptionally high amounts of metals (in the thousands of ppm) [24]. Hyper accumulator plants do not only accumulate high levels of essential micronutrients, but can absorb significant amounts of nonessential metals, such as Cd [25]. Heavy metal absorption is governed by soil characteristics such as pH and organic matter content. Thus, high levels of heavy metals in the soil do not always indicate similar high concentrations in plants. The extent of accumulation and toxic level will depend on the plant and heavy metal species under observation [24]. Most abandoned waste dump sites in many towns and villages in Nigeria attract people as fertile ground for cultivating varieties of crops [26]. According to Alloway [24] plants grown on soils contaminated with heavy metal concentration have increased heavy metal ion content due to pollution. The cultivated plants take up the metals either as mobile ions present in the soil solution through the roots [25] or through foliar adsorption [27]. Rhizofiltration: Rhizofiltration is similar in concept to Phytoextraction but is concerned with the remediation of contaminated groundwater rather than the remediation of polluted soils. The contaminants are either adsorbed onto the root surface or are absorbed by the plant roots. Plants used for rhizoliltration are not planted directly in situ but are acclimated to the pollutant first. Plants are hydroponically grown in clean water rather than soil, until a large root system has developed. Once a large root system is in place the water supply is substituted for a polluted water supply to acclimatise the plant. Afer the plants become acclimatised they are planted in the polluted area where the roots uptake the polluted water and the contaminants along with it. As the roots become saturated they are harvested and disposed of safely. Repeated treatments of the site can reduce pollution to suitable levels as was exemplified in Chernobyl where sunflowers were grown in radioactively contaminated pools. Phytostabilisation Phytostabilisation is the use of certain plants to immobilize soil and water contaminants. Contaminant are absorbed and accumulated by roots, adsorbed onto the roots, or precipitated in the rhizosphere. This reduces or even prevents the mobility of the contaminants preventing migration into the groundwater or air, and also reduces the bioavailibility of the contaminant thus preventing spread through the food chain. This technique can also be used to re-establish a plant community on sites that have been denuded due to the high levels of metal contamination. Once a community of tolerant species has been established the potential for wind erosion (and thus spread of the pollutant) is reduced and leaching of the soil contaminants is also reduced. Phytoremediation of organic polluted sites Phytodegradation (Phytotransformation) Phytodegradation is the degradation or breakdown of organic contaminants by internal and external metabolic processes driven by the plant. Ex planta metabolic processes hydrolyse organic compounds into smaller units that can be absorbed by the plant. Some contaminants can be absorbed by the plant and are then broken down by plant enzymes. These smaller pollutant molecules may then be used as metabolites by the plant as it grows, thus becoming incorporated into the plant tissues. Plant enzymes have been identified that breakdown ammunition wastes, chlorinated solvents such as TCE (Trichloroethane), and others which degrade organic herbicides. Rhizodegradation Rhizodegradation (also called enhanced rhizosphere biodegradation, phytostimulation, and plant assisted bioremediation) is the breakdown of organic contaminants in the soil by soil dwelling microbes which is enhanced by the rhizosphere's presence. Certain soil dwelling microbes digest organic pollutants such as fuels and solvents, producing harmless products through a process known as Bioremediation. Plant root exudates such as sugars, alcohols, and organic acids act as carbohydrate sources for the soil microflora and enhance microbial growth and activity. Some of these compound may also act as chemotactic signals for certain microbes. The plant roots also loosen the soil and transport water to the rhizosphere thus additionally enhancing microbial activity. Phytovolatilization Phytovolatilization is the process where plants uptake contaminaints which are water soluble and release them into the atmosphere as they transpire the water. The contaminant may become modified

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along the way, as the water travels along the plant's vascular system from the roots to the leaves, whereby the contaminants evaporate or volatilize into the air surrounding the plant. There are varying degrees of success with plants as phytovolatilizers with one study showing poplar trees to volatilize up to 90% of the TCE they absorb. Advantages of phytoremediation compared to classical remediation It is more economically viable using the same tools and supplies as agriculture It is less disruptive to the environment and does not involve waiting for new plant communities to recolonise the site

Disposal sites are not needed It is more likely to be accepted by the public as it is more aesthetically pleasing then traditonal

methods It avoids excavation and transport of polluted media thus reducing the risk of spreading the

contamination It has the potential to treat sites polluted with more than one type of pollutant

Disadvantages of phytoremediation compared to classical remediation It is dependant on the growing conditions required by the plant (i.e. climate, geology, altitude,

temperature) Large scale operations require access to agricultural equpment and knowledge Success is dependant on the tolerance of the plant to the pollutant Contaminants collected in senescing tissues may be released back into the environment in

autumn Contaminants may be collected in woody tissues used as fuel Time taken to remediate sites far exceeds that of other technologies Contaminant solubility may be increased leading to greater environmental damage and the

possibility of leaching Noise pollution Noise is not simply a local problem, but global issue that should concern us all [28,29]. In the European Union over 40% of the population is exposed to noise of motorways to a level, which exceeds 55 dBA during the day and the 20% of the populations to levels that exceed 65 dBA [30].Sound pollution continues to expand with an increasing number of complaints from the residents. Most people are usually exposed to more than one source of noise of which motorway noise is the main source [31]. In order to study noise, we must separate the different types of noise, the way that we measure them, their origin and their effects on people. In 1993, the World Health Organization (WHO) [32] recognized the following effects on the health of the population that can emanate from noise: sleep patterns, cardio respiratory and psycho physiological systems, and hearing. It also affects us negatively on intervention in communication, productivity and social behavior [33, 34, 32]. Sound waves cause eardrums to vibrate, activating middle and inner organs and sending bioelectrical signals to the brain. The human ear can detect sounds in the frequency range of about 20 to 20,000 Hz, but for most people hearing is best in the range of 200 to 10,000 Hz. A sound of 50 Hz frequency, for example, is perceived to be very low-pitched, and a 15,000 - Hz sound is very high pitched. The middle C note on a piano has a frequency of 262 Hz. In normal conversation, the human voice covers a range of about 250 to 2000 Hz. The audibility of a sound depends on both frequency and amplitude. As people age, hearing often become less acute. Solutions to noise pollution include adding insulation and sound-proofing to doors, walls, and ceilings; using ear protection, particularly in industrial working areas; planting vegetation to absorb and screen out noise pollution; and zoning urban areas to maintain a separation between residential areas and zones of excessive noise. Plant species for noise pollution control Characteristics of plants for effective pollution control

Tolerance to specific conditions or alternatively wide adaptability to eco-physiological conditions;

Rapid growth; Capacity to endure water stress and climate extremes after initial establishment; Differences in height and growth habits; Pleasing appearances; Providing shade;

Large bio-mass and leaves number to provide fodder and fuel: Ability of fixing atmospheric Nitrogen; and Improving waste lands.

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Trees having thick and fleshy leaves with petioles flexible and capacity to withstand vibration are suitable. Heavier branches and trunk of the trees also deflect or refract the sound waves. The density, height and width are critical factors in designing an adequate noise screen plantation. Combination of trees and shrubs together with suitable landforms and design appears to be the best system for combating noise pollution. In general, more than 65 decibels noise is produced from factory, which are unhealthy to living world. The following species are directed to absorb noise pollution: Alstonia scholaris;Azadirachta indica;Melia azedarach;Butea monosperma; Grevillea pteridifolia; Grevillea robusta; Tamarindus indica; Terminalia arjuna Shrubs and Grasses Calotropis gigantea; Inga dulcis; Saccharum munja; Nyctanthus arbortristics Nerium orodrum; Ipomea sps. Similarly, on each tree guard, a label plate bearing a caption should be fixed. For example, ‘Tree is Life, Save it’ etc. The tree guard and label plate should be painted in tricolor. List of species for road borders and housing sites as recommended by CPCB Alstonia scholaris; Lagerstroemia flosreginae; Mimusops elang; Cassia fistula; Bauhinia purpurea; Grevillea pteridifolia; Pongamia pinnata; Polyalthia longifolia Peltoferrum ferrugineum; Cassia siamea; Melia azedarach; Delonix regia; Anthocephalus cadamba; Michelia champaca; Cassia siame; Others (Ornamental plants) Planting along the road Roads are the important sites of the urban areas which contribute significantly in generating pollution. By planting trees on both sides pollution can be mitigated. Unfortunately, in most of the old Indian cities and towns, there is hardly any provision of sufficient space for the same. However, it is necessary to study the type of road, overhead electrical cables, spaces available on both sides, central verge, traffic triangles, round-abouts, squares and other open space available before taking up any plantation. It has been observed that trees and shrubs which are drought/frost resistant are generally tolerant to pollution. Selection of trees is another important task. Before selecting any plant species, it is necessary to consider following characters: agro-climatic suitability; height and spread; canopy architecture; growth rate and habit (straight undivided trunk); aesthetic effect (foliage, conspicuous and attractive flower colour); pollution tolerance and dust scavenging capacity. Some of the ornamental trees which have aesthetic effect and are tolerant to pollution have been screened and recommended for planting along the roads: Acacia auriculiformis, Ailanthus excelsa, Albizzia lebbek, Bauhinia acumi nat a, B. purpurea, But ea monosperma, Cassia fistula, C. marginata, C. siamea, Casuarina equisetifolia, Crataeva religiosa, Drypetes roxburghii, Ficus benjamina, Lagerstroemia duperreana, L. flosreginae, L. rosea, Mimusops elengi, Polyalthia longifolia, P. longifolia 'Angustifolia', P. longifolia 'Pendula', Peltophorum ferrugineum, Tectona grandis, Terminalia arjuna, T. muelleri, Thespesia populnea etc. Emphasis should be given to the native plant species which are comparatively well acclimatized, and stress and pollution tolerant. Central Verge Central verge of the two way roads in the cities and towns are often found neglected and devoid of any planting. It is recommended that this area should be well utilized by planting dwarf trees and shrubs. This will not only serve aesthetic purpose but also functional being physical barrier for the glare of head lights of the vehicles which is essential for effective and safe operation of the roads during dark hours. Planting may be done either in single or double row depending upon the space available. Since these plants are more close to the automobile exhaust, their capacity for pollution tolerance should be considered before selection. Following plant species have been reported as pollution tolerant and recommended for plantation: Acalypha wilkesiana, Bougainvillea 'Chitra', 'H.C. Buck', 'Lady Mary Baring', 'Mary Palmer Special', 'Partha', 'Shubhra', 'Zulu Queen'; Caesalpinia pulcherrima, Callistemon lanceolatus, C. polandii, Cassia surattensis, Duranta plumeri, Euphorbia milli, Hamelia patens, Hibiscus rosa-sinensis, Ixora coccinea, J atropha panduraefolia, Lantanacamara, L. depressa, Malpighia cocci ger a, M. glabra, Murraya paniculata, Nerium oleander , Phyllanthus niruri, Rosa Gruss an Teplitz', Tabernaemontana coronaria, Thevetia neriifolia, Vinca rosea, Wadelia lacinata etc. CONCLUSION Considering the present scenario of urban environmental pollution, there is a growing need for changing the approach of planting trees and other plant species. Inclusion of the ornamental plants having pollution mitigating ability in the landscape plan will serve the duel purpose of making the cities

Kumar et al


green and pollution free in the long run. Proper planting scheme will bring healthy life and colour in the cement concrete jungle of large congested cities. The importance of trees in urban environment is now widely recognized that they too cleanse the particulate air pollution and help to make cities and towns more agreeable places to dwell upon. India’s rich biodiversity of both indigenous and exotic trees, offers a wide range of choice to restore our sick and sultry towns. The present paper recommends various tree species for urban plantings, so that a wider usage of local as well as exotic tree species can be explored for controlling airborne particulate pollution in urban climate. However, a basic knowledge of their biological relationship with human environment is absolutely necessary in which arboculturists, environmental scientists, and town planners can work together. Much more research on urban trees is needed for effective control of atmospheric particulate pollution. REFERENCES 1. Anonymous .1981. A Guide to Tree Planting. Parks and Recreation Department, Ministry of National Development,

Singapore. 2. Agarwal. V. P. and V.K. Sharma .1980. Today and Tomorrow’s Printers and publishers, New Delhi. 3. Anigma, S. 2002. Erosion and sedimentation control, vegetative techniques for. InR. Lal (ed.), Encyclopedia of Soil

Science. New York: Marcel Dekker, Inc. 4. Bernatzky, A. 1978. Tree Ecology and Preservation, Development in Agricultural and management Forest Ecology, 2 Elsevier

Scientific Publishing Co.New York. 5. Barfield, B. J., R. L. Blevins, A. W. Flofle, C. E. Madison, S. Inamder, D. I. Carey, and V. P. Evangelou. 1992. Water

quality impacts of natural riparian grasses: Empirical studies. St. Joseph, MI: American Society of Agricultural Engineers. ASAE Paper No. 22100.

6. Agarwal. V. P. and V.K. Sharma .1980. Today and Tomorrow’s Printers and publishers, New Delhi. 7. CPCB. 2006. Annual report, 4:80-99. 8. Shetye, R. P., and S. B. Chaphekar. 1989. Some estimation on dust fall in the city of Bombay, using plants. Vol. 4: pp.

61-70. In: Progress in Ecology. 9. Dochinger, L. S. 1973. Miscellaneous Publication No.1230.USDA, Forest Service, Upper Darby,Pa, pp. 22. 10. Ingold, C. T. 1971. Fungal Spores. Clarendon Press, Oxford. 11. Maheshwari, J. K: The Flora of Delhi. Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, New Delhi (1963). 12. Oommanchan, M.: The Flora of Bhopal (Angiosperms).J. K. Jain Brothers, Bhopal (1977). 13. Pokhriyal, T.C. and Subba Rao, B. K., Role of forests in mitigating air pollution. Indian For. 112: 573-582(1986). 14. Chee, T. Y. and Ridwan, S.: Fast-growing species of trees suitable for urban roadside and shade planting. Malaysian

For, 47: 263-284 (1984). 15. Chakre, O. J.: Atmospheric pollens: The organic pollutants. Science Service, 3(8): 4(1984). 16. Dillaha, T. A., R. B. Reneau, S. Mostaghimi, and D. Lee. 1989. Vegetative filter stripsfor agricultural nonpoint source

pollution control. Transactions of ASAE,32(2) 513–519. 17. US EPA. 2002. Considerations in the design of treatment best management practices (BMPs) to improve water

quality. EPA 600/R-03/103. 18. Kumar, P.B.A.N., V. Dushenkov, H. Motto, and I. Raskin. 1995.Phytoextraction: Theuse of plants to remove heavy

metals from soils. Environ. Sci. Technol. 29:1232–1238. 19. Cunningham, S.D., J.R. Shann, D.E. Crowley, and T.A. Anderson.1997. Phytoremediation of contaminated water and

soil. p. 2–17. In: E.Kruger et al. (ed.) Phytoremediation of soil and water allocainants. ACS Symp. Ser. 664. Am. Chem. Soc., Washington, DC.

20. Shaw, G., and J.N.B. Bell. 1991. Competitive effects of potassium and ammonium oncaesium uptake kinetics in wheat. J. Environ Radioact. 13:283–296.

21. Menzel, R.G. 1965. Soil–plant relationships of radioactive elements. Health Phys.11:1325–1332. 22. Tamura, T., and D.G. Jacobs. 1960. Structural implications in cesium sorption. Health Phys.2:391–398. 23. Comans, R.N., M. Haller, and P. De Preter. 1991. Sorption of cesium on illite: Non-quilibrium behavior and

reversibility. Geochim. transCosmochim. Acta 55:433–440. 24. Alloway, B.J. (1996). Heavy Metal in Soils. Halsted Press, John Wiley & Sons Inc.,London. 25. Davies, B.E. (1983). A graphical estimation of the normal lead content of some British Soils. Geoderma, 29: 67 – 75 26. Amusan, A. A. Ige, D.V. Olawale, R. (2005). Characteristics of Soils and Crops’ Uptake of Metals in Municipal Waste

Dump Sites in Nigeria. J. Hum. Ecol., 17(3):167- 171 (2005). 27. Chapel, A. (1986). Foliar Fertilization, pp. 66- 86, In: Matinus Nijhoff Dordrecht, A.Alexander (Ed.). Stuttgart 28. Lang, W.W., 1999. Is noise policy a global issue, or is it a locl issue?. In: Cuschieri J., Glegg S.and Yan Yong (eds.).

Internoise 99- The 1999 International Congress on noise ControlEngineering, December 1999, Fort Landerdale, Florida. USA, 1939-1943.

29. Sandberg, U., 1999. Abatement of traffic, vehicle and tire/road noise- the global perspective. In:Cuschieri J., Glegg S. and Yan Yong (eds.). Internoise 99- The 1999International Congress onnoise Control Engineering, Decamber 1999, Fort Landerdale, Florida. USA, 37-42.

30. Lambert, J., Vallet, M., 1994. Study Related to the Preparation of a Communication on a Future EC Noise Policy. INRETS LRN Report No. 9420, INRETS-Institute National de Recherche sur les Transports et leur Securite, Bron, France.

31. OECD-ECMT, 1995. Urban Travel and Sustainable Development. European Conference of Ministers of Transport, Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, Paris,France.

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32. WHO, 1993. The Environmental Health Criteria Document on Community Noise. Report on the Task Force Meeting, Dusseldorf, Germany, November 1992. WHO Regional Office for Europe,Report EUR/HFA Target 24, World Health Organization, Copenhagen, Denmark.

33. Berlund, B., Lindvall, T., 1995. Community noise. Document prepared for the WorldHealth Organization. Archives of the Center for Sensory Research, 2, 1-195.

34. Tsitsoni, Th., Batala, E., Zagas, Th., 2005. Management of urban and suggestions for its upgrade in the Municipality of Thessaloniki. Proceedings of the 12th Panhellenic Forest ScienceConference, October 2-4, Drama, Greece, 231-242 (in Greek).

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Yannawar Vyankatesh B. and Bhosle Arjun B

Journal of Applied

AIR POLLUTION TOLERANCE INDEX OF VARIOUS PLANT SPECIES AROUND NANDED CITY, MAHARASHTRA, INDIA

YANNAWAR VYANKATESH B.* and

School of Earth Sciences, Swami Ramanand Teerth Marathwada University,

*Corresponding Author: Phone: +9975769457; Fax: +02462

Received: 24th

Abstract: Air Pollution Tolerance Index (APTI) was calculated for various roadside plant species around Nanded city. Studies were carried out to determine the physiological response of plant species religiosa, Ficus bengalensis, Ficus glomerata, Moringa oleifera, Phyllanthusembilca, Euginia jambolana, Eucalyptus, Delonixregia, Acacia nilotica, Leucaenaleucocephala, Dalbergia sissoo and Tamarindus indica air pollution tolerance plant species. The leaf samples collected from these plant species were used to determine their APTI by calculating the ascorbic acid, total chlorophyll, pH, and relative water contents for sites. Response of plants towards air polassessed by APTI. On the basis of APTI Jambolana and Tamarindus indicaPolyalthialongifolia, Ficus bengalensis, Delonixregia, Acacia nilotica, Leucaenaleucocephalaand species Ficus religiosa, Ficus glomerata, Phyllanthusembilcasensitive. The APTI determination provides a reliable method for screening sensitive tolerant plants under field conditions where the airpollutants. The susceptibility level of plants to air pollutions as indicated through their index values, compared well with the responses of plants observed under laboratoryfield experiments. Keywords: Bio indicators, sensitive species,

jambolana, Tamarindus indica,

INTRODUCTION

Over the years there has been a continuous increase in human population, road transportation, vehicular traffic and industries which has resulted in further increase in the concentration of gaseous and particulate pollutants South East Asian cities is amongst the worst in the world, killing about 5 lakh people each year, while the global figure 40, 00, 000 [2]

This research paper

unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction

International peer-reviewed journal

Bhosle Arjun B., 2013. Air Pollution Tolerance Index of Various Plant Species Around Nanded City, Maharashtra, India.

Journal of Applied Phytotechnology in Environmental Sanitation, 3 (1): 23-2

23

AIR POLLUTION TOLERANCE INDEX OF VARIOUS PLANT SPECIES AROUND

NANDED CITY, MAHARASHTRA, INDIA

YANNAWAR VYANKATESH B.* and BHOSLE ARJUN B.

School of Earth Sciences, Swami Ramanand Teerth Marathwada University, Vishnupuri, Nanded

(Maharashtra), India. *Corresponding Author: Phone: +9975769457; Fax: +02462-229242; E-mail: [email protected]

May 2013; Revised: 9th July 2013; Accepted: 12th July 2013

Air Pollution Tolerance Index (APTI) was calculated for various roadside plant species around Nanded city. Studies were carried out to determine the physiological response of plant species Azadirachta indica, Mangifera indica, Polyalthialongifolia, Ficus eligiosa, Ficus bengalensis, Ficus glomerata, Moringa oleifera, Phyllanthusembilca, Euginia jambolana, Eucalyptus, Delonixregia, Acacia nilotica, Leucaenaleucocephala, Dalbergia sissoo and Tamarindus indica in Nanded city. The objective wasair pollution tolerance plant species. The leaf samples collected from these plant species were used to determine their APTI by calculating the ascorbic acid, total chlorophyll, pH, and relative water contents for sites. Response of plants towards air polassessed by APTI. On the basis of APTI Azadirachta indica, Moringa Oleifera, Euginia

Tamarindus indicawere tolerant while, Mangifera indica, Ficus bengalensis, Delonixregia, Acacia nilotica, and Dalbergia sissoo plants were intermediate plant. The plant

Ficus religiosa, Ficus glomerata, Phyllanthusembilcaand Eucalyptussensitive. The APTI determination provides a reliable method for screening sensitive

plants under field conditions where the air-shed is contaminated by a variety of pollutants. The susceptibility level of plants to air pollutions as indicated through their index values, compared well with the responses of plants observed under laboratory

Bio indicators, sensitive species, Azadirachta indica, Moringa oleifera, Euginia Tamarindus indica, tolerant species.

Over the years there has been a continuous increase in human population, road transportation, vehicular traffic and industries which has resulted in further increase in the concentration of gaseous and particulate pollutants [1]. The WHO says air pollutionSouth East Asian cities is amongst the worst in the world, killing about 5 lakh people each year,

ure 40, 00, 000 [2]. Plants are thought to be most effective in pollution

is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License

unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

V o l u m e 3 , N u m b e r 1 : 2 3 - 2 8 , © T2014 Depar tment o f Env ironmental Eng ineer ing S e p u l u h N o p e m b e r I n s t i t u t e o f T e c h n o l o g y , S u r a b a y a& Indonesian Society of Sanitary and Environmental Engineers, JakartaO p e n A c c e s s h t t p s : / / w w w . t r i s a n i t a . o r g

reviewed journal

f Various Plant Species Around

28.

AIR POLLUTION TOLERANCE INDEX OF VARIOUS PLANT SPECIES AROUND

Vishnupuri, Nanded- 431606

mail: [email protected]

July 2013

Air Pollution Tolerance Index (APTI) was calculated for various roadside plant species around Nanded city. Studies were carried out to determine the physiological

Azadirachta indica, Mangifera indica, Polyalthialongifolia, Ficus eligiosa, Ficus bengalensis, Ficus glomerata, Moringa oleifera, Phyllanthusembilca, Euginia jambolana, Eucalyptus, Delonixregia, Acacia nilotica, Leucaenaleucocephala,

was to identify the air pollution tolerance plant species. The leaf samples collected from these plant species were used to determine their APTI by calculating the ascorbic acid, total chlorophyll, pH, and relative water contents for sites. Response of plants towards air pollution was

Azadirachta indica, Moringa Oleifera, Euginia Mangifera indica,

Ficus bengalensis, Delonixregia, Acacia nilotica, plants were intermediate plant. The plant

Eucalyptus were sensitive. The APTI determination provides a reliable method for screening sensitive

shed is contaminated by a variety of pollutants. The susceptibility level of plants to air pollutions as indicated through their index values, compared well with the responses of plants observed under laboratory and

Moringa oleifera, Euginia

Over the years there has been a continuous increase in human population, road transportation, vehicular traffic and industries which has resulted in further increase in the

. The WHO says air pollution in major South East Asian cities is amongst the worst in the world, killing about 5 lakh people each year,

Plants are thought to be most effective in pollution

is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License, which permits

in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

ISSN 2088-6586

, J a n u a r y , 2 0 1 4 Depar tment o f Env ironmental Eng ineer ing

S e p u l u h N o p e m b e r I n s t i t u t e o f T e c h n o l o g y , S u r a b a y a Indonesian Society of Sanitary and Environmental Engineers, Jakarta

: / / w w w . t r i s a n i t a . o r g / j a p e s

monica.chavan

Text Box

Reference 3

Yannawar Vyankatesh B. and Bhosle Arjun B., 2013. Air Pollution Tolerance Index of Various Plant Species Around Nanded City, Maharashtra, India.

Journal of Applied Phytotechnology in Environmental Sanitation, 3 (1): 23-28.

24

abatement and serve as sinks for pollutants. Air pollution tolerance index (APTI) is used to select plant species tolerant to air pollution [3].Vegetation naturally cleanses the atmosphere by absorbing gases and some particulate matter through leaves. Plants have a very large surface area and their leaves function as an efficient pollutant trapping device [4].In recent past, air pollutants, responsible for vegetation injury and crop yield losses, are causing increased concern [5]. In developing countries the air quality crisis in cities often attributes in large measures (40–80%) to vehicular emission.

Despite the improved performance of technology is presently insufficient to counteract the growth of vehicles [6] and associated pollution problems. Air pollutions can directly affect plants via leaves or indirectly via soil acidification [7].It has also been reported that when exposed to air pollutants, most plant experience physiological changes before exhibiting visible damage to leaves [8].The identification and categorization of plants into sensitive and tolerant groups is important because the former can serve as indicators and the latter as sinks for the air pollutants in urban and industrial habitats. Lots of work has been done to study the response of traffic load on plants [9]. Recent studies have explored the possibility to find out the ability of plants to remove pollutants from the air and act as sink for air contaminants [10].

The aim of this study is to determine the APTI values of various plants species were calculated. The study will also identify the plant species which are tolerant to the prevailing atmospheric conditions. MATERIALS AND METHODS

Study Area Nanded district is part of Marathwada Region in Maharashtra. For the present study in and

around area of Nanded city is selected. Nanded city is situated on the bank of Godavari River. Nanded district has a geographical area of 10,528 Sq. Km., which forms 3.41% of the total geographical area of Maharashtra State. The district is situated in the Deccan Plateau. The district of Nanded has between 18°.15' and 19°.55' North latitude and 77°.7' to 78°.15' east longitudes [11].

Sampling Plants were randomly selected from the Nanded city. Leaf samples of the various plants were

then collected. Three replicates of fully matured leaves were taken and immediately taken to the laboratory for analysis. A composite sample of each plant species was obtained before analysis. The leaf fresh weight was taken immediately upon getting to the laboratory. Samples were preserved in refrigerator for father analyses.

Sample collection Samples were collected in early morning and brought to laboratory in polythene bag kept in

ice box to nullify the adverse effect of high light intensity and temperature. The leaves were carried out from a height of 01 to 02 meter from the ground level.

Table 1: Showing plants species selected for phytochemical estimation

Botanical Names Family Common Name

Azadirachta indica Meliaceae Neem

Mangifera indica Anacardiaceae Aam

Polyalthialongifolia Annonaceae Ashoka

Ficus religiosa Moraceae Pipal



25

Ficus bengalensis Moraceae Wad

Ficus glomerata Moraceae Audumbar

Moringa oleifera Moringaceae Shevga

Phyllanthusembilca Phyllanthaceae Awla

Euginia jambolana Myrtaceae Jambul

Eucalyptus Myrtaceae Nilgari

Delonixregia Fabaceae Gulmohar

Acacia nilotica Fabaceae Babul

Leucaenaleucocephala Fabaceae Subabul

Dalbergia sissoo Fabaceae Sisoo

Tamarindus indica Fabaceae chinch

Estimation of Leaf-extract pH: 0.5 g of leaf material was ground to paste and dissolved in 50

ml of distilled water and Leaf extract pH was measured by using calibrated digital pH meter. Estimation of relative moisture content: Fresh leaf samples collected from the study area and were brought immediately to the laboratory and washed thoroughly. The excess water was removed with the help of filter paper. The initial weight of samples were taken (W1 g) and kept in oven at 600 C until constant weight was obtained and the final weight was taken (W2 g).Total Chlorophyll was estimated by acetone extraction method and ascorbic acid was estimated by 2, 6- dichlorophenol indophenol’s dye method by Sadasivam&Manickam[12] and [13].

The air pollution tolerance index (APTI) was determined by using the following formula proposed by Singh and Rao [14].

APTI =A�T + P + R

10

Where, A= ascorbic acid content in leaf (mg/g); T= total chlorophyll content in leaf (mg/g); P= leaf extract pH and R= per cent water content of the leaf. The sum value is divided by 10 to get the value in reduced scale.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The APTI value of 15 different plants growing commonly in an around area of the city is given in table 1. In the present study the maximum APTI is observed in Azadirachta indica11.2 and minimum inPhyllanthusembilca, 6.26. [15].Studied APTI of some selected plants and described Mangifera indica as reliable bioaccumlator plant [16]. Azadirachta indica, Moringaoleifera, Euginia jambolana and Tamarindus indica are reported high APTI values and considered as tolerant plant. The higher APTI values are building resistance in plants depends on various strategies, including stomatal movement, enzymatic actions and detoxifying process as well as genetically and developmental factors. These above said tolerant plants can be used for afforestation in urban area and nearby traffic intersections to mitigate air pollution including traffic pollution.

Ascorbic acid is a strong reductant and it activates many physiological and defense mechanism. Its reducing power is directly proportional to its concentration [17]. However it’s reducing activity is pH dependent, being more at higher pH levels. Chlorophyll is an index of productivity of plant [17].The relative water content in a plant body helps in maintaining its physiological balance under stress conditions of air pollution [18]. In summary, plant adaptation to



26

changing environmental factors involves both short-term physiological responses and long-term physiological, structural and morphological modifications. These changes help plants minimize stress and maximize use of internal and external resources [19].

The plants with low APTI value like Mangifera indica, Polyalthialongifolia, Ficus bengalensis, Delonixregia, Acacia nilotica, LeucaenaleucocephalaandDalbergia sissoo shows susceptibility towards traffic pollution. Similar observations are made by [20] and noticed ten plants susceptible to air pollution in Ujjain city. Similar results are found to [21] at Tiruchirappalli city and [22] at Ghaziabad. It was reported that plants like Ficus religiosa, Ficus glomerata, PhyllanthusEmbilcaand Eucalyptus with relatively low index value are generally sensitive to air pollutants and vice versa [23]. The long term, low-concentration exposures of air pollution produces harmful impacts on plant leaves without visible injury [24].Previous studies also showed the impact of air pollution on ascorbic acid, chlorophyll, leaf extract pH, and relative water content [25], [26]and [27].

Table 2: Tolerance index of air pollution

Index Value Remarks

1-08 Sensitive

08-10 Intermediate

10-Above Tolerant

Table 3: the contents of total chlorophyll, ascorbic acid and relative moisture and leaf extract pH in various tree species of Nanded City, with their air pollution tolerance index.

Botanical Names Ascorbic acid (mg.g-1)

Total chlorophyll (mg.mL-1)

Leaf extract pH

Relative moisture (%)

Air Pollution Tolerance Index (APTI)

Azadirachta indica 6.54 1.72 5.8 63.0 11.2

Mangifera indica 7.47 1.41 4.6 51.7 9.65

Polyalthialongifolia 4.67 1.60 4.1 56.0 8.26

Ficus religiosa 1.86 1.66 7.0 62.9 7.90

Ficus bengalensis 4.01 1.19 6.9 64.1 9.65

Ficus glomerata 1.57 1.26 5.9 61.1 7.23

Moringa oleifera 3.45 2.11 6.5 79.0 10.8

Phyllanthusembilca 2.05 1.07 4.1 52.1 6.26

Euginia jambolana 5.76 1.51 6.7 53.9 10.1

Eucalyptus 2.33 1.93 6.0 54.7 7.31

Delonixregia 3.36 2.50 5.1 63.0 8.85

Acacia nilotica 2.40 2.47 6.2 64.7 8.55

Leucaenaleucocephala 2.60 2.39 6.5 60.5 8.36

Dalbergia sissoo 2.19 2.74 6.1 73.0 9.23

Tamarindus indica 3.12 2.21 7.1 80.1 10.9

Yannawar Vyankatesh B. and Bhosle Arjun B

Journal of Applied

Fig. 1: Air Pollution Tolerance Index (APTI) of fifteen selected plant species at different bio

indicator stations in the Nanded city. CONCLUSIONS

It is worth noting that combining a variety of parameters gave a more reliable result than when based on a single biochemical pawith increased vehicular traffic, industrialization there is increasing danger of deforestation due to air pollution. The results of such studies are useful for future planning and may be helpful to brout possible control measures. The present study suggests that plantation of Moringa oleifera, Euginia jambolana and Tamarindus indica to reduce air pollution. Therefore sensitive species canspecies can be used as a sink for air pollutants. Acknowledgements: We are thankful to the School of Earth Sciences, Swami Ramanand Teerth Marathwada University, Nanded for providing laboratory and library

References 1. Joshi N., Chauhan A. and Joshi P.C., 2009, Impact of industrial air pollutants on some biochemical

parameters and yield in wheat and mustard plants. Environmentalist, Vol. 29, PP. 3982. Dhariwal A., 2012, Environmental pollution

of Environmental Protection Vol. 32, No12, pp. 10223. Das S., Mallick S.N., Padhi S.K., Dehury S.S., Acharya B.C. & Prasad P., 2010, Air pollution

Tolerance Indices (APTI) of various plant species gIndian Journal of Environmental Protection Vol. 30, No 7, pp. 563

4. Sirajuddin M. H., M. Ravichandran& Abdul Samad. M. K., 2012, Air Pollution Tolerance of Selected Plant Species Considered for Urban Green Belt DevelEnvironmental Biosciences, Vol. 1, No. 1, PP. 51

5. Joshi, P.C. and A. Swami, 2007, Physiological responses of some tree species under roadside automobile pollution stress around city of Haridwar, India. Environmentalist365-374.

Bhosle Arjun B., 2013. Air Pollution Tolerance Index of Various Plant Species Around Nanded City, Maharashtra, India.

Journal of Applied Phytotechnology in Environmental Sanitation, 3 (1): 23-2

27

Tolerance Index (APTI) of fifteen selected plant species at different bio indicator stations in the Nanded city.

It is worth noting that combining a variety of parameters gave a more reliable result than when based on a single biochemical parameter. APTI determinations are of importance because with increased vehicular traffic, industrialization there is increasing danger of deforestation due to air pollution. The results of such studies are useful for future planning and may be helpful to brout possible control measures. The present study suggests that plantation of Azadirachta indica, Moringa oleifera, Euginia jambolana and Tamarindus indica is useful for bio monitoring, as well as to reduce air pollution. Therefore sensitive species can be used as bio indicators and tolerant species can be used as a sink for air pollutants.

We are thankful to the School of Earth Sciences, Swami Ramanand Teerth Marathwada University, Nanded for providing laboratory and library facilities.

Joshi N., Chauhan A. and Joshi P.C., 2009, Impact of industrial air pollutants on some biochemical parameters and yield in wheat and mustard plants. Environmentalist, Vol. 29, PP. 398

Dhariwal A., 2012, Environmental pollution Its impact on Humans and Non Humans, Indian Journal of Environmental Protection Vol. 32, No12, pp. 1022-1028.

Das S., Mallick S.N., Padhi S.K., Dehury S.S., Acharya B.C. & Prasad P., 2010, Air pollution Tolerance Indices (APTI) of various plant species growing industrial areas of Rourkela, Indian Journal of Environmental Protection Vol. 30, No 7, pp. 563-567.

Sirajuddin M. H., M. Ravichandran& Abdul Samad. M. K., 2012, Air Pollution Tolerance of Selected Plant Species Considered for Urban Green Belt Development in Trichy, World Journal of Environmental Biosciences, Vol. 1, No. 1, PP. 51-54.

Joshi, P.C. and A. Swami, 2007, Physiological responses of some tree species under roadside automobile pollution stress around city of Haridwar, India. Environmentalist

f Various Plant Species Around

28.

Tolerance Index (APTI) of fifteen selected plant species at different bio

It is worth noting that combining a variety of parameters gave a more reliable result than rameter. APTI determinations are of importance because

with increased vehicular traffic, industrialization there is increasing danger of deforestation due to air pollution. The results of such studies are useful for future planning and may be helpful to bring

Azadirachta indica, is useful for bio monitoring, as well as

be used as bio indicators and tolerant

We are thankful to the School of Earth Sciences, Swami Ramanand Teerth

Joshi N., Chauhan A. and Joshi P.C., 2009, Impact of industrial air pollutants on some biochemical parameters and yield in wheat and mustard plants. Environmentalist, Vol. 29, PP. 398-404.

Its impact on Humans and Non Humans, Indian Journal

Das S., Mallick S.N., Padhi S.K., Dehury S.S., Acharya B.C. & Prasad P., 2010, Air pollution rowing industrial areas of Rourkela,

Sirajuddin M. H., M. Ravichandran& Abdul Samad. M. K., 2012, Air Pollution Tolerance of Selected opment in Trichy, World Journal of

Joshi, P.C. and A. Swami, 2007, Physiological responses of some tree species under roadside automobile pollution stress around city of Haridwar, India. Environmentalist, Vol. 27, PP.



28

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22. Sirajuddin M. H., M. Ravichandran& Abdul Samad. M. K., 2012, Air Pollution Tolerance of Selected Plant Species Considered for Urban Green Belt Development in Trichy, World Journal of Environmental Biosciences, Vol. 1, No. 1, PP. 51-54.

23. Singh SK, Rao DN, Agarwal M, Pande J, Narayan D 1991, Air pollution tolerance index of plants, journal Environmental Management, Vol. 32, PP. 45-55.

24. Joshi N., Chauhan A. and Joshi P.C., 2009, Impact of industrial air pollutants on some biochemical parameters and yield in wheat and mustard plants. Environmentalist, Vol. 29, PP. 398-404.

25. Klump G, Furlan CM, Domingos M 2000, Response of stress indicators and growth parameters of tibouchinapulchralogn. Exposed to air and soil pollution near the industrial complex of cubatao, Brazil Science Total Environ., Vol. 246, PP. 79-91.

26. Hoque MA, Banu MNA, Okuma E 2007, Exogenous proline and glycinebetaine increase Nacl-induced ascorbate–glutathione cycle enzymes activities, and praline improves salt tolerance more than glycinebetaine in tobacco bright yellow-2 suspension cultured cells, journal plant physiol. Vol. 164, PP. 1457 – 1468.

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