initial assessment of strategic plans for improving the

Rev. sci. tech. Off. int. Epiz., 2012, 31 (2), 631-645

Initial assessment of strategic plans for improving the performance of Veterinary Services in developing countries: a review of OIE PVS Gap Analysis reports

J. Weaver (1)*, E. Leon (2), M. Edan (3) & F. D’Alessio (3)

(1) C/o Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), Lodi Estate, New Delhi, India(2) Instituto Nacional de Tecnología Agropecuaria – Centro de Investigación en Ciencias Veterinarias yAgronómicas (INTA-CICV y A), Instituto de Patobiología, CC 25, 1712, Castelar, Argentina(3) World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE), 12 rue de Prony, 75017 Paris, France*Corresponding author: [email protected]

SummaryThe World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE) carries out Gap Analysismissions (if a country so wishes) as part of its programme to assess and improvethe Performance of Veterinary Services (the ‘PVS Pathway’) in MemberCountries. These Gap Analysis missions have found that many nationalVeterinary Services comply to only a limited extent with the internationalstandards established by the OIE and that their competence is compromised bypoor governance. This failure threatens animal and public health not onlynationally but also internationally.The OIE PVS Gap Analysis reports reviewed found that all the VeterinaryServices have a strong vision and commitment to improvement but are held backby a weak chain of command, inadequate and outdated legislation, insufficientfunding, weak technical competencies, compromised technical independence,poor communications and limited joint programmes. There are weaknessesacross all the core technical areas of trade, animal health, veterinary publichealth and veterinary laboratories and also in the overall management of theVeterinary Services. The OIE PVS Gap Analysis missions recommend significantincreases in budget in all countries.

KeywordsBudget – Chain of command – Funding – Good governance – Joint programme –Legislation – National priority – PVS Gap Analysis – Technical competence – Technicalindependence – Veterinary Services.

IntroductionSince 2009, the World Organisation for Animal Health(OIE) has carried out more than 40 ‘Gap Analysis’ missionsas part of its programme to assess and improve thePerformance of Veterinary Services (the ‘PVS Pathway’).The first assessment in the pathway – the PVS Evaluation– identifies weaknesses in performance and the PVS GapAnalysis then examines how these weaknesses can be

addressed. This article reviews the findings of initial PVSGap Analysis missions in developing countries, focusingparticularly on issues of good governance of VeterinaryServices.

Fourteen PVS Gap Analysis country reports have now beenauthorised for distribution to donors and partners andthree have been released into the public domain. Thisreview considers the findings of the reports on Barbados,Bhutan, Bolivia, Cameroon, Cambodia, Costa Rica, Egypt,

632 Rev. sci. tech. Off. int. Epiz., 31 (2)

The PVS Gap Analysis missions determine five-yearobjectives for the Veterinary Services that are appropriateto the national priorities and constraints and take intoconsideration compliance with OIE standards (2). In thisprocess PVS missions identify critical weaknesses in theprovision and good governance of Veterinary Services andmake recommendations as to how these should beaddressed. The country PVS Gap Analysis report includesan indicative annual budget and an exceptional budget,consolidated over five years. The PVS Gap Analysis reportis reviewed by the country authority and may then bereleased into the public domain or to donors only,according to the level of confidentiality required by thecountry.

Good governanceThe activities of Veterinary Services are recognised as an‘international public good’. There is therefore arequirement for countries to provide competent andtransparent services that protect animal health and publichealth both within the country and internationally.

To provide appropriate Veterinary Services it is vital that the principles of ‘good governance’ are met. Any analysis ofthe current state of governance in national VeterinaryServices should include an assessment of the extent towhich they are:

– enhancing political accountability: legislation andinstitutions

– improving capacity: personnel skills, processes,systems, and resources (including both capital andfinancial resources)

– strengthening the demand for better governance:measures to enhance stakeholder participation.

Good governance of Veterinary Services results in servicesthat are sustainably financed, universally available andprovided efficiently without waste or duplication, all in amanner that is transparent and free of fraud or corruption.For Veterinary Services to support the development of thelivestock sector, protect public health and be sustainable,strong collaboration with the private sector must bedeveloped; such consultations should seek synergies toremove restrictions to livestock development and promoteimproved productivity through better husbandry andanimal health whilst maintaining good governance.

Good governance of Veterinary Services should be furtherstrengthened by seeking the support of citizens and directusers to improve the quality and quantity of services andaccess to them. Public support for good governance iscritical to the long-term sustainability of the improvements

Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Mongolia, Mozambique,Myanmar, Namibia, Nigeria, Panama, the Philippines andVietnam and the personal experience of the authors.Specific references to the countries have been explicitlyavoided in order to respect the confidential nature of theinformation. However, for comparison purposes, thecountries have been identified in the figures by a numberand their continent: AF for Africa, AM for America and ASfor Asia.

This article will first consider the concept of goodgovernance as it applies to Veterinary Services. It will thendiscuss the determined ‘national priorities’ or rationale forstrengthening the Veterinary Services. Specific criticalweaknesses will be addressed, focusing on the followingtopics: – the chain of command– legislation– technical and professional competence– technical independence– communication– joint programmes– technical programmes.

The final sections will consider funding andrecommendations for the budget required to strengthenVeterinary Services.

BackgroundAs stated above, the OIE PVS Gap Analysis is a componentof the OIE PVS Pathway, a global programme aimed atstrengthening national Veterinary Services. Theprogramme seeks to improve animal and public health andincrease compliance with international standards. Theseinternational standards have been established by OIEDelegates from Member Countries. They are published inthe OIE Terrestrial Animal Health Code (Terrestrial Code) andAquatic Animal Health Code (1, 3) and are recognised by theWorld Trade Organization Agreement on Sanitary andPhytosanitary Measures as the reference standards foranimal health and zoonoses. To achieve the objectives ofthe OIE PVS Pathway, the OIE has developed amethodology for assessing the performance of VeterinaryServices against defined ‘Critical Competencies’. Thesecompetencies are assessed using the OIE Tool for theEvaluation of Performance of Veterinary Services (2).

The PVS Gap Analysis missions work with the nationalVeterinary Services, and other relevant agencies, to developa budgeted strategic plan for the improvement of theVeterinary Services over a five-year period; this strategicplan for development is presented as a PVS Gap Analysisreport.

and should be addressed in any strategic plan. Ultimately,Veterinary Services must be accountable and there must bea public process of audit and review.

The PVS Gap Analysis missions have identified a numberof key structural, organisational and resourcing weaknessesthat limit the ability of Veterinary Services to comply withrecognised international standards as defined by the OIE(1, 3). In addition, operational weaknesses, such as weakmanagement and limited staff, vehicles, equipment andfunding, restrict the capacity of Veterinary Services todeliver technically effective programmes that enable themto fulfil their core functions of improving animal andhuman health.

Figure 1 indicates the current ‘Levels of Advancement’ forkey good governance critical competencies. For thepurposes of this article, the five levels of advancement usedin the PVS Tool have been condensed into three for easierassessment: Level 1 – no significant activity; Level 1/3 – initial developments undertaken; Level 4/5 –good progress towards international ‘best practice’. To improve their standards of good governance, all countries face major challenges in terms of achieving technical independence, ensuring transparency, gaining accreditation and delegation,securing emergency funding and setting up jointprogrammes; most countries also need to develop bettermanagement systems, seek better funding models,strengthen legislation and improve communications andconsultations.

Further analysis by region of the levels of advancement ofkey good governance critical competencies indicates that‘American’ countries are generally the most advanced. InAfrican countries performance varies widely, with some

Rev. sci. tech. Off. int. Epiz., 31 (2) 633

strengths but considerable weaknesses. Asian countriesface major problems, with poor technical competencies,weak legislation, insufficient communication and a lack ofjoint programmes. Funding is a major challenge in everyregion.

DiscussionNational prioritiesUnder the PVS Gap Analysis approach national prioritiesare determined in consultation with the Veterinary Servicesand other government and industry stakeholders. Thenational priorities are defined under four categories –livestock development, animal health, veterinary publichealth and the organisation and management of theVeterinary Services.

A review of the national priorities indicates that allcountries aim to develop livestock production. Allcountries are seeking to develop their production oflivestock in order to promote food security and economicdevelopment by increasing export opportunities anddecreasing imports. In some countries, this development isto be enhanced further by increasingly adding value toprimary production and increasing access to higher-valuemarkets through improved production and processing andbetter quality control. Another priority for severalcountries is to increase productivity by improvinghusbandry and reducing the impact of endemic diseases.In a number of countries this improvement is to be focusedon developing smallholder production, whereas othershave said that they intend to intensify and industrialiseproduction.

0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% Technical independence Stability of programmes

Coordination Physical resources

Operational funding Emergency funding

Investment capability Communication

Consultation with stakeholders Accreditation/delegation

Joint programmes Legislation

Compliance with legislation Transparency

Competencies: vets Competencies: para-vets

Veterinary Statutory Body

Level 1 Level 2+3 Level 4+5

Investment capability Emergency funding

Operational funding Physical resources

Coordination Stability of programmes echnical independenceTTe

0% 20% 60% 40% 100% 80%

eterinary Statutory Body VCompetencies: para-vets

Competencies: vets ransparency T

Compliance with legislation Legislation

Joint programmes Accreditation/delegation

Consultation with stakeholders Communication

Investment capability

Level 1 Level 2+3 Level 4+5

Fig. 1Current country ‘Levels of Advancement’ for key good governance critical competencies

The national animal health priority that is common to allcountries is to target major epidemic and transboundaryanimal diseases, particularly foot and mouth disease, pestedes petits ruminants, highly pathogenic avian influenza(HPAI), porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome,classical swine fever and African swine fever. Somecountries also plan to target endemic diseases, focusingvariously on parasitic diseases, clostridial diseases andanthrax in ruminants, leptospirosis and other pig diseasesand various poultry diseases. In part, this improved diseasecontrol is expected to come from strengthened quarantineand border controls. The role of wildlife in animal health isalso identified in some mission reports. A number ofcountries are already free from some of these diseases, butthis has not always been acknowledged internationally andso there is the need for a formal programme and an officialreport to demonstrate freedom from the disease.

Veterinary public health is widely recognised as a nationalpriority in most strategic plans. Most jurisdictions haveidentified a need to improve their programmes to controlfoodborne diseases and other zoonoses. Rabies iscommonly cited as a key disease that is not being wellmanaged. Several of the reports reviewed indicated thatfood safety is to be addressed with strengthened ante- andpost-mortem inspection programmes. Veterinarymedicines and biologicals are generally poorly managed,and there is an identified need for improved regulation oftheir use and the monitoring of residues in livestockproducts.

The organisation and management of Veterinary Services isrecognised as a critical requirement and a national priorityby all countries; however, the types of activities to beprioritised vary considerably. All countries identifiedweaknesses in the chain of command and in informationflows/pathways. Other priority areas requiring attention

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included the accessibility of the Veterinary Services, theneed for greater public–private partnership, staffrecruitment and succession planning, professional integrityand technical qualifications, and the need for betterlegislation.

Chain of commandA problem identified by most PVS Gap Analysis missions isthe weakness of the chain of command; that is, the line ofauthority from the central level through the regional and/orprovincial departments and down to the district and localfield veterinary network. This problem includes the lack ofdirect vertical management from the central agency to locallevels to set policy, provide technical leadership,implement effective programmes, and receive timely andreliable reports of the progress of such activities and oflocal changes in animal health status.

Veterinary Services in many jurisdictions face additionalchain-of-command problems because they sometimes havelimited or no authority over cross-cutting activities, whichare often handled by other departments or agencies.Examples include customs/border control, food safety postslaughter, zoonoses and general enforcement activities.

Many countries are federations or have decentralisedsystems of authority, with increased provincial or evendistrict autonomy in policy-making, budgeting andimplementation. Under this administrative structure thereis no direct line management or funding of local agencies,including local Veterinary Services.

Figure 2 compares the ideal direct line of authority with adecentralised system. The administratively simple system,with a single line of authority, provides direct control over

Fig. 2Variations in Veterinary Services chain of command


funding and resources, personnel, the setting of policy andthe provision of technical leadership; this also facilitatesthe flow of information from the field to the regional orcentral authorities. The more complex decentralisedsystems, operating in many countries, result in a break inthe chain of command between the central agency and thesub-national authorities; in these systems funding andpersonnel management is provided by the sub-nationalauthority while policy-making and technical guidance areprovided centrally.

The immediate priority for many Veterinary Services ishow to strengthen this chain of command between thecentral authority and the decentralised agencies. Theindirect line management of Veterinary Services is unlikelyto be addressed through changes in the nationalgovernance systems and so improvements must focus on a‘consensus’ approach under which the policies andtechnical leadership of the competent authority arerecognised by the sub-national agencies, and the localagencies provide timely, useful reports to the nationalauthority on their activities and the changing animal healthsituation.

There is no single method by which Veterinary Servicesmust carry out their mandate, but it should be clear howthey will comply with international standards as defined bythe OIE (1). Although from a governance perspective theideal for Veterinary Services would be independence withcomplete autonomy from external influences and adequatefunding, this is unlikely in the majority of nationalcontexts, in which the sub-sector may not be considered anational priority and practical budget limitations exist.

The complex further issue of the cross-cutting authority ofVeterinary Services is illustrated in Figure 3. It is notobligatory for Veterinary Services to have absolute

authority over the full remit of animal and veterinarypublic health activities in a broad government system. Forexample, in many countries the Ministry of Environmentmonitors and manages wildlife health, and the Ministry ofCommerce manages commercial marketing and processingfacilities. The Ministry of Health is tasked with promotinghuman health but, when health is compromised by azoonotic disease, control must be sought through reducingexposure at source, that is, in animals.

To achieve good governance of the critical VeterinaryService activities it is necessary to ensure a clear definitionof the roles of the different agencies and to ensuretransparency through the sharing of high-quality andtimely information. The PVS Gap Analysis missionsidentified problems in developing a coherent whole-government approach and recommendations were madeeither to implement structural change or to improvecoordination to address these weaknesses.

LegislationLegislation forms the cornerstone of Veterinary Serviceactivities, specifying the organisational structure, thebudget support and financial management, the technicalauthority and independence, the reporting obligations, andthe ability of Veterinary Services to investigate and controldisease. As such, appropriate legislation is fundamental tothe good governance of Veterinary Services.

The PVS Gap Analysis missions found that, in all thejurisdictions reviewed, Veterinary Services have problemswith inadequate and outdated legislation. Commonly,animal health legislation fails to recognise the changinginternational environment and the obligations of theVeterinary Services. Many countries have new legislation invarious stages of preparation but progress in finalising thenew laws is slow. Veterinary Services have limited ability topromote the required legislative changes, as they are oftennot seen as a priority, and have limited lobbying powerboth within their line ministry and across centralgovernment.

The legislative power of Veterinary Services is often furtherlimited by the lack of a clear mandate over activities thatare critical, but that are on the periphery of the VeterinaryServices remit, e.g. food safety post slaughter, customs,inspection and enforcement (as indicated under ‘Chain ofcommand’ above). Understandably, governments havedifferent approaches to protecting human health fromfoodborne and other zoonoses – some choose to give themandate to their Veterinary Services, others may use theMinistry of Health, the Ministry of Commerce or theMinistry of the Environment, whilst others provide nospecific mandate to any agency.

Fig. 3Veterinary Services common cross-cutting activities

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Areas of critical weakness in veterinary and animal healthlegislation vary but commonly include:

– ineffective lines of reporting/organisational structure

– no registration of veterinarians/absence of a VeterinaryStatutory Body

– no facility to register veterinary para-professionals

– no defined veterinary public health mandate

– weak management of veterinary medicines andbiologicals.

The problems of the lack of effective legislation in theseareas are discussed further under the relevant sections ofthis article.

All PVS Gap Analysis missions have advocated theupdating and/or passing of new veterinary legislation andthe need for ongoing review, with new regulations andfurther revisions to be undertaken as necessary. Toaccomplish the necessary revision of legislation VeterinaryServices must work closely with their ministries to gaintheir support and commitment to push the new lawsthrough the legislative process.

In all of the reports reviewed by the authors, countriesrecognised the active support from the OIE – within itsVeterinary Legislation Support Programme (2) – instrengthening their legislation to achieve good governanceof Veterinary Services and compliance with internationalstandards. Other international agencies, such as the Foodand Agriculture Organization of the United Nations andthe European Commission, are also actively working inthis area, and there is a need for the different agencies towork together to avoid confusion and duplication of effort.

Technical competence

Veterinarians

A major weakness identified by many PVS Gap Analysismissions is the lack of a definition of a ‘veterinarian’. Inmany countries the requirements for being recognised as aveterinarian are minimal or non-existent and there is noestablished Veterinary Statutory Body to manageprofessional standards regarding registration, professionalintegrity and ethics, and disciplinary measures.

To establish and maintain veterinary professional standardsall countries should have a Veterinary Statutory Body,which should be independent of government and anypolitical interference (1, 3). Most developing countriescurrently do not have a Veterinary Statutory Body; somehave a government-managed programme of veterinaryregistration, but few have an independent body.

Veterinary education is of highly variable quality andduration, with many countries making no reference to any

recognised curriculum standards. In addition, there isgenerally no requirement to undertake continuingprofessional development. Government veterinarians havelittle opportunity to develop specialist skills unless theyparticipate in internationally sponsored short courses orpost graduate training. The limitations of basic trainingand limited ongoing development of government andprivate veterinarians severely restricts their ability todevelop national Veterinary Services that meetinternational standards as set out by the OIE.

In small countries, the cost of establishing a veterinaryteaching facility may be considered unwarranted, andalternative options should be considered. It is also difficultto implement a formal process for professional disciplinarymeasures if the veterinary profession in the country is verysmall. PVS Gap Analysis missions suggested that in somesituations a regional organisation might usefully beestablished to address such problems.

The absence of veterinary standards presents a seriousthreat to good governance as it means that technicalcompetence is limited, professional ethics are uncertainand likely to be placed under pressure, and that there is nomethod of controlling the quality and integrity of theprofession. The lack of veterinary standards (i.e. theabsence of an appropriate definition of a ‘veterinarian’)allows untrained people to adopt the term without everhaving their competency or professional ethics evaluated.Such a situation exists in many developing countries,including those assessed in this article. This weaknesspresents as a Veterinary Service unable to accuratelydiagnose disease, with limited ability to take the necessaryregulatory actions that may be required to combat diseaseand with no reliable system for certifying animal healthstatus. Further, this situation can lead to conflicts ofinterest in the absence of any management of the integrityof the profession.

A number of country reports strongly advocate the benefitsand sustainability of delegating some activities of thegovernment Veterinary Services to private practitioners.Delegating some activities assists in the development of aprivate veterinary system and can meet the need for goodgovernance – as long as the chain of command is clear andeffective management and quality control areimplemented. Using private practitioners reduces theoverhead costs of staffing and equipping the governmentVeterinary Services.

Figure 4 shows the range of budget recommendations, as apercentage of the total Veterinary Services budget, forstaffing and delegated activities from a number of PVS GapAnalysis missions. Staff salaries form a major component ofall PVS Gap Analysis budgets, and the range allocatedvaries from over 50% to less than 20% of the total budget.Veterinary staff generally receive the greater percentage of

637Rev. sci. tech. Off. int. Epiz., 31 (2)

staff salaries, but some countries have a policy of makinggreater use of veterinary para-professionals and othertechnical staff. Countries have a wide range of approachesto the delegation of activities, with some expecting tospend more than 80% of their ‘personnel’ costs ondelegation, whilst other countries have no planned budgetfor delegation. This range of approaches can be explainedby the different philosophies of government and stage ofdevelopment of the country and/or the Veterinary Services.For example, the countries with the higher salarypercentages generally have a more developed livestockindustry and/or are more strongly focused on increasinglivestock production. The countries with lower salarypercentages are at an earlier stage in the development oftheir Veterinary Services and starting from a lower base,with greater initial investment required for facilities,equipment and staff training.

Veterinary para-professionals

In all the reports reviewed in preparation for this article,there was limited or no definition of veterinary para-professionals, with often no clear job descriptions and no

qualification or training requirements. Some veterinarypara-professionals were given responsibility for specifictasks in some jurisdictions, for example, meat inspectionand food safety.

Veterinary para-professionals were recognised by all PVS Gap Analysis missions as a core component inproviding a competent national Veterinary Service.However, to make better use of this resource, there is aneed to have a rigorous system for defining their roles andactivities, their basic qualifications and ongoing trainingneeds, and the effective management and supervision oftheir activities by designated veterinarians. A commonproblem is making inefficient use of veterinary para-professionals, with veterinarians being used as techniciansin laboratories or other positions when competent para-professionals, under veterinary supervision, would be ableto undertake the task competently and well. Failure toimplement effective management of this resource weakensthe Veterinary Service and also runs the risk of technicalweakness or, worse, incompetence. These failures presenta significant threat to the good governance of theVeterinary Services as technical independence andauthority will be reduced.

AF: Africa AM: Americas AS: Asia

Fig. 4Percentage of overall Veterinary Services budget that is assigned to staff costs (salaries and delegated activities)Countries have been numbered to protect confidentiality

Country

70%

60%

50%

40%

30%

20%

10%

0%

AM1

AM2

AM3

AM4

AS1

AS2

AS3

AS4

AS5

AS6

AF1

AF2

AF3

AF4

AF5

AF6

AF7

Perc

enta

ge o

f tot

al b

udge

t

Delegated activities/year

Support staff

Veterinary para-professionals

Staff with non-veterinary degrees

Veterinarians

It is widely recommended that there be a registrationprogramme for veterinary para-professionals (in additionto the registration process for veterinarians) under thecontrol of the Veterinary Statutory Body that managesveterinary standards.

Technical independenceGood governance principles require that decisions bebased on technical independence and a sound knowledgeand understanding of the situation. In addition, thedecision-making process must be transparent anddecisions should be made without any bias or self-interest.Technical independence was identified as a significantconcern in many countries.

Technical independence is compromised at a number oflevels in many countries because there is:

– inadequate information on which to base decisions

– lack of documented processes

– bias, self-interest or political interference by decision-makers

– insufficient remuneration of technical staff.

Information on animal health or veterinary public health is often inadequate, with insufficient data on thedisease situation and little or no robust surveillance dataavailable. This weakness is exacerbated by problems ofpoor information management, with little concatenation ofdata and limited analysis and reporting. The net result is apoor understanding of the disease and its epidemiologyand an inability to make appropriate science-baseddecisions.

In many countries, there is no documented process for decision-making. Decisions are taken by individuals or at meetings, without any record being made of the information provided, the options considered, the deciding arguments and the final conclusions. Policy decisions and their implementation are notroutinely monitored or evaluated.

As there is no documentation of the process of decision-making, there are concerns over the integrity of theprocess. Self-interest, political expediency and personalbias may all interfere with decision-making and technicalindependence. In many developing countriesremuneration of government staff is very poor, insufficientto meet even basic living costs – this means there is a riskthat decisions will be made on non-technical grounds orthat there will be ‘reward-seeking’ behaviour. This poses athreat to the principles of good governance, with a loss oftransparency and objectivity, and may result in corruptionor fraud.

As an example, a lack of transparency and reporting ofdisease outbreaks and unreliable reporting of controlactivities, such as vaccination, seriously limit the ability ofVeterinary Services to assess the disease situation and theprogress of control programmes. Such a situation exists ina number of countries and results in poor decisions beingmade and inappropriate control strategies adopted. Thissituation also presents the risk of decisions being taken onthe basis of short-term expediency, with benefits forspecific interest groups, rather than with the aim ofachieving sustained improvements with benefits for all.

CommunicationsGovernment and stakeholder communications help topromote the principles of good governance, as they enablegovernment to work with industry stakeholders and otherrelevant parties to set objectives and to develop viable andmutually beneficial programmes. Government VeterinaryServices demonstrate a variety of approaches tocommunications and consultation activities: some holdregular formal meetings with industry groups and cross-cutting agencies, others arrange ad hoc meetings whenproblems arise, and some are involved in little activityother than internationally supported campaigns targetingspecific issues such as HPAI.

A general recommendation made by PVS Gap Analysismissions was that there should be increased investment incommunications, with the development of a core unitwithin the Veterinary Services with dedicated staff and anincreased budget. Such units should work withprogramme managers to develop a communications plantargeting key stakeholders using the most appropriatemeans of communication. The impact of communicationsshould be reviewed regularly to ensure that they remaineffective – if they are not having a high impact on the targetaudience, then the programme should be revised.

Consultations with industry and producer groups are oftenlimited, reducing the ability to develop joint programmeswith public–private partnerships. In many countries thereare no producer groups, either because the level ofdevelopment is low or because local politics do notendorse such group associations. To develop strongerconsultation mechanisms, PVS Gap Analysis missionscommonly recommended strengthening producer groupsand also considered the possibility of setting up ‘industryfunds’ to support industry development and to assistgovernment in providing contingency funding.

To develop the principles of good governance further, aprocess of public and industry feedback should beestablished. The commitment and engagement of citizensin the review of Veterinary Service activities will providedirect guidance on priorities and governance concerns.


Joint programmesAll the PVS Gap Analysis reports reviewed recommendedthe increased use of ‘joint programmes’ to reduce the costof implementing animal health programmes and veterinarypublic health initiatives. Such programmes should bejointly developed with the appropriate stakeholders andled by the Veterinary Services using a participatoryapproach to set realistic goals and milestones with clearlines of project management, responsibility and funding.

In all countries, producers and industry groups have thevision of increasing livestock production and so eitherreducing the country’s reliance on imports or increasing itsexports. National governments are generally not in aposition to support all the infrastructure, staffing,traceability, information capture, analysis and reportingrequired to undertake the necessary programmes ofsurveillance and disease control. The logical approachtherefore is to endorse the philosophy of public–privatepartnerships under which government services provideleadership, coordination and any necessary legislation and,to a greater or lesser extent, industry develops the fieldprogramme of controlling and monitoring the animalhealth situation (Fig. 5).

All countries have undertaken planning for incursions byone or more of the major transboundary animal diseases,such as foot and mouth disease, HPAI and African swinefever. These preparedness plans are not always welldeveloped and structured, nor have they always beentested through real events or exercises. Critical indeveloping robust and effective response plans is managingthe impact that emergency controls will have on thelivestock industry stakeholders. To encourage strongcommitment to an emergency response, and to ensure thatthe necessary trade restrictions are implemented, jointprogrammes need to be developed and promoted. Thisprocess will include identifying factors that may limit

industry commitment when problems occur, such asmarket collapse and the absence of effective, timely andappropriately valued compensation. It is imperative thatthese obstacles to an effective response then be addressedduring the planning phase.

Technical policies and programmesTo achieve national priorities PVS Gap Analysis missionswork with the Veterinary Services and other stakeholdersto (i) review the core technical programmes for livestockdevelopment, animal health and veterinary public health,(ii) support cross-cutting activities such as laboratoryservices and communications, and (iii) improve staff skillsand capacity.

Issues of good governance cut across all these activities,requiring transparency of process and decision-making,sustainability of funding, efficient implementation,universal access, and management in a manner that is freeof corruption or self-interest.

All countries identified quarantine and border control asbeing critical to improving the control of diseaseincursions. Island countries have natural barriers to theeasy movement of livestock and livestock products andtypically tend to have a higher animal health status. Allisland countries assessed already invest heavily in bordercontrol, but there remain many systemic weaknesses.Countries with substantial land borders face a considerablechallenge in reducing the risk to their animal populations.To address these challenges, PVS Gap Analysis missionsrecommended that veterinary authorities:

– increase the authority of the Veterinary Services overthe border control for livestock and livestock products, asthis is often compromised by cross-agency management

– increase investment in staff and staff training, facilities,equipment and materials

– improve data capture, record-keeping, analysis andreporting

– increase the use of risk analysis to identify priorities,including issues of illegal trade

– increase collaboration with neighbouring countries andtrading partners.

Animal health remains the core activity of nationalVeterinary Services, and all PVS Gap Analysis missionshave assigned this a high priority. The identified criticalactivities are reducing the threat of transboundary animaldiseases and improving the control of endemic diseases.


Fig. 5Market sampling of ducks for influenza viruses

Achieving this will involve improving surveillance systems,both active and passive, developing robust controlprogrammes, preferably as ‘joint programmes’ withindustry, providing contingency funding for emergencyanimal health events and increasing capacity to respond todisease incursions. There is also a generalacknowledgement among Veterinary Services that livestockidentification and traceability are important (Fig. 6), but,given the different national priorities, this activity receivesvarying commitment and budget. Animal welfare has hadlittle attention in many countries and Gap Analysismissions recommend that Veterinary Services develop thenecessary legislation, formulate job descriptions and assignstaff to undertake welfare duties.

The PVS Gap Analysis reports reviewed for this articleconcluded that veterinary public health is being variablyaddressed but is underdeveloped in all countries. Commonissues identified include:

– limited animal inspection at slaughter, both ante andpost mortem, with little recording of findings,consolidation of data, analysis or reporting

– no authority over the inspection of post-slaughtermarket and distribution chains (Fig. 7) or any access todata from post-slaughter monitoring

– weak or absent control of veterinary medicines andbiologicals, with often no registration or control of theiruse or monitoring of imports or sales, and no residuetesting programme; this problem is often exacerbated bycross-cutting issues of partial control of veterinarymedicines by the health authorities.

In all PVS Gap Analysis reports reviewed, laboratoryservices were identified as being vital to the developmentof competent Veterinary Services. Recent disease epidemicsand threats have seen many donors offer considerablesupport to a range of activities but particularly tolaboratories. All national veterinary laboratories have beensignificantly strengthened with increased staff and stafftraining, improved facilities, equipment and materials. Anumber of countries have made significant progress indeveloping laboratory quality assurance by developingstandard operating procedures and quality controls.However, although great progress has been made,substantial challenges remain. The greatest challengefacing every Veterinary Service in running a competentlaboratory diagnostic system is one of providing anadequate and sustainable budget.

Insufficient fundingA core requirement for the good governance of VeterinaryServices is their adequate and sustainable funding.Following consideration of the national priorities forlivestock, all the PVS Gap Analysis reports reviewedrecommended significant increases in funding to achievethe desired level of advancement.

National Veterinary Services are not generally a priority fordeveloping countries with insufficient funding even forbaseline activities, let alone improving their capability withfurther investment in staffing, facilities and operationalfunding. This weak financial position is further limited byany fees and revenue earned being paid into the centralexchequer, providing no direct strengthening of theVeterinary Services from their own enforcement andregistration activities.

The Veterinary Services in most developing countries areoverly dependent on external aid programmes. Althoughthese programmes strengthen aspects of VeterinaryServices activities they result in inevitable problems:domestic priorities are superseded by internationalobjectives and the Veterinary Services are not always ableto sustain the provided ‘improvements’. For example,under the HPAI control programmes, donors haveprovided significant investment in laboratory diagnostic


Fig. 6Traditional cattle identification

Fig. 7Local meat seller

equipment but no budget for ongoing calibration andmaintenance, or even for consumables and reagents. Thenational desire for ‘state-of-the-art’ veterinary diagnosticfacilities is tempered by the recognition that the VeterinaryServices do not have the ability to operate and sustain suchcapacity. Logically, greater consideration should be given todeveloping regional centres to perform the more costly andsophisticated diagnostic tests. Laboratory services will bedifficult to sustain if they do not provide a broader benefitto producers and consumers by supporting the control ofendemic and zoonotic diseases and reducing the emphasison major enzootic diseases.

Veterinary staff remuneration packages are ofteninsufficient to provide for even the basic living costs ofstaff. This problem results in limited staff availability andcommitment and is likely to have negative consequencesfor sub-sector governance. Particular problems identifiedby PVS GAP Analysis missions have been:

– inability to recruit staff

– loss of experienced/postgraduate trained/technicallycompetent staff

– reward-seeking activities

– absence of staff.

Staff recruitment and retention were both identified asproblem areas. Difficulties in finding and holding on toqualified personnel result in there being insufficient staffwith the appropriate experience and specialist skills. Manydonor programmes have sought to address this skillsshortage by sponsoring a range of training initiatives,including overseas postgraduate courses. In many cases,staff who have completed training abroad are not retainedto provide the technical leadership and policy-settingrequired of the Veterinary Services – such staff are oftenrecruited by overseas organisations or international non-governmental organisations, others are promoted into non-technical managerial positions.

Veterinary Services staff in all countries are poorlyremunerated when compared with other professions suchas doctors, engineers and middle/senior management. Thelevels of remuneration vary by country, but in the mostsevere cases staff are paid at such a low level that there islittle or no commitment to actually work for thegovernment Veterinary Services; staff are frequently absentor engaged in other income-earning activities. GovernmentVeterinary Services staff based at regional and local officesoften provide clinical care for animal owners, reducingtheir ability to provide independent objective localVeterinary Services.

The lack of available, technically competent andindependent staff is a major challenge for the provision ofVeterinary Services in all the countries reviewed andrequires urgent attention. PVS Gap Analysis missions have

identified this weakness and made recommendations forthis problem to be addressed, but this will take time andrequire government commitment and financial support –support which may not be forthcoming given commonbudgetary and political challenges and competing nationalpriorities.

Recommended budgetPVS Gap Analysis missions develop a five-year budget plancovering both annual and exceptional expenditure. Thebudget is compared with a number of national parameterswhen these are available – most commonly it is presentedas a percentage of the livestock gross domestic product(GDP). The recommended budget is typically between 2%and 3% of livestock GDP, with a range of less than 1% togreater than 10%. This variation can be attributed todifferent national priorities – with some countries focusingon high animal health status to protect domestic humanand animal health or to promote trade by increasing accessto higher-value export markets, whilst others are in anearlier stage of development, with competing nationalpriorities and limited opportunity to invest in theirVeterinary Services.

The recommended budget can also be reviewed accordingto the five ‘pillars’ of the OIE PVS Gap Analysis tool; thatis, the activity areas of trade, animal health, veterinarypublic health, laboratory services and management andresources (Fig. 8). In all countries, it is recommended thatanimal health activities receive the highest proportion ofthe budget – primarily to support disease surveillance andcontrol activities, both centrally and in the field – and thattrade receive a moderate budget, the amount of whichvaries by country depending on the emphasis on bordercontrols and traceability. Veterinary public health isincreasingly recognised as important, and in mostcountries it is recommended that a significant portion ofthe budget is assigned to this activity. The need to supportVeterinary Services with improved management andresources is recognised in all countries. A significantbudget should also be provided for laboratory services.(Note that not all PVS Gap Analysis missions assessedlaboratory services.)

Internationally, government budgets have come underincreasing pressure because of the global economicuncertainty and the pressure to rein in public sectorborrowing. Notwithstanding the pressure on allgovernments, the PVS Gap Analysis missions haveuniversally recommended increased funding for VeterinaryServices. These recommendations are developedrecognising the national priorities of the country, itscurrent level of advancement, and the improvementsproposed. Veterinary Services have been chronicallyunderfunded, with inadequate funding for baseline


activities, poor staff remuneration and the return of anyfees earned to the central exchequer. Veterinary Servicesface a further funding problem in view of internationalpressure to address major enzootic diseases, such as footand mouth disease and HPAI, rather than to improveproduction by investing in the control of endemic diseases,including parasitic diseases. All PVS Gap Analysis missionsrecommended that an increased budget be provided to theVeterinary Services, along with increased support from theprivate sector.

ConclusionThis initial assessment of a number of OIE PVS GapAnalysis reports has demonstrated the wide range ofstrategic development plans that have been prepared. Thisfinding is not surprising as the countries reviewed are atvarying stages of development from ‘developing’ throughto ‘middle income’ status. The more developed countriestend to set higher standards of good governance, withbetter management systems, stronger legislation, highertechnical competence, good-quality joint programmes andmore transparency and sharing of information.

There is a high level of commitment by all nationalVeterinary Services to improving the effectiveness andintegrity of their systems, with all countries showingconsiderable vision and clarity in establishing theirnational priorities. Predictably, it is harder to obtain such acommitment from other central government agencies andsometimes even from senior officials in the agricultureministry.

Good governance of Veterinary Services is compromised inmany countries as services are inadequately financed andineffectively operated, without good management ofinformation or transparency of decision-making.

Following consideration of the national priorities, all PVS Gap Analysis missions recommended significant budget increases so that the Veterinary Servicescould achieve the necessary levels of advancement. It isdifficult to predict if these recommendations are going tobe endorsed, as the OIE PVS Pathway is still in its earlystages. It is apparent that all Veterinary Services mustbecome more adept at political lobbying and develop ahigher profile within government. Part of this increasedadvocacy must come from closer liaison with, and supportfrom, the private sector – in many jurisdictions there is


AF: Africa AS: Asia

Fig. 8Recommended budget by PVS Gap Analysis ‘pillar’Countries have been numbered to protect confidentiality

Perc

enta

ge o

f tot

al b

udge

t

Country

100%

90%

80%

70%

60%

50%

40%

30%

20%

10%

0%AF6 AF7 AS2 AS4 AS6

General mangement

Veterinary laboratories

Veterinary public health

Animal Health

Trade

little or no synergy between Veterinary Services and theprivate sector.

The PVS GAP Analysis missions have identified criticalproblems facing Veterinary Services and developed robuststrategic plans for their improvement. It remains to be seenwhether increased and sustainable funding and supportwill be provided by national governments and/orinternational agencies and donors. If the suggested budgetsupport is provided, at least in part, then, by following thestrategic development plans, national Veterinary Serviceswill be greatly strengthened internationally.

Opportunities to make considerable progress withoutsignificant funding should not be overlooked. Followingonly the more cost-neutral recommendations in the five-year plans, Veterinary Services could still expect to see ageneral improvement in core good governance activities,including strengthened and updated legislation, improvedmanagement and reporting systems, enhanced technicalindependence, increased use of joint industry programmesand greater transparency and citizens’ demand for high-quality and sustainable Veterinary Services.

AcknowledgementsThis article was prepared by an independent group ofauthors and does not necessarily represent the views of theOIE. The support of the OIE is gratefully acknowledged bythe authors, who were provided with a number of PVS GapAnalysis reports and budget spreadsheets. The authorswould also like to thank Dr François Caya, Head of theOIE Regional Activities Department, for his review and thevaluable comments provided.

The World Bank provided guidance in the preparation ofthis article, and its support is gratefully acknowledged.


Évaluation initiale des plans stratégiques visant à améliorer les performances des Services vétérinaires dans les pays en développement : examen des rapports d’analyse des écarts PVS de l’OIE

J. Weaver, E. Leon, M. Edan & F. D’Alessio

RésuméL’Organisation mondiale de la santé animale (OIE) effectue, dans le cadre de sonprogramme d’évaluation des performances des Services vétérinaires de sesPays Membres, des missions d’analyse des écarts dans les pays qui ledemandent. Il ressort de ces missions d’analyse des écarts que dans bien descas, la conformité des Services vétérinaires nationaux par rapport aux normesinternationales élaborées par l’OIE est très relative et que les compétences deces Services sont mises à mal par une gouvernance médiocre. Cet insuccèsmenace la santé animale et la santé publique aux niveaux tant nationalqu’international.Les rapports des missions d’analyse des écarts PVS de l’OIE constatent que tousles Services vétérinaires sont animés par une vision forte et une réelle volontéd’amélioration, mais qu’ils sont freinés par une chaîne de commandementinefficace, une législation inappropriée et obsolète, des financementsinsuffisants, des compétences techniques médiocres, une indépendancetechnique fragile, des systèmes de communication inefficaces et desprogrammes en partenariat peu ambitieux. Des insuffisances techniques portant


sur des aspects cruciaux ont été identifiées en matière de commerce, de santéanimale, de santé publique vétérinaire et dans les laboratoires vétérinaires, ainsique dans la gestion globale des Services vétérinaires. Les rapports d’analysedes écarts PVS de l’OIE préconisent une augmentation significative des budgetsdans tous les pays ayant participé à l’évaluation.

Mots-clésAnalyse des écarts PVS – Bonne gouvernance – Budget – Chaîne de commandement –Compétence technique – Financement – Indépendance technique – Législation – Priorité nationale – Programme en partenariat – Services vétérinaires.

Evaluación inicial de planes estratégicos para mejorar la eficacia de los Servicios Veterinarios en países en desarrollo:estudio de los informes de análisis de brechas PVS de la OIE

J. Weaver, E. Leon, M. Edan & F. D’Alessio

ResumenComo parte de su programa de evaluación de la “Eficacia de los ServiciosVeterinarios” (PVS), la Organización Mundial de Sanidad Animal (OIE) lleva acabo misiones de “análisis de brechas” en los Países Miembros que lo solicitan.Esos estudios han puesto de relieve que los Servicios Veterinarios de muchospaíses solo cumplen parcialmente las normas internacionales fijadas por la OIE,y que sus deficientes procesos de gobierno ponen en entredicho sucompetencia. Ello supone una amenaza para la salud pública y animal, no solode cada país, sino también a escala internacional. De las misiones de análisis debrechas PVS de la OIE estudiadas por los autores se desprende que todos losServicios Veterinarios tienen el claro objetivo y la firme voluntad de mejorar,pero sus esfuerzos se ven lastrados por problemas en la cadena de mando, unalegislación inadecuada y obsoleta, falta de fondos, insuficiente competenciatécnica, interferencias en la independencia de los técnicos, dificultades decomunicaciones y escasez de programas conjuntos. Se observan deficienciasen todos los ámbitos técnicos fundamentales ligados al comercio, la sanidadanimal, la salud pública veterinaria y los laboratorios veterinarios, así como enla gestión global de los Servicios Veterinarios. En todos los países estudiados,las misiones de análisis de brechas PVS de la OIE se saldaron con larecomendación de incrementar sustancialmente la dotación presupuestaria.

Palabras claveAnálisis de brechas PVS – Buen gobierno – Cadena de mando – Competencia técnica –Financiación – Independencia técnica – Legislación – Presupuesto – Prioridad nacional– Programa conjunto – Servicios Veterinarios.

References1. World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE) (2011). –

Aquatic Animal Health Code, 14th Ed. OIE, Paris.

2. World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE) (2011). – OIESupport to OIE Members. Available at: www.oie.int/en/support-to-oie-members/ (accessed on 1 September 2011).

3. World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE) (2011). –Terrestrial Animal Health Code, 20th Ed. Vols I & II. OIE,Paris. Available at: www.oie.int/en/international-standard-setting/terrestrial-code/access-online/ (accessed on 1 September 2011).


initial assessment of strategic plans for improving the

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