inorganic chemistry. modern periodic table features of the periodic table the periodic table is an...
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INORGANIC CHEMISTRY
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Modern Periodic Table
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Features of the Periodic Table• The Periodic Table is an arrangement of elements
in order of increasing atomic number.
• Each element in a horizontal row (Period) differs from the preceding element by addition of an electron to the electron shell and a proton to the nucleus.
• Elements are arranged such that elements in a particular vertical column (Group) have the same number of electrons in its valence shell
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8.2
ns1
ns2
ns2
np1
ns2
np2
ns2
np3
ns2
np4
ns2
np5
ns2
np6
d1
d5 d10
4f
5f
Ground State Electron Configurations of the Elements
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(1) The chemical and physical properties of the elements are periodic functions of the atomic number (number of protons in the nucleus = number of electrons in the neutral atom).
(2) The elements can be arranged in groups (columns) of elements that possess related chemical and physical properties.
(3) The elements can be arranged in periods (rows) of elements that possess progressively different physical and chemical properties
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Orbitals Being Filled
1s
2s
3s
4s
5s
6s
7s
3d
4d
5d
6d
2p
3p
4p
5p
6p
1s
La
Ac
1
3 4 5 6 7
4f
5f
Lanthanide series
Actinide series
Groups 8
Perio
ds
1 2
2
3
4
5
6
7
Zumdahl, Zumdahl, DeCoste, World of Chemistry 2002, page 345
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Elements show gradual changes in certain physical properties as one moves across a period or down a group in the periodic table. These properties repeat after certain intervals. In other words they are PERIODIC
Periodic properties Periodic properties include:include: -- Atomic Radius-- Ionization Energy-- Electronegativity-- Electron Affinity-- Ionic Radius
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Radius
Atomic Radius = half the distance between 2 nuclei of a diatomic molecule/adjacent atoms.
Atomic Radii
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Trends in Atomic Radii • Influenced by three factors:
1. Energy Level–Higher energy level is further away.
2. Charge on nucleus–Higher charge pulls electrons in
closer. 3. Shielding effect
- electron repulsion
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Group trends• As we go down a
group...• each atom has
another energy level,
• so the atoms get bigger.
HLi
Na
K
Rb
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Periodic Trends• As you go across a period, the radius gets
smaller.• Electrons are in same energy level.• More nuclear charge.• Outermost electrons are closer.
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
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• The radius decreases across a period owing to increase in the positive charge from the protons.
• Each added electron feels a greater and greater + charge because the protons are pulling in the same direction, whereas the electrons are scattered.
LargeLarge SmallSmall
All values are innanometers
.
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Atomic Radius
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Ionization energy is the minimum energy (kJ/mol) required to remove an electron from a gaseous atom in its ground state.
I1 + X (g) X+
(g) + e-
I2 + X+(g) X2+
(g) + e-
I3 + X2+(g) X3+
(g) + e-
I1 first ionization energy
I2 second ionization energy
I3 third ionization energy
I1 < I2 < I3
Ionization Energy
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• Ionization energy is always endothermic, that is energy is added to the atom to remove the electron.
• The larger the atom is, the easier it is to remove its electrons.
• The energy required to remove an electron from an atom reduces as the size of the atom increases
• Ionization energy and atomic radius are inversely proportional.
Ionization energy is the energy required toremove an electron from an isolated gaseous atom
Ionization Energy Cont’d
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Factors Affecting Ionization Energy
Nuclear ChargeNuclear ChargeThe larger the nuclear charge, the greater the ionization energy.
Shielding effectShielding effectThe greater the shielding effect, the less the ionization energy.RadiusRadius
The greater the distance between the nucleus and the outer electrons of an atom, the less the ionization energy.
SublevelSublevelAn electron from a full or half-full sublevel requires additional energy to be removed.
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Group trends in IE• As you go down a group, first IE
decreases because...
• Atomic radius of the atoms increases
• More shielding.
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First Ionization Energies(in kilojoules per mole)
H1312.1
Li520.3
Na495.9
K418.9
Be899.5
Mg737.8
Ca589.9
B800.7
Al577.6
Ga578.6
C1086.5
Si786.5
Ge761.2
N1402.4
P1011.8
As946.5
O1314.0
S999.7
Se940.7
F1681.1
Cl1251.2
Br1142.7
Ne2080.8
Ar1520.6
Kr1350.8
He2372.5
Rb402.9
Sr549.2
In558.2
Sn708.4
Sb833.8
Te869.0
I1008.7
Xe1170.3
Smoot, Price, Smith, Chemistry A Modern Course 1987, page 188
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Periodic Trends in IE
• Atoms in the same period have valence electrons in the same energy level.
• Same shielding.• But, nuclear charge increases across the
period• So IE generally increases from left to
right.• Exceptions at full and 1/2 full orbitals.
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Firs
t Ion
izat
ion
ener
gy
Atomic number
He
• He has a greater IE than H.
• same shielding
• greater nuclear charge
H
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Firs
t Ion
izat
ion
ener
gy
Atomic number
H
He
Li has lower IE than H
Outer electron further away
outweighs greater nuclear charge
Li
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Firs
t Ion
izat
ion
ener
gy
Atomic number
H
He
Be has higher IE than Li
same shielding
greater nuclear charge
Li
Be
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Firs
t Ion
izat
ion
ener
gy
Atomic number
H
He
Li
Be
B
C
N
O
• Breaks the pattern, because the outer electron is paired in a p orbital and experiences inter-electron repulsion.
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Firs
t Ion
izat
ion
ener
gy
Atomic number
H
He
Li
Be
B
C
N
O
F
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Firs
t Ion
izat
ion
ener
gy
Atomic number
H
He
Li
Be
B
C
N
O
F
Ne• Ne has a lower IE
than He• Both are full,• Ne has more
shielding• Greater distance
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Question Arrangement of Elements by First Ionization Energy
PLAN:
SOLUTION:
PROBLEM: Using the periodic table only, rank the elements in each of the following sets in order of decreasing IE1:
(a) Kr, He, Ar (b) Sb, Te, Sn (c) K, Ca, Rb (d) I, Xe, Cs
IE increases as you proceed up in a group; IE increases as you go across a period.
(a) He > Ar > Kr
(b) Te > Sb > Sn
(c) Ca > K > Rb
(d) Xe > I > Cs
Group 8A(18) - IE decreases down a group.
Period 5 elements - IE increases across a period.
Ca is to the right of K; Rb is below K.
I is to the left of Xe; Cs is further to the left and down one period.
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Electronegativity
Electronegativity is a measure of the ability of an atom in a molecule to attract electrons to itself.
• This concept was first proposed by Linus Pauling (1901-1994) who later won a Nobel Prize for his efforts.
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Electronegativity is the ability of an atom to attract toward itself the electrons in a chemical bond
Electronegativity - relative,
X (g) + e- X-(g)
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Group Trends in Electronegativity• So as you go down a group in the periodic
table, the electrons are further away from the nucleus and better shielded from the nuclear charge and thus not as attracted to the nucleus.
• For that reason the electronegativity decreases as you go down the periodic table.
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Periodic Trends in Electronegativity:
• The atoms have same energy levels but size decreases across the period.
• Hence, Electronegativity increases from left to right across a period
• F is highest - or most electronegative element
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Summary of Periodic Trends
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Periodicity of Period 3 Elements
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The Period 3 elements
1234567
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Major properties which change across the period are:• Structure and bonding• Elements change from metal through metalloid
to non metals.• Acid-base properties• Redox properties• Solubility and complexing propertiesThe changes are related to Change in size of the atomChange in nuclear chargeIncreasing number of valence electrons
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The elements show graduation in properties with exception of argon.
Na Mg Al Si P S ClEo -2.71 -2.37 -1.66 -0.48 +1.36
AR
IEEN 0.9 1.2 1.5 1.8 2.1 2.5 3.0O.S +1 +2 +3 +4 +5,+3 +4,+6 -1to+7
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Reactions with oxygen
For example, when sodium is burned in oxygen the oxidation state of the sodium increases from 0 to +1 (oxidation), while the oxidation state of the oxygen decreases from 0 to -2 (reduction).
4Na(s) + O2(g) → 2Na2O(s)
The reactions of the period 3 elements with oxygen are redox reactions. In each reaction, the oxidation state of the elements increases and the oxidation state of the oxygen decreases.
0 0 +1 -2
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Reactions with oxygen: summary
S(s) + O2(g) → SO2(g)burns with a blue flame
4P(s) + 5O2(g) → P4O10(s)burns spontaneously with a bright white flame and smoke
Si(s) + O2(g) → SiO2(s)burns with a bright white flame and white smoke
4Al(s) + 3O2(g) → 2Al2O3(s)burns vigorously with a bright white flame
2Mg(s) + O2(g) → 2MgO(s)burns vigorously with a bright white flame
4Na(s) + O2(g) → 2Na2O(s)burns vigorously with a yellow flame
S
P
Si
Al
Mg
Na
EquationDescriptionElement
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The metals are oxidised and their oxidation state increases.
2Na(s) + 2H2O(l) → 2NaOH(aq) + H2(g)
Mg(s) + H2O(g) → MgO(s) + H2(g)
The reactions with water are all redox reactions.
0 +1 -2 +1 -2 +1 0
0 +1 -2 +2 -2 0
The hydrogen is reduced and its oxidation state decreases.
The chlorine is both oxidized and reduced.
Cl2(aq) + H2O(l) HClO(aq) + HCl(aq)
0 +1 -2 +1 -2 +1 -1+1
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Reactions with water: summary
–no reaction
dissolves to formchlorine water
–no reaction
–no reaction
–no reaction
–no reaction
Mg(s) + 2H2O(l) → Mg(OH)2(aq) + H2(g)
Mg(s) + H2O(g) → MgO(s) + H2(g)
slow with cold water;vigorous with steam
2Na(s) + 2H2O(l) → 2NaOH(aq) + H2(g)vigorous
Ar
Cl
S
P
Si
Al
Mg
Na
EquationDescriptionElement
Cl2(aq) + H2O(l) HClO(aq) + HCl(aq)
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OXIDES OF PERIOD 3 ELEMENTS
Oxides are binary compounds of an element with oxygen. E + O EOElements can form three types of oxides depending on oxidation state of oxygen:Normal oxide - oxidation state of –II O2-
Peroxide- oxidation state –I ion is O22-
Super oxide = oxidation state -½ O2-
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NORMAL OXIDES NORMAL OXIDES
The normal oxides of Periods 3 elements
can be grouped into 3 types according to
the nature of their bonding:
1. Ionic oxides; Na and Mg
2. Ionic oxides with high covalent character; Al
3. Covalent oxides Si-Cl
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42
Na2O MgO Al2O3 SiO2
P4O6
P4O10
SO2
SO3
Cl2OCl2O7
Bond Ionic
Ionic with
covalent character
Covalent
Periodicity in nature of bonding in the oxides of Periods 3 elements
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Group 1 and 2 Oxides• Na and Mg are metals (form cations) ; they
bond with O2- to form ionic oxides.• The oxide ion can bond with H+ ions and they
act as bases dissolving in water to give alkaline solutions.
• Na2O(s) + H2O(l) 2Na+(aq) + 2OH-
(aq)• They will also neutralize acids to produce salt
and water.• MgO(s) + 2HCl(aq) Mg2+(aq) + 2Cl-(aq)
Group 1 and 2 Oxides are BASIC
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Aluminum Oxide• Aluminum oxide does not dissolve in water easily .• It is AMPHOTERIC which means it will react with
(and dissolve in) acids and bases.• Acting like a base:• Al2O3(s) + 6H+(aq) 2Al3+(aq) + 3H2O(l)
• Al2O3(s) + 3H2SO4(aq) Al2(SO4)3(aq) + 3H2O(l)
• Acting like an acid:• Al2O3 (s) + 3H2O(l) + 2OH-(aq) 2Al(OH)4
-(aq)
• Al2O3(s) + 2OH-(aq) 3H2O(l) + 2Al(OH)4-(aq)
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Acidic Oxides
• The remaining oxides of period 3 (Si – Cl) form acidic solutions.
• Silicon dioxide has little acid-base activity but it shows weakly acidic properties by slowly dissolving in hot concentrated alkalis to form silicates.
• SiO2(s) + 2OH-(aq) → SiO32-(aq) + H2O(l)
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Acidic Oxides
• Phosphorus (V) oxide reacts to form a solution of phosphoric (V) acid, a weak acid
• P4O10(s) + 6H2O(l) → 4H+(aq) + 4H2PO4-(aq)
• Phosporus (III) oxide reacts with water to produce phosphoric (III) acid:
• P4O6(s) + H2O(l) 4H3PO3(aq)
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Acidic Oxides• Sulphur (VI)oxide reacts with water to make sulphuric
acid:• SO3(l) + H2O(l) H2SO4(aq)• Suphur (IV) oxide reacts with water to produce
sulphurous acid:• SO2(g) + H2O(l) H2SO3(aq)
• Cl2O7 reacts with water to produce perchloric acid:• Cl2O7(l) + H2O(l) 2HClO4(aq)• Cl2O reacts with water to produce chlorous acid:• Cl2O(l) + H2O(l) 2HClO(aq)
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Period 3 oxides and water: summary
covalent
H+(aq), HSO3
-(aq)covalent
H+(aq), H2PO4
-(aq)covalent
– (insoluble)covalent
– (insoluble)ionic/covalent
Mg2+(aq), OH-
(aq)ionic
Na+(aq), OH-
(aq)ionic
H+(aq), HSO4
-(aq)SO3
SO2
P4O10
SiO2
Al2O3
MgO
Na2O
Ions after H2O reaction
BondingOxide Type of solution pH
strongly alkaline
moderately alkaline
–
–
strongly acidic
weakly acidic
strongly acidic
13–14
10
7
7
0–1
2–3
0–1
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Properties of the Third Period Oxides
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CHLORIDESGroup 1 and 2
• NaCl and MgCl2, are ionic crystalline solids with high melting points.
• NaCl dissolves in water to form a neutral solutionNaCl(s) Na+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
• MgCl2 dissolves to form a slightly acidic solution:
MgCl2(s) Mg2+(aq) + 2Cl-(aq)
• The resulting solutions can conduct electricity due to the free moving ions.
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Aluminum chloride• AlCl3 sublimes at 178°C to form Al2Cl6
• AlCl3 dissociates into ions when added to water:AlCl3(s) Al3+(aq) + 3Cl-(aq)
• The aluminum ion is small and has a high charge (3+) thus it has a high charge density.
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Aluminum Chloride
• This means it attracts water molecules when in solution and forms the complex ion: [Al(H2O)6]3+
The ion is said to be hydrated
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Aluminum Chloride Cont’d
• The ion behaves as an acid be releasing H+ from one of the H2O molecules:
• [Al(H2O)6]3+(aq) [Al(H2O)5OH]2+(aq) + H+(aq)
• Further proton loss can occur:• [Al(H2O)5OH]2+(aq) [Al(H2O)4OH2+(aq) + H+(aq)
• The solution is acidic enough to react with a weak base and produce CO2(g):
• 2AlCl3(aq) + 3Na2CO3(s) 3CO2(g) + Al2O3(s) + 6NaCl(aq)
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Chlorides of Silicon- Sulphur
• Chlorides have simple covalent structures.
• The chlorides of non-metals have low mp’s due to weak intermolecular forces between the molecules.
• They react with water to form an acidic solution containing H+, Cl-, O2- or an oxyacid of the element (hydrolysis reaction):
• SiCl4(l) + 2H2O(l) SiO2(s) + 4HCl(aq)
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Phosphorus Chlorides
• PCl3 produces phosporous acid and hydrochloric acid:
• PCl3(l) + 3H2O(l) H3PO3(aq) + 3HCl
• PCl5 produces phosphoric acid and hydrochloric acid:
• PCl5(s) + 4H2O(l) H3PO4(aq) + 5HCl(aq)
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Chlorine and Water
• In water, Cl2 reacts slowly in a reversible reaction to make a mixture of HCl and HOCl acids:Cl2(aq) + H2O(l) HCl(aq) + HOCl(aq)
• This is a disproportionation reaction where Cl2 is reduced to HCl and oxidized to HOCl.
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Properties of the Third Period Chlorides
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The s-Block Elements
Li Be
Na
K
Rb
Cs
Fr
Mg
Ca
Sr
Ra
Ba
I II
● Metallic character● Low electronegativity● Basic oxides, hydroxides● Ionic bond with fixed oxidation
states● Characteristic flame colours● Weak tendency to from complex
Characteristic properties
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GROUP 1 & 2 ELEMENTS
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Atomic radii (nm)
Li 0.152 Be 0.112
Na 0.186 Mg 0.160
K 0.231 Ca 0.197
Rb 0.244 Sr 0.215
Cs 0.262 Ba 0.217
Fr 0.270 Ra 0.220
Atomic radii increases down the group
Group 1 elements are larger than group 2 elements in the same period
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Ionization Enthapy
Group I 1st I.E. 2nd I.E.
Li 519 7300
Na 494 4560
K 418 3070
Rb 402 2370
Cs 376 2420
Group I 1st I.E. 2nd I.E. 3rd I.E.
Be 900 1760 14800
Mg 736 1450 7740
Ca 590 1150 4940
Sr 548 1060 4120
Ba 502 966 3390
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5.3 Group 2
Element Color Element Color
Li Scarlet Be -Na Yellow Mg -K Lilac Ca Brick-red
Rb Red Sr Crimson
Cs Blue Ba Apple-green
The Flame Color:
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Properties of the Alkali Metals• Alkali metals are the largest elements in their
respective periods and their valence electron configuration is ns1.
– The valence e- is relatively far from the nucleus, resulting in weak metallic bonding.
• Alkali metals are unusually soft metals. They can be cut easily with a knife.
• Alkali metals have lower melting and boiling points than any other group of metals.
• Alkali metals have lower densities than most metals.
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GROUP 1 ELEMENTS: REACTIONS• Alkali metals are powerful reducing agents.
– They always occur in nature as +1 cations rather than as free metals.
• Alkali metals react vigorously with H2O:
– 2E(s) + H2O(l) → 2E+(aq) + 2OH-(aq) + H2(g)
– Reaction becomes more vigorous down group
(E= ALKALI METAL- Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs)
• Alkali metals reduce halogens to form ionic solids:
– 2E(s) + X2 → 3EX(s) (X = F, Cl, Br, I).
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– Alkali metals reduce oxygen in air but product depends on the metal
4Li(s) + O2(g) 2Li2O(s) oxide K(s) + O2(g) KO2(s) superoxide
– Alkali metals reduce Hydrogen to form ionic hydrides
2E(s) + H2(g) 2EH(s)
04/21/23 65
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GROUP 2 ELEMENTS: REACTIONS - Metals reduce Oxygen (O2) to form Oxides
2E(s) + O2(g) 2EO(s) E = Mg, Ca, Sr)
Ba + O2 BaO2 (Barium Peroxide)
– Larger metals reduce water to form hydrogen gasE(s) + 2H2O(l) E2+aq) + 2OH- (aq) + H2(g)
(E = Ca, Sr, Ba)
– Metals reduce Halogens to form ionic halidesE(s) + X2 EX2(s) (X = F(not with Be), Cl, Br, I)
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– Metals (Be exception) reduce Hydrogen to form ionic hydrides
E(s) + H2(g) EH2 (s) (except Be)
– Elements reduce Nitrogen to form ionic Nitrides3E(s) + N2(g) E3N2(s) (except Be)
– Element Oxides are Basic (except for amphoteric BeO)
EO(s) + H2O(l) E2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq)
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Reactions of oxides and hydroxides
2. All group I oxides/hydroxides are basic and the basicity increases down the group.
3. Group II oxides/hydroxides are generally less basic than Group I. Beryllium oxide/hydroxide are amphoteric.
All group I oxides reacts with water to form hydroxides
Oxide: O2- + H2O 2OH-
Peroxide: O22- + 2H2O H2O2 + 2OH-
Superoxide: 2O2- + 2H2O 2OH- + H2O2 + O2
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Reactions of chlorides●All group I chlorides are ionic and readily
soluble in water. No hydrolysis occurs. • Group II chlorides show some degree of
covalent character.Beryllium chloride is covalent and hydrolysis
to form Be(OH)2(s) and HCl(aq).BeCl2 + 2 H2O Be(OH)2(s) + 2 HCl(aq) Magnesium chloride is intermediate, it
dissolves and hydrolysis slightly. Other group II chlorides just dissolve
without hydrolysis.
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Reactions of hydrides
Hydrides react readily with water to give the metal hydroxide and hydrogen due to the strong basic property of the hydride ion, H:-
H:-(s)+ H2O(l) H2(g)+ OH-(aq)
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Thermal StabilityThermal stability describes how easily a compound will decompose on heating. Increased thermal stability means a higher temperature is needed to decompose the compound.
Li2CO3 Li2O + CO2 ( at 700oC)All other group I carbonates are stable at ~800oC
BeCO3 (at 100oC); MgCO3 ( at 540oC); CaCO3 ( at 900oC) SrCO3 ( at 1290oC); BaCO3 ( at 1360oC)
All Carbonates undergo thermal decomposition to the oxideECO3(s) EO(s) + CO2(g)
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72
• Certain Period 2 elements exhibit properties that are very similar to those of the Period 3 elements immediately below and to the right.
DIAGONAL RELATIONSHIPS
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Lithium and Magnesium reflect similar atomic and ionic size
Both elements form: Nitrides, Hydroxides and Carbonates that
decompose with heat, Organic compounds with polar
covalent metal-carbon bonds Salts with similar solubilities
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Uses of s-block compounds● Sodium carbonate
● Manufacture of glass● Water softening● Paper industry
● Sodium hydrocarbonate● Baking powder● Soft drinkBeryl (Be3Al2Si6O18) - Gemstone, source of BeMagnesium oxide (MgO) – Refractory material for furnace bricks
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Uses of s-block compounds
● Sodium hydroxide● Manufacture of soaps, dyes, paper and drugs● To make rayon and important chemicals
● Magnesium hydroxide● Milk of magnesia, an antacid
● Calcium hydroxide● To neutralize acids in waste water treatment
● Strontium compound● Fireworks, persistent intense red flame
●
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outermost shell electronic configuration of ns2np2
Group 14 Elements Group 14 Elements
carbon
silicon
germanium
tin
lead
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carbon
silicon
germanium
tin
lead
Moving down the group
non-metal
metalloids
metals
exhibit a marked change (dissimilarity) among the elements in the same group
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Group 14 elements exhibit Allotropy
• Allotropes are different crystalline or molecular forms of the same element.
• One allotrope of a particular element is usually more stable than another at a particular temperature and pressure.
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Carbon has several allotropes, including graphite, diamond, and fullerenes.
two important allotropic forms
diamond and graphite
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two allotropes
white tin and grey tin
TinTin
White tin Grey tincold
heatMetallic non metallic
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Examples
carbon (diamond)
silicon
germanium
grey tin (an allotrope of tin)
Structure and BondingStructure and Bonding
Most common structure : giant covalent
structure
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each carbon atom is bonded to four
other C atoms sp3hybridization
Structure of diamond
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extremely hard and chemically inertAll electrons are localized non-conductor
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Structure of graphite
layered structure Covalent bonds
van der Waals’ forces
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Electrons between layers are delocalized
conducts electricity along the layers
The layers slide over each other easily
brittle and soft
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network lattice
the atoms are covalently bonded
to one another
2. 2. Silicon and GermaniumSilicon and Germanium
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White tin
stable form
metallic lattice structure
atoms are held together by
metallic bonding
3. 3. TinTin
conducts electricity
shows the properties of a typical
metal
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Grey tin
network lattice structure
similar to that of diamond
White tin Grey tincold
heatmore dense less
dense
White tin expands and crumbles on cooling
Napoleon’s retreat from Russia
3. 3. Tin and LeadTin and Lead
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typical metallic lattice
atoms are held together by
metallic bonding
4. Lead4. Lead
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C Si Ge
Electronegativi
ty value
2.5 1.74 2.0
Electronic
configuration
1s22s22p
2
[Ne]
3s23p2
[Ar]
3d104s24p2
Atomic radius
(nm)
0.077 0.117 0.122
Bond enthalpy
(kJ mol–1)
347 226 188
Melting point
(C)
3527 1414 1211
Boiling point
(C)
4027 3265 2833
Some physical properties of the Group 14 elements
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Sn Pb
Electronegativity
value1.7 1.55
Electronic
configuration[Kr]4d10
5s25p2
[Xe] 4f145d10
6s26p2
Atomic radius (nm) 0.140 0.154
Bond enthalpy (kJ
mol–1)150 –
Melting point (C) 232 327
Boiling point (C) 2602 1749
Some physical properties of the Group 14 elements
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Special features of Carbon
• C cannot expand it’s octet. It has no empty d orbital to accommodate electrons.
• Carbon can catenate. (can form -C-C-C- C- chains. This ability explains formation of huge number of hydrocarbons. Silicon forms only Si-O-Si-O chains in silica
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Special features of Carbon Cont’d
• Carbon is only member of the group that can form p bonds. Explains the formation of >C=C<, >C=O,- C=N bonds.
• Carbon forms gaseous oxides, CO and CO2.
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on going down the groupThe very high m.p. of diamond is due to the strong C – C bonds & the giant structure
Going from C to Ge
bond length
bond strength
melting point
boiling point
Variation in Melting Point &Boiling PointVariation in Melting Point &Boiling Point
C 3527C
Si 1414C
Ge 1211C
Sn 232C
Pb 327C
4027C
3265C
2833C
2602C
1749C
M.P. B.P.
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Variation in Melting Point & Boiling PointVariation in Melting Point & Boiling Point
Sn and Pb have exceptionally low m.p. because
C 3527C
Si 1414C
Ge 1211C
Sn 232C
Pb 327C
1. metallic structures
extent of bond breaking on melting is small2. only two (ns2) of the
four valence electrons are involved in the sea of electrons
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ChloridesChlorides
Two series of chlorides formed by the Group 14 elements
the dichlorides (MCl2)
the tetrachlorides (MCl4)
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ChloridesChlorides
All Group IV elements
form tetrachlorides
liquids at room temperature and pressure
all are simple covalent molecules with a tetrahedral shape
CCl4
SiCl4
GeCl4
SnCl4
PbCl4
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M – Cl bonds are polar with ionic character
+ -
-
-
-
Molecules as a whole are non-polar
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Reactions with waterReactions with water
CCl4 + H2O no reaction
SiCl4 + H2O Si(OH)Cl3 + HCl
H4SiO4, silicic acid
Si(OH)Cl3 + H2O Si(OH)2Cl2 + HCl
Si(OH)2Cl2 + H2O Si(OH)3Cl + HCl
Si(OH)3Cl + H2O Si(OH)4 + HCl
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Si in SiCl4 is more positively charged than C in CCl4
More susceptible to nucleophilic attack
Cl
Si
ClCl
Cl
O
H
H
Cl Si
O
Cl
Cl
Cl
H
H
+
Si, unlike C, can expand its octet to accept an additional electron pair
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Cl
Si
ClCl
Cl
O
H
H
Cl Si
O
Cl
Cl
Cl
H
HCl
Si
ClOH
Cl+ HCl
+
OH
Si
HOOHOH H4SiO4, silicic acid
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ChloridesChlorides
all possess covalent character though they exist as
crystalline solids at room temperature and pressure
tendency to form dichlorides, MCl2
down the group-
-
GeCl2
SnCl2
PbCl2
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On moving down the group,
Metallic character of elements
Ionic character of MCl2
-
-
GeCl2
SnCl2
PbCl2
mainly covalent
mainly ionic
ChloridesChlorides
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On moving down the group,
the relative stability of +4 oxidation state
the relative stability of +2 oxidation state
ChloridesChlorides
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The outermost ns2 electrons are less shielded by the more diffused inner d and/or f electrons.
Tin (Sn) Lead (Pb)
[Kr]4d10 5s25p2 [Xe] 4f145d10
6s26p2
They are attracted more by the positive nucleus
Less available for forming bonds
Form only two bonds using np2
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OxidesOxides
Two series of oxides are formed by the Group 14 elements
the monoxides (MO) oxidation state II
the dioxides (MO2) oxidation state IV
monoxides are more basic than the dioxides.
Oxides of C and Si are acidic those of Ge, Sn and Pb are amphoteric
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OxidesOxides
Carbon dioxide (CO2)
the only dioxide which consists of simple molecules
exists as a gas at room temperature and pressure
All Group IV elements
form the dioxides
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OxidesOxides
The dioxides of other Group IV elements
crystalline solids of high melting points
either giant covalent or giant ionic structures
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CO2
SiO2
GeO2
SnO2
PbO2
stability of dioxide
Decrease
down the group
OxidesOxides
CO2 dissolves in water to form an acid
CO2 + H2O HCO3
Si
the monoxides (MO) oxidation state II
the dioxides (MO2) oxidation state IV
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MonoxidesMonoxides
All Group IV elements (except silicon)
form the monoxides at normal conditions
CO
-
GeO
SnO
PbO
Stability of MO down the group
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Group IV
element
Oxide
s
forme
d
Bond type of
the oxide
Relative
stability
CarbonCO Covalent
Unstable
(reducing)
CO2 Covalent Stable
Silicon(SiO) – Very unstable
SiO2 Covalent Stable
Germaniu
m
GeOPredominantly
ionic
Unstable in the
presence of O2
GeO2
Partly ionic,
partly covalentStable
The bond type and the relative stabilitiy of the monoxides and dioxides formed by the Group IV
elements
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Group IV
element
Oxides
formed
Bond type of the
oxide
Relative
stability
Tin
SnO Predominantly ionic Unstable
(reducing)
SnO2
Partly ionic,
partly covalent
Unstable
(oxidizing)
Lead
PbO Ionic Stable
PbO2 Predominantly ionic Unstable
(oxidizing)
The bond type and the relative stabilitiy of the monoxides and dioxides formed by the Group IV
elements
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Group 16 Elements
Element EC AR EN Ox. states
O [He] 2s22p4
S [Ne] 3s23p4
Se [Ar] 4s2 3d10 4p4
Te [Kr] 5s2 4d10 5p4
Po [Xe] 6s2 5d10 6p4
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Group 16 Elements
• Oxygen, like nitrogen, occurs as a low-boiling diatomic gas, O2.
• Sulfur, like phosphorus, occurs as a polyatomic molecular solid.
• Selenium, like arsenic, commonly occurs as a gray metalloid.
• Tellurium, like antimony, displays network covalent bonding.
• Polonium, like bismuth, has a metallic crystal structure.
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GROUP 16 REACTIONS• Reacts with halogens to form halides E(s) + X2(g) → various halides
(E = S, Se, Te; X = F, Cl)
• The other elements in the group are oxidized by O2:E(s) + O2(g) → EO2
(E = S, Se, Te, Po)
• SO2 is oxidized further:2SO2(g) + O2(g) → 2SO3(g)
• The thiosulfate ion is formed when an alkali metal sulfite reacts with sulfur:S8(g) + 8Na2SO3(s) → 8Na2S2O3(aq)
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Allotropes in the Oxygen Family
Oxygen has two allotropes:- O2, which is essential to life, and- O3 or ozone, which is poisonous.Sulfur has more than 10 different forms, due to the ability of S to catenate. S–S bond lengths and bond angles may vary greatly.
Selenium has several allotropes, some consisting of crown-shaped Se8 molecules.
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Hydrides of the Oxygen Family
• Oxygen forms two hydrides:
– water (H2O)
– hydrogen peroxide (H2O2).
– H2O2 contains oxygen in a -1 oxidation state.
– H2O and H2O2 can form H bonds, and therefore have higher melting and boiling points than other H2E compounds.
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The hydrides of the other 16 elements are foul-smelling, poisonous gases.
• H2S forms naturally in swamps from the breakdown of organic matter and is as toxic as HCN.
Hydride bond angles decrease and bond lengths increase down the group.
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Halides of the Oxygen Family
Except for O, the Group 16 elements form a wide range of halides.Their structure and reactivity patterns depend on the sizes of the central atom and the surrounding halogens.
As the central atom becomes larger, the halides become more stable.
This pattern is related to the effect of electron repulsions due to crowding of lone pairs and halogen atoms around the central atom.This is opposite to the previously observed bonding patterns, where bond strength decreases as bond length increases.
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Highlights of Sulfur Chemistry
• Sulfur forms two important oxides:
– SO2 has S in its +4 oxidation state. It is a colorless, choking gas that forms when S, H2S or a metal sulfide burns in air.
– SO3 has S in the +6 oxidation state.
• Sulfur forms two important oxoacids.
– Sulfurous acid (H2SO3) is a weak acid with two acidic protons.
– Sulfuric acid (H2SO4) is a strong acid, and is an important industrial chemical. It is an excellent dehydrating agent.
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GROUP 7A(17) REACTIONS
• The halogens (X2) oxidize many metals and nonmetals. The reaction with H2 is characteristic:
– X2 + H2(g) → 2HX(g)
• The halogens undergo disproportionation in water:
– X2 + H2O(l) HX(aq) + HXO(aq) (X = Cl, Br, I)
• In aqueous base, the reaction goes to completion to form hypohalites and, at higher temperatures, halates:
3Cl2(g) + 6OH-(aq) ClO3-(aq) + 5Cl-(aq) + 3H2O(l)
Δ
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Chemical properties• Halogens (Cl2,Br2 and I2) – Group 17 (VII)
General Properties – • diatomics, colored, phase changes as one goes down
the family. Cl2 is gas (green yellow), Br2 is liquid (brown/red) and Iodine is a purple solid
• not soluble in water (non polar substance) (hence use of oil in experiments-non polar to dissolve halogens).
General Reactivity- • highly reactive due to need for a single electron to fill
valence shell
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Group 7A Elements (ns2np5, n 2)
8.6
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Halogens• Reactivity decreases as one goes down the halogen
family.
• Halogens will react by adding an electron to themselves (they behave as oxidizing agents -they are reduced - gain electrons). The smallest and most electronegative element F is the most reactive.
• Valence electrons that are farther from the nucleus will have less attraction and are therefore less reactive.
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Group 7A Elements (ns2np5, n 2)
X + 1e- X-1
X2(g) + H2(g) 2HX(g)
Incr
easi
ng r
eact
ivity
8.6
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Halide Ions (F-, Cl-, Br- and I-)
• Reactivity oxidizing power of the ions decreases going
down the table (size of atom increases and attraction for electrons decreases) so Cl will oxidize I but I will not oxidize Cl (higher halogen will displace a lower halogen from its salts.)
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Halide Ions
• Reactions : assume that the halogen is the one reacting by removing electrons from the ion, therefore if the halogen (diatomic) is higher on the table than the ion , the reaction will take place, but if the ION is higher on the table than the HALOGEN the reaction will not take place.
• Cl2 + 2 I- → I2 + 2 Cl-
• Br2 + 2 I- → I2 + Br-
• I2 + 2 Br- → no rxn
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Reactivity of the Halogens
A halogen atom needs only one electron to fill its valence shell. Halogens are therefore very reactive elements.
The halogens display a wide range of electronegativities, but all are electronegative enough to behave as nonmetals.
A halogen will either- gain one electron to form a halide anion or- share an electron pair with a nonmetal atom.
The reactivity of the halogens decreases down the group, reflecting the decrease in electronegativity.
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Why does melting point increase going down the halogens?
• The halogens are diatomic molecules, so F2, Cl2, Br2, I2
• As the molecules get bigger there are more electrons that can cause more influential intermolecular attractions between molecules.
• The stronger the I.M. forces, the more difficult it will be to melt. (more energy needed to break the I.M. forces)
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Figure 14.22 Bond energies and bond lengths of the halogens.
F2 shows an anomalous bond energy. The F-F bond is weaker than expected since the lone pairs on the small F atom repel each other more than the lone pairs of other halogens.F2 is the most and I2 the least reactive halogen.
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Figure 14.23 The relative oxidizing ability of the halogens.
Halogens are strong oxidizing agents. The oxidizing ability of X2 decreases down the group while the reducing ability of X- increases.
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Cl2(aq) + 2I-(aq) → 2Cl-(aq) + I2 (in CCl4)
Figure 14.23 continued
Cl2 is a stronger oxidizing agent than I2. Cl2 will therefore displace I- from solution. I2 will not displace Cl- ions.
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Interhalogen Compounds
Halogens bond with each other to form interhalogen compounds.The central atom will have the lower electronegativity and a positive oxidation state.
The interhalogens illustrate a general principle of oxidation states: odd-numbered groups exhibit odd-numbered oxidation states while even-numbered groups exhibit even-numbered oxidation states.When bonds form or break, two electrons are involved, so the oxidation states of the atoms involved commonly change by 2.
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Odd-numbered oxidation states:
I2 + F2 → 2IF0
0
+1
-1IF + F2 → IF3
0-1
+1 +3
-1
Even-numbered oxidation states:
F and I are both in Group 7A, an odd-numbered group.
S is in Group 6A, an even-numbered group.
S + F2 → SF2
+20SF2 + F2 → SF4
+2 +4
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Figure 14.24 Molecular shapes of the main types of interhalogen compounds.
ClF
linear, XY
BrF5
Square pyramidal, XY5
BrF5
Square pyramidal, XY5
86
IF7
Pentagonal bipyramidal, XY7
IF7
Pentagonal bipyramidal, XY7
90
ClF3
T-shaped, XY3
ClF3
T-shaped, XY3
88
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Figure 14.25 Chlorine oxides.
dichlorine monoxideCl2O
chlorine dioxideClO2
lone e-
dichlorine heptaoxideCl2O7
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Table 14.4 The Known Halogen Oxoacids*
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Relative Strength of Halogen Oxoacids
The relative strength of halogen oxoacids depends on both the electronegativity and the oxidation state of the halogen.
For oxoacids with the halogen in the same oxidation state, acid strength decreases as the halogen EN decreases.
HOClO2 > HOBrO2 > HOIO2
For oxoacids of a given halogen, acid strength decreases as the oxidation state of the halogen decreases.
HOClO3 > HOClO2 > HOClO
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