institutional evolution at lake chad...institutional evolution at lake chad 135 institutional...
TRANSCRIPT
13
5
Inst
ituti
onal evolu
tion a
t L
ake C
had
Inst
ituti
onal approaches
to n
atu
ral reso
urce m
anagem
ent
Lik
e M
alth
us
(1803)
alm
ost
two
centu
ries
ear
lier
, H
ardin
(1968)
expre
ssed
a
pes
sim
isti
c vi
ew o
f th
e ca
pac
ity
of t
he
envi
ron
men
t to
su
pp
ort
pop
ula
tion
grow
th.
Alt
hou
gh n
ot t
he
star
t of
the
deb
ate,
the
‘Tra
gedy
of t
he
Com
mon
s’
whic
h H
ardin
des
crib
ed i
n 1
968,
has
foc
use
d m
uch
att
enti
on o
n t
he
issu
e of
acce
ss t
o nat
ura
l re
sourc
es.1
The
‘Tra
gedy
of t
he
Com
mon
s’ m
odel
pre
dic
ts
dir
e en
viro
nm
enta
l co
nse
quen
ces
as a
res
ult
of
the
hum
an i
nab
ilit
y to
res
tric
t
per
son
al g
ain
for
soc
ieta
l b
enef
it:
‘Ru
in i
s th
e d
esti
nat
ion
tow
ard
wh
ich
all
men
ru
sh,
each
pu
rsu
ing
his
ow
n b
est
inte
rest
...’ (
Har
din
19
68
:12
44
).
Rat
her
th
an a
dvo
cate
pop
ula
tion
con
trol
s su
ch a
s M
alth
us
and
su
bse
qu
ent
sup
por
ters
hav
e d
one,
Har
din
ad
voca
ted
con
trol
lin
g ac
cess
to
the
envi
ron
-
men
t.
He
reco
mm
end
ed
pri
vati
sati
on
of
nat
ura
l re
sou
rces
an
d
stat
e
enfo
rcem
ent
of e
xclu
sion
fro
m t
hem
. T
he
impli
cati
ons
of t
his
are
that
nat
ura
l
reso
urc
es e
xhib
it a
fix
ed c
arry
ing
cap
acit
y an
d t
hat
pro
du
cers
wil
l n
ot
dev
elop
thei
r ow
n s
yste
ms
regu
lati
ng
acce
ss t
o sh
ared
res
ourc
es.
Alt
hou
gh m
any
rece
nt
appro
aches
to
nat
ura
l re
sourc
e m
anag
emen
t hav
e
refl
ecte
d t
his
appro
ach,
a gr
owin
g li
tera
ture
has
dev
elop
ed,
bot
h i
n s
uppor
t of
and c
riti
cal
of H
ardin
’s t
hes
is.
Sev
eral
dis
tinct
appro
aches
can
be
iden
tifi
ed.
The
firs
t in
cludes
wor
k c
riti
cal
of t
he
confu
sion
surr
oundin
g th
e nat
ure
of
the
pro
per
ty r
ights
des
crib
ed b
y H
ardin
(1968).
A s
pec
trum
of pro
per
ty r
ights
hav
e
sub
seq
uen
tly
bee
n d
efin
ed a
nd
dis
tin
guis
hed
fro
m t
he
shar
ed r
esou
rces
to
whic
h t
hey
apply
(se
e C
iria
cy-W
antr
up &
Bis
hop
1975;
Bro
mle
y &
Cer
nea
1989; S
chla
eger
& O
stro
m 1
994 e
tc.)
. The
nex
t gr
oup b
road
ly c
oncu
rs w
ith t
he
mod
el o
f im
pen
din
g ‘tra
gedy’
, and h
as a
ttem
pte
d to
dev
ise
the
mos
t ap
pro
pri
ate
way
s to
pri
vati
se a
nd/o
r im
pos
e st
ate
regu
lati
on o
f R
NR
s. T
he
exper
ience
of
thes
e ap
pro
aches
is
exam
ined
nex
t, w
ith p
arti
cula
r re
fere
nce
to
the
Sah
el.
Oth
er a
uth
ors
hav
e re
ject
ed the
stat
ic n
otio
n o
f re
sourc
e ac
cess
arr
ange
-
men
ts i
mpli
ed b
y m
any
econ
omis
ts, a
nd e
nvi
sage
mor
e co
mple
x an
d d
ynam
ic
rela
tion
ship
s b
etw
een
res
ourc
e te
nu
re a
nd
dev
elop
men
ts i
n r
esou
rce
use
.
Two
contr
asti
ng
appro
aches
are
con
sider
ed h
ere:
thos
e w
hic
h e
nvi
sage
inst
i-
tuti
onal
ad
apta
tion
as
a p
roce
ss w
hic
h r
esp
ond
s to
dev
elop
men
ts s
uch
as
pop
ula
tion
gro
wth
; an
d t
hos
e w
hic
h p
erce
ive
the
inst
itu
tion
s w
hic
h g
over
n
acce
ss t
o nat
ura
l re
sourc
es a
s a
cruci
al d
eter
min
ant
of s
ocia
l an
d e
conom
ic
dev
elop
men
t, a
nd
are
th
emse
lves
man
ipu
late
d t
o se
rve
the
inte
rest
s of
th
e
pow
erfu
l m
ember
s of
the
soci
etie
s in
whic
h t
hey
oper
ate.
13
4
Marie
-Thérèse
Sarch
adm
inis
trat
ive
stat
us
of B
orno
has
var
ied,
it h
as b
een d
omin
ated
by
a K
anuri
aris
tocr
acy
for
mos
t of
its
exi
sten
ce.
Tra
dit
ional
ly,
the
Kan
uri
adm
inis
trat
ion
has
pla
yed a
cru
cial
rol
e in
all
ocat
ing
acce
ss to
farm
lan
d. I
n r
ecen
t ye
ars,
the
Kan
uri
adm
inis
trat
ion h
as n
ot o
nly
mai
nta
ined
its
pre
-col
onia
l au
thor
ity
over
farm
ing
on t
he
lake
shor
e, b
ut
has
als
o ex
pan
ded
it
to c
over
new
are
as o
f th
e
lak
e fl
oor,
as
wel
l as
th
e in
crea
sin
gly
lucr
ativ
e fi
shin
g op
por
tun
itie
s w
hic
h
the
fed
eral
gov
ern
men
t h
as b
een
un
able
to
regu
late
. T
his
su
cces
s su
gges
ts
that
col
lab
orat
ion
wit
h t
he
trad
itio
nal
ad
min
istr
atio
n i
s es
sen
tial
to
the
succ
ess
of f
utu
re n
atura
l re
sourc
e m
anag
emen
t ef
fort
s.
Intr
oducti
on
Inst
ituti
ons
are
soci
al c
onst
ruct
s w
hic
h g
uid
e hum
an b
ehav
iour.
They
ran
ge
from
law
s w
hic
h a
re f
orm
al a
nd w
ith w
hic
h c
ompli
ance
is
obli
ged, to
info
rmal
conve
nti
ons
to w
hic
h c
onfo
rman
ce i
s ex
pec
ted. T
he
impor
tance
of
such
inst
i-
tuti
ons
in
shap
ing
the
live
lih
ood
s of
th
e p
oor
has
b
een
in
crea
sin
gly
reco
gnis
ed (
e.g.
Sw
ift
1989;
Mos
er 1
998;
Car
ney
1988;
Sco
ones
1998).
The
aim
of
this
pap
er i
s to
exa
min
e th
e ev
oluti
on o
f th
e in
stit
uti
ons
whic
h g
over
n
acce
ss t
o fa
rmla
nd
an
d f
ish
ing
righ
ts o
n t
he
Nig
eria
n s
hor
e of
Lak
e C
had
.
Th
ese
hav
e b
een
exa
min
ed w
ith
in a
‘su
stai
nab
le r
ura
l li
veli
hoo
ds’
(S
RL
)
fram
ewor
k (
Sar
ch 1
999).
In f
ocusi
ng
on t
he
syst
ems
of a
cces
s to
far
mla
nd a
nd f
ishin
g ri
ghts
at
Lak
e C
had
, the
pap
er a
ims
to a
sses
s th
e ap
pli
cabil
ity
of d
iffe
rent in
stit
uti
onal
appro
aches
to
nat
ura
l re
sourc
e m
anag
emen
t on
the
lake
shor
e. T
his
is
impor
-
tan
t, b
ecau
se n
atu
ral
reso
urc
e d
evel
opm
ent
init
iati
ves
in t
he
Sah
el h
ave
freq
uen
tly
bee
n b
ased
on
in
stit
uti
onal
ap
pro
ach
es t
hat
may
not
hav
e b
een
appro
pri
ate
to t
he
situ
atio
ns
in w
hic
h t
hey
wer
e use
d a
nd,
in a
ny
even
t, a
re
rare
ly u
niv
ersa
l. A
tot
al o
f fo
ur
inst
ituti
onal
appro
aches
to
nat
ura
l re
sourc
e
man
agem
ent
are
con
sid
ered
in
th
e fi
rst
sect
ion
of
this
pap
er.
Th
ese
are
foll
owed
by
a re
view
of
the
nat
ura
l an
d s
ocia
l co
nte
xts
of L
ake
Chad
, as
wel
l
as r
esea
rch i
nto
the
fish
ing
and f
arm
ing
live
lihoo
ds
ther
e. T
he
thir
d s
ecti
on
pre
sen
ts a
n a
nal
ysis
of
reso
urc
e ac
cess
in
stit
uti
ons
on t
he
lak
e sh
ore.
Th
e
pap
er c
oncl
udes
wit
h a
dis
cuss
ion o
f th
e re
leva
nce
of
dif
fere
nt
inst
ituti
onal
app
roac
hes
to
syst
ems
of n
atu
ral
reso
urc
e ac
cess
on
th
e N
iger
ian
sh
ore
of
Lak
e C
had
.
13
7
Inst
ituti
onal evolu
tion a
t L
ake C
had
auth
orit
ies
and
th
eir
nat
ion
alis
atio
n o
f n
atu
ral
reso
urc
es (
Kon
e 1
98
5;
Bri
nker
hof
f 1995;
Wil
liam
s 1998).
Lic
ense
s is
sued
by
pos
t-co
lonia
l go
vern
-
men
ts f
or c
utt
ing
woo
d a
nd f
ishin
g in
the
Del
ta h
ave
furt
her
under
min
ed t
he
cust
omar
y m
anag
emen
t of
thes
e re
sourc
es (
Moo
rehea
d 1
989; Q
uie
nsi
ère
et a
l
1994).
This
pro
cess
has
als
o bee
n o
bse
rved
in S
eneg
al, w
her
e th
e go
vern
men
t
has
per
mit
ted t
he
conve
rsio
n o
f bot
h r
ange
land a
nd f
ores
ts t
o pea
nut
fiel
ds
(Fre
uden
ber
ger
1991; W
illi
ams
1998).
Exo
gen
ous
adju
stm
ents
to
the
inst
itu
tion
s w
hic
h g
over
n a
cces
s to
nat
ura
l re
sourc
es h
ave
bee
n i
nit
iate
d i
n a
nti
cipat
ion o
f a
range
of
pot
enti
al
ben
efit
s. V
ery
gen
eral
ly,
thes
e ca
n b
e d
ivid
ed i
nto
tw
o at
tem
pts
: th
ose
des
crib
ed a
bov
e, w
hic
h a
im t
o ac
hie
ve s
ust
ainab
le p
roduct
ion t
hro
ugh
sta
te
regu
lati
on;
and
th
ose
wh
ich
aim
to
imp
rove
th
e p
rod
uct
ivit
y of
nat
ura
l
reso
urc
es t
hro
ugh
the
intr
oduct
ion o
f pri
vate
pro
per
ty r
ights
. In
Afr
ica,
a w
ell
know
n e
xam
ple
of
an e
xter
nal
att
empt
to i
mpro
ve a
gric
ult
ura
l pro
duct
ivit
y is
Ken
ya’s
str
ateg
y of
lan
d r
egis
trat
ion f
or s
mal
lhol
der
s in
itia
ted a
fter
the
Mau
Mau
reb
elli
on i
n t
he
1950s
(Sw
ynner
ton 1
954).
How
ever
, H
auge
rud (
1989)
argu
es t
hat
alt
hou
gh a
gric
ult
ura
l p
rod
uct
ivit
y d
id i
mp
rove
in
Ken
ya,
this
hap
pen
ed i
n s
pit
e of
lan
d r
egis
trat
ion
, ra
ther
th
an b
ecau
se o
f it
. A
lth
ough
Tif
fen
et
al (
19
94
) il
lust
rate
s h
ow p
opu
lati
on h
as g
row
n a
nd
how
in
div
idu
-
alis
ed t
enu
re h
as s
pre
ad i
n M
ach
akos
Dis
tric
t, t
his
has
bee
n c
riti
cise
d f
or
mas
kin
g dif
fere
nti
atio
n w
ithin
Mac
hak
os (
Roc
hel
eau 1
995; M
urt
on 1
999).
Inst
ituti
onal erosi
on
Ove
rall
, th
e al
tern
ativ
es o
f st
ate
regu
lati
on a
nd p
riva
te o
wner
ship
of
nat
ura
l
reso
urc
es h
ave
freq
uen
tly
had
lit
tle
succ
ess
in A
fric
a, a
nd i
n s
ome
case
s, t
he
reve
rse
outc
ome
has
res
ult
ed:
envi
ron
men
tal
deg
rad
atio
n a
nd
red
uce
d
pro
duct
ivit
y. S
ever
al a
uth
ors
dep
ict
a si
tuat
ion w
her
e th
e dep
leti
on o
f nat
ura
l
reso
urc
es h
as b
een
th
e d
irec
t re
sult
of
inte
rven
tion
fro
m o
uts
ide
agen
cies
.
Ext
ern
al o
rgan
isat
ion
s, s
uch
as
pow
erfu
l ru
lers
, co
lon
ial
agen
cies
an
d
emer
gin
g n
atio
n s
tate
s, h
ave
eith
er e
rod
ed o
r d
isso
lved
com
mu
nit
y-b
ased
acce
ss
arra
nge
men
ts
in
ord
er
to
app
rop
riat
e th
em
or
to
crea
te
mor
e
pro
du
ctiv
e ar
ran
gem
ents
. T
his
pro
cess
has
bee
n o
bse
rved
not
on
ly i
n t
he
range
lands,
for
ests
and f
isher
ies
of t
he
Sah
el,
but
also
in t
he
acce
ss a
rran
ge-
men
ts o
f m
any
nat
ura
l an
d ‘
com
mon
’ re
sourc
es i
n o
ther
par
ts o
f th
e w
orld
.
(Bro
mle
y &
Cer
nea
1989; Jo
dha
1986, 1992; P
latt
eau 1
996).
Whet
her
or
not
ext
ernal
att
empts
to
regu
late
acc
ess
to n
atura
l re
sourc
es
can i
mpro
ve t
hei
r su
stai
nab
ilit
y an
d/o
r th
eir
pro
duct
ivit
y, t
her
e is
con
sensu
s
that
, in
Afr
ica,
ext
ern
al i
nte
rven
tion
has
had
an
im
por
tan
t im
pac
t on
th
e
13
6
Marie
-Thérèse
Sarch
Inst
ituti
onal in
terventi
on
Des
pit
e m
any
inst
ance
s w
her
e co
mm
on
pro
per
ty
regi
mes
h
ave
bee
n
succ
essf
ul,
th
ere
are
seve
ral
rece
nt
exam
ple
of
‘tra
ged
ies’
wh
ich
hav
e
occu
rred
in
nat
ura
l re
sou
rce
man
agem
ent.
Fis
h s
tock
col
lap
ses
in t
he
Sco
ttis
h h
erri
ng
fish
ery,
the
Can
adia
n c
od f
isher
y, a
nd t
he
Per
uvi
an a
nch
ovy
fish
ery,
ea
ch
pro
vid
e ex
amp
les
of
‘tra
ged
y’
(Cad
dy
&
Gu
llan
d
19
83
;
Whit
mar
sh e
t al
1995;
Char
les
1996;
Roy
1996;
and s
ee C
ush
ing
1982 a
nd
1988 f
or t
he
his
tory
of
fish
sto
cks)
. A
lthou
gh s
ome
hav
e poi
nte
d t
o th
e la
rge
fluct
uat
ions
whic
h o
ccur
nat
ura
lly
in R
NR
s an
d h
ave
sugg
este
d t
hat
equil
ib-
riu
m i
n t
hem
is
not
nat
ura
l or
nor
mal
, eq
uil
ibri
um
fre
qu
entl
y re
mai
ns
the
obje
ctiv
e of
res
ourc
e m
anag
ers.
Man
y th
eori
sts
hav
e co
ncl
ud
ed t
hat
sta
te
regu
lati
on a
nd
th
e p
riva
tisa
tion
of
pro
per
ty r
igh
ts a
re t
he
only
op
tion
s to
sust
ain t
hes
e re
sourc
es,
and g
reat
eff
ort
has
bee
n c
once
ntr
ated
on d
efin
ing
how
the
lim
its
of r
esou
rce
use
shou
ld b
e se
t (M
ahon
1997).
Th
ere
hav
e b
een
su
cces
sfu
l st
ate
atte
mp
ts t
o re
gula
te a
cces
s to
fis
h-
erie
s. T
he
tran
sfer
able
quot
a sy
stem
intr
oduce
d i
n I
cela
nd h
as b
een n
oted
for
its
succ
ess
in s
ust
ainin
g th
e dem
ersa
l fi
sher
y (A
rnas
on 1
994).
How
ever
, ther
e
are
man
y m
ore
whic
h h
ave
eith
er f
aile
d i
n t
hei
r ob
ject
ives
– f
or e
xam
ple
, th
e
Bri
tish
Col
ombia
sal
mon
fis
her
y (F
rase
r 1979)
– a
nd/o
r hav
e le
d t
o co
nsi
der
-
able
dis
sati
sfac
tion
am
ong
fish
ing
com
mu
nit
ies
(Bai
ley
& J
ento
ft 1
99
0).
Des
pit
e th
e m
andat
e pro
vided
by
UN
CL
OS i
n 1
982, t
her
e hav
e bee
n c
ompar
-
ativ
ely
few
att
empts
at
stat
e re
gula
tion
of
Afr
ican
fis
her
ies
(Law
son 1
984).
In
wes
t A
fric
a, thes
e hav
e bee
n a
ssoc
iate
d w
ith the
sale
of of
fshor
e fi
shin
g ri
ghts
to t
he
Euro
pea
n U
nio
n.
The
info
rmat
ion a
vail
able
on t
he
outc
omes
of
stat
e
atte
mpts
to
regu
late
Afr
ican
fis
her
ies
show
s m
ixed
res
ult
s (J
ohnst
one
1996).
Th
e fo
rest
res
erve
s cr
eate
d t
hro
ugh
out
the
Fra
nco
ph
one
Sah
el d
uri
ng
the
colo
nia
l er
a, a
re e
xam
ple
s of
sta
te r
egula
tion
of
nat
ura
l re
sourc
es i
n s
ub-
Sah
aran
Afr
ica.
Th
ey w
ere
esta
bli
shed
in
are
as w
hic
h w
ere
thou
ght
to b
e
vaca
nt
and u
nder
-use
d,
and w
ere
subse
quen
tly
man
aged
by
the
stat
e fo
rest
serv
ice
wit
h t
he
obje
ctiv
e of
obta
inin
g su
stai
nab
le t
imber
yie
lds.
Thes
e hav
e
gener
ally
fai
led,
not
lea
st o
f al
l bec
ause
thei
r use
and m
anag
emen
t by
loca
l
vill
ager
s w
ere
under
esti
mat
ed (
Shep
her
d 1
991).
Vil
lage
rs w
ere
relu
ctan
t to
leav
e la
nd
fal
low
in
cas
e it
sh
ould
be
seen
as
vaca
nt
and
wer
e in
clin
ed t
o
over
wor
k i
t, r
ather
than
let
it
retu
rn t
o w
oodla
nd (
Thom
son 1
983).
A l
ack o
f
enfo
rcem
ent al
low
ed m
any
rese
rves
to
bec
ome
open
acc
ess
(Fre
uden
ber
ger
&
Mat
hie
u 1
99
3).
Th
e d
ecli
ne
of s
yste
ms
of a
cces
s to
th
e fo
rest
s, s
easo
nal
pas
ture
s an
d f
isher
ies
of t
he
Nig
er D
elta
in M
ali,
as
wel
l as
thei
r su
bse
quen
t
over
-exp
loit
atio
n, hav
e al
so b
een a
ttri
bute
d t
o th
e in
terv
enti
on o
f th
e co
lonia
l
13
9
Inst
ituti
onal evolu
tion a
t L
ake C
had
by
bot
h n
atio
nal
and i
nte
rnat
ional
dev
elop
men
t ag
enci
es,
whic
h h
ave
advo
-
cate
d a
nd s
pon
sore
d a
ran
ge o
f lo
cal-
leve
l re
sourc
e m
anag
emen
t in
itia
tive
s,
or ‘c
omm
unit
y bas
ed s
ust
ainab
le d
evel
opm
ent’ a
round t
he
wor
ld (
Lea
ch e
t al
1997a)
. T
her
e hav
e bee
n s
ever
al s
uch
init
iati
ves
in t
he
Sah
el.3
How
ever
, th
e
outc
omes
of
such
pro
cess
es v
ary
as w
idel
y as
th
e n
atu
ral
reso
urc
es a
nd
reso
urc
e u
sers
th
emse
lves
(Tou
lmin
19
91
; P
ain
ter
et a
l 1
99
4;
Bri
nk
erh
off
1995;
Lea
ch e
t al
1997a)
. T
hey
hav
e, h
owev
er,
ofte
n f
alle
n s
hor
t of
exp
ecta
-
tion
s an
d t
hei
r ex
per
ience
s do
not
poi
nt
to e
asil
y ap
pli
cable
pol
icy
mea
sure
s
(Wes
tern
et
al 1
994; L
each
et
al 1
997a)
.
Inst
ituti
onal m
anip
ula
tion
In c
ontr
ast
to m
odel
s of
inst
ituti
onal
adap
tati
on,
Nor
th (
1990)
consi
der
s th
e
pro
cess
of
inst
itu
tion
al e
volu
tion
as
a d
eter
min
ant,
rat
her
th
an a
res
ult
of
econ
omic
dev
elop
men
t. N
orth
(1990)
argu
es t
hat
rat
her
than
bei
ng
soci
ally
effi
cien
t, in
stit
uti
ons
are
crea
ted
to
‘s
erve
th
e in
tere
sts
of th
ose
wit
h
the
bar
gain
ing
pow
er t
o d
evis
e n
ew r
ule
s’.
Mor
e sp
ecif
ical
ly,
Lea
ch e
t al
(1997b:4
) ar
gue
that
the
assu
mpti
ons
of d
isti
nct
an
d c
onse
nsu
al c
omm
uni-
ties
, as
wel
l as
rel
ativ
ely
stab
le l
ocal
envi
ronm
ents
– w
hic
h a
re f
undam
enta
l
to m
ost
com
mu
nit
y-b
ased
res
ourc
e m
anag
emen
t in
itia
tive
s –
are
in
corr
ect.
Th
ey s
ugg
est
that
th
e fa
ilu
re o
f su
ch i
nit
iati
ves
can
be
attr
ibu
ted
to
thes
e
assu
mp
tion
s, a
nd
pro
pos
e an
‘E
nvi
ron
men
tal
En
titl
emen
ts F
ram
ewor
k’
in
whic
h c
o-use
rs o
f nat
ura
l re
sourc
es u
se t
hei
r va
ryin
g ri
ghts
and r
esou
rces
to
neg
otia
te f
or d
iffe
rent
leve
ls o
f ac
cess
(L
each
et
al 1
997b).
The
pro
cess
es o
f
cod
ifyi
ng
‘nat
ive’
arr
ange
men
ts f
or a
cces
s to
lan
d,
wh
ich
Ber
ry (
19
93
)
exam
ined
in f
orm
er B
riti
sh c
olon
ies,
fit
this
fra
mew
ork w
ell.
She
des
crib
es
how
th
is p
roce
ss g
ener
ated
a b
lizz
ard
of
clai
ms
and
cou
nte
rcla
ims,
an
d
pla
ced
en
orm
ous
pow
er i
n t
he
han
ds
of t
hos
e w
ith
con
tact
s in
th
e B
riti
sh
adm
inis
trat
ion
. B
oth
Nor
th’s
(1
99
0)
and
th
e en
viro
nm
enta
l en
titl
emen
ts
appro
ach p
oint
to t
he
cruci
al r
ole
of p
ower
rel
atio
ns
in s
hap
ing
the
inst
itu-
tion
s th
at d
eter
min
e th
e use
and m
anag
emen
t of
nat
ura
l re
sourc
es.
Alt
hou
gh
the
com
munit
y-le
vel
focu
s on
res
ourc
e use
rs r
emai
ns
vali
d,
conse
nsu
s an
d
coop
erat
ion b
etw
een t
hem
can
not
be
assu
med
.
Lake C
had
The
Lak
e C
had
bas
in c
over
s a
larg
e par
t of
cen
tral
Afr
ica.
The
lake
itse
lf l
ies
at t
he
sou
th-e
ast
extr
eme
of t
he
Sah
ara
Des
ert,
an
d t
rave
rses
th
e S
ahar
an,
13
8
Marie
-Thérèse
Sarch
inst
ituti
ons
whic
h g
over
n a
cces
s to
nat
ura
l re
sourc
es. H
owev
er, in
man
y si
tu-
atio
ns,
the
syst
ems
of a
cces
s in
trod
uce
d d
uri
ng
the
colo
nia
l an
d p
ost-
colo
nia
l
eras
hav
e n
ot r
epla
ced
cu
stom
ary
syst
ems.
Rat
her
, b
oth
sys
tem
s h
ave
per
sist
ed a
nd t
he
adm
inis
trat
ive
dual
ism
of
over
lappin
g st
ate
and c
omm
unit
y
syst
ems
of r
esou
rce
ten
ure
has
in
crea
sed
th
e vu
lner
abil
ity
of c
omm
un
ity-
bas
ed s
yste
ms
to a
buse
(P
latt
eau 1
996; W
illi
ams
1998; II
ED
1999).
Inst
ituti
onal adapta
tion
Des
pit
e th
e co
nsi
der
able
eff
ort
exp
end
ed i
n i
mp
rovi
ng
the
reso
urc
e ac
cess
inst
ituti
ons
of t
he
dev
elop
ing
wor
ld,
ther
e is
a w
ide
bod
y of
lit
erat
ure
whic
h
doc
um
ents
and e
xpla
ins
pro
cess
es o
f en
dog
enou
s in
stit
uti
onal
adap
tati
on a
nd
evol
uti
on.
The
conce
pt
of a
dap
tati
on h
as b
een u
sed i
n t
he
dev
elop
men
t of
nat
ura
l
reso
urc
es p
olic
y, w
her
e in
con
tras
t to
Har
din
’s (
19
68
) p
ictu
re o
f re
sou
rce
use
rs ‘
rush
ing
to r
uin
’, sy
stem
s of
res
ourc
e ac
cess
are
envi
sage
d a
s ev
olvi
ng
in r
espon
se t
o th
e co
sts
and b
enef
its
asso
ciat
ed w
ith r
esou
rce
explo
itat
ion.
Bos
erup’s
(1965) th
eory
pre
dic
ts that
as
the
pop
ula
tion
gro
ws,
lan
d ten
ure
wil
l
incr
easi
ngl
y bec
ome
indiv
idual
ised
in t
he
pro
cess
of
agri
cult
ura
l in
tensi
fica
-
tion
. N
etti
ng
(1993:1
58)
des
crib
es a
ran
ge o
f ex
ample
s w
hic
h h
e use
s to
show
that
‘la
nd u
se d
eter
min
es l
and t
enure
’. D
emse
tz’s
(1967)
‘Theo
ry o
f P
roper
ty
Rig
hts
’ su
gges
ts a
n a
lter
nat
ive
outc
ome
to t
he
inev
itab
le ‘
trag
edy’
, w
her
e
dem
and o
n a
res
ourc
e in
crea
ses
(for
exa
mple
, th
rough
pop
ula
tion
incr
ease
),
wit
h t
he
resu
lt t
hat
its
val
ue
incr
ease
s an
d t
he
rela
tive
cos
t of
exc
lud
ing
other
s fr
om i
ts u
se d
ecre
ases
. It
bec
omes
wor
thw
hil
e fo
r pro
duce
rs t
o dev
elop
thei
r ow
n s
yste
ms
of r
egula
ting
acce
ss t
o th
e re
sourc
e (D
emse
tz 1
967).
Wad
e’s
theo
ry (
19
88
) d
iffe
rs f
rom
oth
er t
heo
ries
of
pro
per
ty r
igh
ts,
in
that
nei
ther
en
viro
nm
enta
l tr
aged
y n
or i
ncr
easi
ng
excl
usi
on i
s in
evit
able
.
Rat
her
, com
mon
pro
per
ty c
an b
e th
e en
d r
esult
of
inst
ituti
onal
adap
tati
on. H
e
des
crib
es h
ow s
yste
ms
of p
roper
ty r
ights
dev
elop
in r
espon
se t
o ri
sk,
wher
e
the
cost
s of
pri
vati
sati
on a
nd e
xclu
sion
are
hig
h a
nd t
he
ben
efit
s unce
rtai
n.
A f
un
dam
enta
l d
iffe
ren
ce i
n t
his
ap
pro
ach
is
that
it
allo
ws
for
ind
ivid
ual
and
com
mu
nit
y in
tere
sts
to c
oin
cid
e. R
un
ge (
19
81
; 1
98
4),
Ost
rom
(1
99
0),
Qu
iqq
in
(19
93
) an
d
oth
ers
hav
e al
so
iden
tifi
ed
circ
um
stan
ces
wh
ere
com
mu
nal
for
ms
of p
rop
erty
are
eco
nom
ical
ly e
ffic
ien
t an
d h
ave
bee
n
succ
essf
ul
in a
void
ing
envi
ronm
enta
l ‘tra
gedie
s’.
Ther
e ar
e m
any
exam
ple
s w
hic
h s
how
how
res
ourc
e use
rs c
an a
nd d
o
adap
t sy
stem
s of
acc
ess
to n
atura
l re
sourc
es w
hen
it
is i
n t
hei
r bes
t in
tere
sts
to d
o so
.2T
hes
e hav
e va
lidat
ed t
he
adop
tion
of
com
munit
y-bas
ed a
ppro
aches
14
1
Inst
ituti
onal evolu
tion a
t L
ake C
had
stat
es i
n t
he
Fed
eral
Rep
ubli
c of
Nig
eria
. A
lthou
gh t
he
adm
inis
trat
ive
stat
us
of B
orno
itse
lf h
as v
arie
d,
it h
as b
een d
omin
ated
by
the
Kan
uri
eth
nic
gro
up
for
mos
t of
its
exi
sten
ce.
(McE
vedy
1995).
Mig
rati
on d
uri
ng
the
latt
er p
art
of
the
mil
lenniu
m h
as b
rough
tto
the
lake
bas
in,
Shuw
a A
rabs
from
the
east
and
Fula
ni
pas
tora
list
s fr
om t
he
wes
t. R
ecen
t se
ttle
rs o
n t
he
lake
shor
e in
clude
Hau
sa
fam
ilie
s fr
om
acro
ss
nor
ther
n
Nig
eria
, w
ho
wer
e at
trac
ted
b
y
fish
ing
oppor
tunit
ies
at t
he
lake
duri
ng
the
1970s
(Mee
ren 1
980;
Nei
land &
Ver
inum
be
1990).
Alt
hou
gh c
erta
in e
thnic
gro
ups
hav
e par
ticu
lar
trad
itio
ns
(for
exa
mple
, the
fish
ing
trad
itio
ns
of the
Hau
sa),
hou
sehol
ds
from
a v
arie
ty o
f
ethnic
gro
ups
fish
, fa
rm a
nd/o
r her
d c
attl
e (H
arri
s 1942).
This
pap
er f
ocuse
s
pri
mar
ily
on t
he
com
munit
ies
who
hav
e se
ttle
d o
n t
he
south
-wes
t la
ke
shor
e.
Th
ey m
ain
ly in
clu
de
Kan
uri
an
d H
ausa
h
ouse
hol
ds,
b
ut
also
sm
alle
r
num
ber
s of
Fula
ni,
Shuw
a an
d Y
edin
a.
The
Kan
uri
heg
emon
y of
Bor
no
was
nam
ed t
he
‘Nat
ive
Adm
inis
trat
ion’
by
the
Bri
tish
col
onis
ts (
and i
s ca
lled
the
‘tra
dit
ional
adm
inis
trat
ion’
in t
his
pap
er),
who
coll
abor
ated
wit
h t
hem
to
dev
elop
thei
r sy
stem
of
taxi
ng
the
rura
l
pop
ula
tion
(Tem
ple
1919).
This
was
bas
ed o
n a
sys
tem
of fi
efs
– e
ither
ter
rito
-
rial
or
by
asso
ciat
ion (
by
trad
e, f
or e
xam
ple
) – w
hic
h w
ere
allo
cate
d b
y th
e
Sh
ehu
or s
uze
rain
to
mem
ber
s of
his
fam
ily,
fav
oure
d c
ourt
iers
, or
hig
h
rankin
g sl
aves
. Under
this
sys
tem
, the
pop
ula
tion
was
obli
ged t
o pay
a v
arie
ty
of t
axes
to
the
fief
hol
der
, w
ho
adm
inis
trat
ed t
he
fief
thro
ugh
a t
ax c
olle
ctor
or
Chim
a,
as w
ell
as a
hie
rarc
hy
of v
illa
ge h
eads,
Law
ans
or B
ula
mas
(Bre
nner
19
73
). B
ren
ner
(1
97
3:1
12
) d
escr
ibes
how
mu
tual
in
tere
st w
as t
he
pri
mar
y
just
ific
atio
n f
or t
hes
e ad
min
istr
ativ
e li
nks:
‘Bar
rin
g d
rou
ght
or o
ther
cau
ses
of c
rop
fai
lure
, th
e p
easa
ntr
y
could
suppor
t it
self
wit
hou
t th
e ai
d o
f th
e st
ate,
whic
h i
n a
ny
case
did
lit
tle
to p
lan a
gain
st p
ossi
ble
fam
ine.
But
the
pro
tect
ion w
hic
h
the
ruli
ng
clas
ses
pro
vid
ed w
as c
ruci
al,
for
wit
hou
t it
a v
illa
ge
mig
ht
be
the
const
ant
targ
et o
f sl
ave
raid
s an
d l
ooti
ng
fora
ys’.
Under
the
colo
nia
l sy
stem
of
taxa
tion
, th
e S
heh
unom
inat
ed D
istr
ict
Hea
ds
or
Aji
a,
wh
o w
ere
resp
onsi
ble
for
col
lect
ing
tax
from
th
e va
riou
s re
gion
s
thro
ugh
out
Bor
no.
Th
e A
jia
del
egat
ed t
his
tas
k t
o su
b-d
istr
ict
hea
ds
or
Law
ans,
who
usu
ally
del
egat
ed t
o lo
cal
agen
ts k
now
n a
s B
ula
ma
, al
l of
whom
wer
e ex
pec
ted t
o ch
annel
rev
enues
upw
ards
to t
he
Sh
ehu. In
itia
lly,
when
this
syst
em w
as s
et u
p i
n 1
905/6
, th
e Sheh
u w
as r
equir
ed t
o pas
s hal
f his
rec
eipts
to t
he
Bri
tish
(P
alm
er 1
929).
Sin
ce N
iger
ian
in
dep
end
ence
in
19
60
, a
mod
ern
gov
ern
men
t h
as
14
0
Marie
-Thérèse
Sarch
Sah
el a
nd
Su
dan
-Sav
ann
ah a
gro-
clim
atic
zon
es.
Alt
hou
gh r
ain
fall
is
low
and
var
iab
le i
n t
hes
e zo
nes
, it
has
lit
tle
imp
act
on t
he
volu
me
of t
he
lak
e
whic
h i
s ‘a
n a
ccum
ula
tor
of p
osit
ive
dep
artu
res
from
the
mea
n C
har
i/L
ogon
e
dis
char
ge,
risi
ng
in r
esp
onse
to
run
s of
wet
yea
rs,
fall
ing
wit
h s
ucc
essi
ve
year
s of
dro
ugh
t’ (
Gro
ve 1
98
5:1
46
). W
ater
fro
m t
he
Ch
ari/
Log
one
Riv
ers
flow
s in
to t
he
lak
e at
its
sou
ther
n e
xtre
me,
an
d f
low
s n
orth
war
ds
and
outw
ards,
enco
ura
ged b
y th
e la
ke’
s gr
adie
nt an
d p
reva
ilin
g w
inds.
This
infl
ow
pea
ks
in O
ctob
er/N
ovem
ber
, fo
llow
ing
the
end
of
the
rain
s in
th
e so
uth
ern
catc
hm
ent
area
, an
d r
each
es a
min
imum
in M
ay/J
une,
at
the
star
t of
the
nex
t
year
’s r
ains.
Thes
e fl
ood w
ater
s ta
ke
bet
wee
n o
ne
and tw
o m
onth
s to
rea
ch the
Nig
eria
n s
hor
e, w
her
e w
ater
lev
els
pea
k i
n J
anuar
y an
d r
each
thei
r m
inim
um
in J
uly
(O
livr
y et
al
1996).
In t
he
pas
t 25 y
ears
, annual
rai
nfa
ll i
n m
uch
of
the
catc
hm
ent
area
has
bee
n r
educe
d a
nd t
he
surf
ace
area
of
the
Lak
e has
var
ied
consi
der
ably
, bot
h o
n a
n i
ntr
a- a
nd i
nte
rannual
bas
is (
Sar
ch &
Bir
ket
t 2000).
Alt
hou
gh the
lim
its
of d
iffe
rent ec
olog
ical
zon
es in the
lake
are
det
erm
ined
by
its
leve
l, t
he
map
in
Fig
ure
1 i
nd
icat
es t
he
app
roxi
mat
e lo
cati
on o
f th
ese
zones
, as
wel
l as
the
study
area
in t
he
swam
ps
of t
he
Nig
eria
n s
hor
e.
Th
e w
este
rn s
hor
e of
Lak
e C
had
has
bee
n u
nd
er t
he
juri
sdic
tion
of
Bor
no
sin
ce t
he
end
of
the
fou
rtee
nth
cen
tury
. B
orn
o S
tate
is
curr
entl
y on
e of
36
Fig
ure 1
. M
ap o
f th
e L
ake C
had B
asi
n
14
3
Inst
ituti
onal evolu
tion a
t L
ake C
had
dev
elop
men
t an
d i
nst
ituti
onal
chan
ges
des
crib
ed a
bov
e (S
arch
1999).
Unli
ke
the
syst
ems
des
crib
ed i
n m
any
text
boo
ks,
th
e fa
rmin
g sy
stem
s
at L
ake
Ch
ad a
re n
ot r
ead
ily
asse
ssed
as
‘sh
ifti
ng’
, ‘s
emi-
per
man
ent’
or
‘per
man
ent’,
or e
xten
sive
or
inte
nsi
ve (
Sar
ch 1
999).
Far
min
g sy
stem
s in
the
study
area
hav
e bee
n d
evel
oped
to
explo
it t
he
seas
onal
flo
odin
g of
the
lake
shor
e (S
arch
& B
irket
t 2000).
In k
ey r
espec
ts,
the
farm
ing
tech
niq
ues
use
d
are
exte
nsi
ve:
farm
ers
rely
on
‘n
ew’
lan
d t
o m
ain
tain
fer
tili
ty l
evel
s an
d
lab
our
is a
n i
mp
orta
nt
con
stra
int
to p
rod
uct
ion
; w
her
eas
in o
ther
res
pec
ts,
farm
ing
syst
ems
are
inte
nsi
ve,
wit
h t
hre
e or
mor
e cr
ops
ofte
n r
elay
ed w
ithin
the
seas
on.
Alt
hou
gh
farm
ing
is
larg
ely
un
mec
han
ised
, p
rod
uct
ion
is
com
mer
cial
ised
, w
ith h
igh l
evel
s of
cas
h i
nput
and c
rop s
ales
. In
1993,
the
valu
e of
far
m s
ales
rep
rese
nte
d m
ore
than
thre
e-quar
ters
of
the
mea
n h
ouse
-
hol
d o
utp
ut
wit
hin
the
study
regi
on (
Sar
ch 1
999).
Sim
ilar
ly,
the
fish
ing
syst
ems
on t
he
lake
shor
e hav
e bee
n d
evel
oped
to
explo
it s
easo
nal
flo
odin
g (I
bid
.).
Alt
hou
gh e
stim
ates
of
fish
pro
duct
ion f
rom
the
lake
vary
, an
d t
he
exac
t im
pac
t of
the
lake’
s co
ntr
acti
on a
nd t
he
explo
ita-
tion
of
fish
sto
cks
is d
iffi
cult
to
asce
rtai
n,
at l
east
par
t of
th
e re
du
ctio
n i
n
pro
duct
ion d
uri
ng
rece
nt
dec
ades
is
acco
unte
d f
or b
y th
e co
ntr
acti
on o
f th
e
lake
(Sta
uch
1977; O
livr
y et
al
1996).
4F
ollo
win
g th
is c
ontr
acti
on, th
e du
mba
met
hod
of
fish
ing
has
bec
ome
incr
easi
ngl
y pop
ula
r. A
du
mba
is a
row
of
fish
trap
s w
hic
h a
re p
lace
d a
cros
s a
chan
nel
of
rece
din
g la
ke
wat
er. T
he
trap
s ar
e
linked
by
smal
l m
eshed
net
ting,
whic
h f
orce
s th
e fi
sh i
n t
he
retr
eati
ng
floo
d
wat
er i
nto
the
trap
s. T
he
dum
bais
esp
ecia
lly
effe
ctiv
e as
fis
h r
etre
atin
g w
ith
the
rece
din
g fl
ood c
annot
esc
ape
them
, an
d t
hey
do
not
nee
d t
o be
bai
ted.
Th
e in
vest
igat
ion
of
syst
ems
of a
cces
s to
far
mla
nd
an
d f
ish
ing
righ
ts
in t
he
stu
dy
area
was
bas
ed o
n t
he
fin
din
gs o
f p
arti
cip
ator
y ap
pra
isal
s
con
du
cted
in
fou
r ca
se s
tud
y vi
llag
es w
ith
in t
he
stu
dy
area
du
rin
g 1
99
5
(Fig
ure
2).
Th
e ap
pra
isal
s w
ere
des
ign
ed t
o u
nd
erst
and
th
e in
stit
uti
onal
chan
nel
s of
res
ourc
e ac
cess
, an
d t
hei
r co
nte
xt a
nd e
volu
tion
, as
wel
l as
the
contr
asts
and c
ompar
ison
s bet
wee
n them
. The
late
r st
ages
of th
e in
vest
igat
ion
use
d p
redom
inan
tly
seco
ndar
y so
urc
es t
o ex
amin
e ac
cess
inst
ituti
ons
at t
he
dis
tric
t, r
egio
nal
, an
d n
atio
nal
lev
els.
Reso
urce a
ccess
inst
ituti
ons
at
Lake C
had
Th
e re
sult
s of
th
is i
nve
stig
atio
n a
re p
rese
nte
d i
n t
his
sec
tion
. S
yste
ms
of
acce
ss t
o fa
rmla
nd a
re c
onsi
der
ed f
irst
, an
d e
xclu
sive
acc
ess
to f
ishin
g ri
ghts
14
2
Marie
-Thérèse
Sarch
oper
ated
in p
aral
lel
wit
h t
he
trad
itio
nal
adm
inis
trat
ion a
nd c
onsi
sts
of t
hre
e
tier
s: L
ocal
, Sta
te a
nd F
eder
al.
Alt
hou
gh S
tate
and L
ocal
Gov
ernm
ents
can
and d
o ra
ise
thei
r ow
n r
even
ue,
they
mos
tly
rely
on F
eder
al G
over
nm
ent
allo
-
cati
ons.
In c
ontr
ast,
the
trad
itio
nal
adm
inis
trat
ion r
aise
s m
ost
of i
ts r
even
ue
at a
loc
al l
evel
, pre
dom
inan
tly
by
taxi
ng
the
rura
l pop
ula
tion
.
Ther
e ar
e fi
ve L
ocal
Gov
ernm
ent
Are
as (
LG
As)
whic
h a
re a
dja
cent
to t
he
Nig
eria
n s
hor
e of
Lak
e C
had
. A
lthou
gh L
GA
s hav
e a
fish
ing
and a
gric
ult
ure
rem
it,
the
leve
l of
invo
lvem
ent
in f
ishin
g an
d/o
r fa
rmin
g va
ries
bet
wee
n e
ach
LG
A. T
he
study
regi
on in
cludes
the
mid
dle
thre
e: K
ukaw
a, M
ongo
nu a
nd M
arte
.
The
Bor
no
Sta
te G
over
nm
ent has
a m
inim
al invo
lvem
ent in
the
adm
inis
-
trat
ion
of
the
Lak
e, a
s w
ell
as i
ts i
mm
edia
te v
icin
ity.
Th
is i
s p
artl
y d
ue
to
inte
rnat
ion
al t
ensi
ons.
Ou
tbre
aks
of a
rmed
cla
shes
an
d r
ebel
act
ivit
y on
isla
nds
in t
he
lake
hav
e per
sist
ed s
ince
the
1970s,
and a
re l
arge
ly a
ssoc
iate
d
wit
h t
he
succ
essi
on o
f ci
vil
war
s in
the
Rep
ubli
c of
Chad
. A
mult
i-nat
ional
‘Joi
nt
Pat
rol’ h
as b
een c
reat
ed i
n r
espon
se t
o th
ese
outb
reak
s, a
nd i
t has
bee
n
mon
itor
ing
the
lake
to p
reve
nt
furt
her
vio
lence
. A
long
the
wes
tern
shor
e of
the
Lak
e, t
he
Nig
eria
n A
rmy
dom
inat
es t
he
Join
t P
atro
l.
Des
pit
e huge
inve
stm
ents
in i
rrig
atio
n (
and s
mal
ler
inve
stm
ents
in f
ish-
erie
s) d
uri
ng
the
1970s,
dev
elop
men
t in
itia
tive
s hav
e ac
hie
ved l
ittl
e la
stin
g
chan
ge a
t L
ake
Chad
(A
zeza
1976;
Kol
awol
e 1986;
Hutc
hin
son e
t al
1992;
Sar
ch 1
999).
Alt
hou
gh l
inked
to
the
Nig
eria
n e
conom
y th
rough
the
mar
ket
ing
of t
hei
r pro
duce
, th
e hou
sehol
ds
mak
ing
thei
r li
ving
on t
he
Nig
eria
n s
hor
es o
f
Lak
e C
had
are
geo
grap
hic
ally
an
d p
olit
ical
ly r
emot
e fr
om N
iger
ian
pol
icy-
mak
ers.
Th
e vi
llag
es i
n w
hic
h t
his
stu
dy
was
bas
ed,
hav
e h
ard
ly b
een
acknow
ledge
d b
y F
eder
al G
over
nm
ent.
They
hav
e re
ceiv
ed n
egli
gible
publi
c
inve
stm
ent
in t
hei
r w
elfa
re:
mos
t w
ells
are
han
d d
ug;
educa
tion
is
rest
rict
ed
to K
oran
ic s
choo
lin
g fo
r b
oys;
med
ical
fac
ilit
ies
are
only
ava
ilab
le i
n t
he
larg
e to
wns;
and t
he
secu
rity
ser
vice
s usu
ally
mon
itor
only
tra
nsp
ort
nod
es.
The
vill
ages
are
rea
ched
eit
her
on u
nm
arked
tra
cks
on t
he
lake
bed
, or
via
chan
nel
s in
the
swam
p v
eget
atio
n.
Rese
arch a
t L
ake C
had
Fis
hin
g an
d fa
rmin
g li
veli
hoo
ds
hav
e b
een
an
alys
ed u
sin
g h
ouse
hol
d
surv
ey d
ata
coll
ecte
d i
n 1
993,
as w
ell
as f
indin
gs o
f par
tici
pat
ory
rese
arch
conduct
ed w
ith f
our
com
munit
ies
on t
he
lake
shor
e duri
ng
1995. T
hes
e ex
er-
cise
s w
ere
under
taken
as
par
t of
the
Bri
tish
Gov
ernm
ent
fish
erie
s re
sear
ch
pro
ject
(N
eila
nd &
Sar
ch 1
993).
The
subse
quen
t an
alys
is e
xam
ined
the
dat
a
in t
he
wid
er c
onte
xt o
f th
e en
viro
nm
enta
l fl
uct
uat
ion
s, s
ocio
-eco
nom
ic
14
5
Inst
ituti
onal evolu
tion a
t L
ake C
had
Gov
ernor
; it
als
o re
stri
cted
indiv
idual
inte
rest
s in
lan
d t
o on
e of
occ
upan
cy
‘...
and [
to]
the
sole
rig
ht
to a
nd a
bso
lute
pos
sess
ion o
f al
l th
e im
pro
vem
ents
on t
he
land’.
(Ibid
:70).
The
dec
ree
vest
ed t
he
man
agem
ent
and c
ontr
ol o
f al
l
non
-urb
an l
and
in
th
e L
ocal
Gov
ern
men
t. I
nd
ivid
ual
s u
tili
sin
g n
on-u
rban
land w
ere
assi
gned
rig
hts
of
cust
omar
y oc
cupan
cy, w
hic
h m
ay b
e ce
rtif
ied b
y
the
Loc
al G
over
nm
ent.
The
Loc
al G
over
nm
ent
may
als
o gr
ant
righ
ts o
f oc
cu-
pan
cy o
f u
p t
o 5
00
hec
tare
s p
er i
nd
ivid
ual
or
orga
nis
atio
n f
or a
gric
ult
ura
l
purp
oses
. A
s th
ere
are
few
‘urb
an’ ce
ntr
es a
t L
ake
Chad
, m
ost
of t
he
land i
n
the
Nig
eria
n S
ecto
r co
mes
under
the
juri
sdic
tion
of
the
Loc
al G
over
nm
ents
adja
cent
to t
he
Lak
e.
Access
to f
arm
land in p
racti
ce
In p
ract
ice,
the
Kan
uri
ari
stoc
racy
has
ret
ained
alm
ost
tota
l au
tonom
y w
ith
rega
rd t
o th
e al
loca
ting
of l
and o
n t
he
shor
es o
f L
ake
Chad
. A
par
t fr
om l
and
acq
uir
ed i
n 1
97
3 b
y th
e fe
der
ally
-sp
onso
red
Sou
th C
had
Irr
igat
ion
Pro
ject
(SC
IP),
far
mla
nd
is
allo
cate
d i
n m
uch
th
e sa
me
way
as
bef
ore
the
19
78
dec
ree.
Curr
entl
y, B
ula
mas
act
as w
ard o
r ham
let
hea
ds.
They
all
ocat
e la
nd
and c
olle
ct t
axes
under
the
juri
sdic
tion
of
the
loca
l L
aw
an,
also
know
n a
s a
sub-d
istr
ict
hea
d.
In a
ddit
ion t
o th
e re
venue
rece
ived
fro
m B
ula
mas,
Law
ans
may
als
o re
ceiv
e dues
of va
riou
s kin
ds
from
rep
rese
nta
tive
s w
ho
rece
ive
taxe
s
from
non
-vil
lage
sou
rces
, su
ch a
s pas
tora
list
s an
d f
isher
men
. T
hes
e ta
x bas
es
par
alle
l th
e te
rrit
oria
l an
d a
ssoc
iati
onal
fie
fs g
rante
d b
y th
e S
heh
uin
the
pre
-
colo
nia
l er
a. C
urr
entl
y, L
aw
ans
are
obli
ged t
o ch
annel
thei
r ta
x re
venues
to
the
Loc
al G
over
nm
ent.
5H
owev
er,
wher
e Law
ans
do
pas
s on
a p
ropor
tion
of
thei
r re
venue,
they
do
so t
o th
e A
jia
or t
he
Dis
tric
t H
ead.
Alt
hou
gh t
his
sys
tem
has
evo
lved
sin
ce N
iger
ian
in
dep
end
ence
, it
is
sim
ilar
to
the
syst
em w
hic
h o
per
ated
bef
ore
colo
nis
atio
n.
It d
iffe
rs,
how
ever
,
in o
ne
impor
tant
resp
ect.
Wher
eas
in t
he
pas
t th
e sy
stem
was
bal
ance
d b
y th
e
nee
d t
o d
efen
d i
tsel
f —
th
e ar
isto
crac
y d
epen
ded
on
th
e p
easa
ntr
y to
rep
len
ish
th
eir
arm
ies,
an
d i
n r
etu
rn t
he
pea
san
try
was
pro
tect
ed f
rom
th
e
slav
e ra
ids
of h
osti
le n
eigh
bou
rs;
how
ever
, w
hen
the
Bri
tish
col
onis
ed B
orno
and
un
der
took
its
def
ence
, ta
xati
on a
nd
pro
tect
ion
wer
e d
ivor
ced
. T
he
curr
ent
Sta
te a
nd
Loc
al G
over
nm
ents
rec
eive
lit
tle,
if
anyt
hin
g, f
rom
lan
d
taxa
tion
(se
e fo
r ex
amp
le,
the
rep
ort
of t
he
Bor
no
Sta
te L
ocal
Rev
enu
e
Com
mit
tee
1982).
The
Join
t P
atro
l re
ceiv
es n
othin
g fr
om t
hes
e ta
xes
eith
er. I
t
is o
ffic
iall
y fu
nd
ed b
y th
e F
eder
al G
over
nm
ent,
an
d i
s al
so u
nof
fici
ally
fun
ded
by
the
char
ges
wh
ich
its
off
icer
s le
vy o
n m
ovem
ent
arou
nd
th
e
lake
bas
in.
14
4
Marie
-Thérèse
Sarch
is c
onsi
der
ed n
ext.
An
alys
is o
f se
con
dar
y so
urc
es a
t n
atio
nal
an
d r
egio
nal
leve
ls h
ave
bee
n u
sed t
o ex
pla
in t
he
evol
uti
on o
f th
e de
jure
or
theo
reti
cal
syst
ems
of a
cces
s, a
nd t
his
con
tras
ts w
ith w
hat
was
lea
rned
at
a vi
llag
e an
d
dis
tric
t le
vel
rega
rdin
g th
e su
bje
ct o
f h
ow a
cces
s to
far
mla
nd
an
d f
ish
ing
righ
ts o
per
ates
in p
ract
ice.
Access
to f
arm
land in t
heory
Under
the
pro
visi
ons
of t
he
1978 L
and U
se D
ecre
e, a
ll l
and i
n N
iger
ia w
as
nat
ion
alis
ed:
‘All
lan
d c
omp
rise
d i
n t
he
terr
itor
y of
eac
h S
tate
in
th
e
Fed
erat
ion a
re h
ereb
y ve
sted
in t
he
Mil
itar
y G
over
nor
of
that
Sta
te a
nd s
uch
land s
hal
l be
hel
d i
n t
rust
and a
dm
inis
tere
d f
or t
he
use
of
com
mon
ben
efit
of
all
Nig
eria
ns’
. (c
ited
in U
chen
du 1
979:6
9).
In t
heo
ry t
his
dec
ree
rem
oved
lan
d f
rom
th
e tr
ust
eesh
ip o
f fa
mil
ies,
com
mu
nit
ies
and
com
mu
nit
y le
ader
s, a
nd
rep
lace
d t
hem
by
the
Sta
te
Fig
ure 2
. M
ap o
f case
stu
dy v
illa
ges
at
Lake C
had
14
7
Inst
ituti
onal evolu
tion a
t L
ake C
had
14
6
Marie
-Thérèse
Sarch
Det
ails
of
the
land a
cces
s ar
range
men
ts i
n f
our
case
stu
dy
vill
ages
are
pro
vided
in T
able
1.
The
table
show
s th
at t
he
arra
nge
men
ts f
or a
lloc
atin
g th
e
land h
ave
chan
ged l
ittl
e si
nce
the
sett
lem
ent
of e
ach v
illa
ge.
Alt
hou
gh t
he
firs
t se
ttle
rs d
id n
ot n
eed t
o re
ques
t la
nd t
o fa
rm w
ith,
loca
l ar
isto
crat
s w
ere
quic
k t
o cl
aim
thei
r ta
xati
on r
ights
, es
pec
iall
y w
her
e dis
pute
s ov
er l
and h
ad
aris
en.
In m
ost
case
s, t
he
loca
l L
aw
an
– n
earl
y al
way
s a
Kan
uri
– a
sked
the
com
mu
nit
y to
nom
inat
e a
Bu
lam
aw
hom
th
ey c
ould
ch
ann
el t
hei
r an
nu
al
taxe
s th
rou
gh.
In r
etu
rn,
the
Bu
lam
aw
as g
iven
th
e L
aw
an
’sau
thor
ity
to
allo
cate
res
iden
tial
pro
per
ty a
nd
far
mla
nd
, as
wel
l as
au
thor
ity
to s
ettl
e
dis
pute
s w
ithin
his
com
munit
y. D
ispute
s ov
er t
he
righ
t to
all
ocat
e fa
rmla
nd,
such
as
that
bet
wee
n t
he
Bu
lam
as
of D
aba
Sh
ata
Kw
ata
and
Dab
ar S
hat
a
Gar
i, a
re u
sual
ly s
ettl
ed i
n t
he
favo
ur
of t
he
Kan
uri
com
munit
y. I
n t
he
case
of
Sab
on T
um
bu
, si
mil
ar d
isp
ute
s w
ith
in t
he
Hau
sa c
omm
un
ity
hav
e b
een
sett
led
in
fav
our
of t
he
can
did
ate
wit
h t
he
abil
ity
to d
eliv
er t
he
larg
est
tax
pay
men
t to
the
La
wa
n.
The
size
of
the
tax
pay
men
ts m
ade
to t
he
La
wa
nis
subje
ct t
o an
nual
neg
otia
tion
s: t
he
Bula
ma
must
sat
isfy
bot
h t
he
La
wa
n(o
n w
hos
e au
thor
ity
his
pos
itio
n d
epen
ds)
and t
he
com
munit
y on
whos
e su
ppor
t he
reli
es. If
tax
es a
re
too
hig
h o
r lo
w,
he
risk
s al
ienat
ing
one
or t
he
other
. A
lthou
gh t
axes
are
nev
er
wel
com
e, t
hey
wer
e not
unex
pec
ted b
y se
ttle
rs,
since
man
y of
the
lake
floo
r
farm
ers
had
com
e fr
om h
ome
regi
ons
wher
e si
mil
ar s
yste
ms
had
oper
ated
in
the
pas
t (H
ill
1972; M
orti
mor
e 1997).
Access
to f
ishin
g r
ights
in t
heory
No
nat
ion
al l
egis
lati
on r
egar
din
g th
e li
cen
sin
g or
reg
ula
tion
of
inla
nd
fis
h-
erie
s w
as e
nac
ted
un
til
the
Inla
nd
Fis
her
ies
Dec
ree
of 1
99
2.
Th
e d
ecre
e
char
ged
th
e C
omm
issi
oner
for
Agr
icu
ltu
re i
n e
ach
sta
te w
ith
th
e re
spon
si-
bil
ity
for
lice
nsi
ng
and r
egula
ting
inla
nd f
ishin
g. C
erta
in r
egula
tion
s on
gea
r
wer
e in
trod
uce
d i
n t
he
dec
ree,
an
d t
her
e is
pro
visi
on f
or t
he
crea
tion
of
furt
her
reg
ula
tion
s at
Fed
eral
lev
el.
Non
ethel
ess,
ther
e re
mai
ns
no
pro
visi
on
in t
he
law
for
th
e ow
ner
ship
of
wat
er b
odie
s. R
ath
er,
thro
ugh
ass
ign
ing
resp
onsi
bil
itie
s to
lic
ense
and c
ontr
ol i
nla
nd f
ishin
g w
ithin
eac
h s
tate
to
the
Com
mis
sion
er f
or A
gric
ult
ure
, it
im
pli
es h
e is
the
trust
ee o
f th
e in
land w
ater
bod
ies
of e
ach
sta
te (
Inla
nd
Fis
her
ies
Dec
ree
19
92
, S
up
ple
men
t to
th
e
Off
icia
l G
azet
te E
xtra
ordin
ary
No.
75,
Vol
.79,
31 D
ecem
ber
1992).
Not
wit
h-
stan
din
g th
is,
each
LG
A a
lso
has
a r
emit
for
fis
hin
g, w
hic
h i
s u
sual
ly a
conce
rn f
or t
he
Dep
artm
ent
of N
atura
l R
esou
rces
(M
adak
an &
Lad
u 1
996).
Sin
ce t
he
pro
mu
lgat
ion
of
the
Fed
eral
Dec
ree
on I
nla
nd
Fis
her
ies
in
Conflicts
Initially, with Bulamaof DabarShata Gari over right to allocate land
Periodically, between villagersand Fulani herders over accessto lake water over farming land
Recently, between transhumantfarmers and Fulani pastoralists;and periodically within Hausacommunity over Bulamaship
None
Village
DabarShataKwata
KwatanDawashi
SabonTumbu
TumbunNaira
Land allocated by
Bulamaof neigh-bouring DabarShata Gari
The Bulama
One of threeBulamasrepre-senting the mainethnic groups
The ‘acting’Bulama
Taxes handled by
BulamaofDabar ShataGari
The Bulama’sassistants areoverseen by theLawan’s assistant
The Bulama’sassistants areoverseen by theLawan’s assistant
The Bulama’sbrothers and theBulama
Taxespassed to
The Lawanof Baga
The Lawanof Dogoshi
The Lawanof Baidari
The Lawanof Mintar
MajorChanges
None
None
None
1994: Villageflooded andabandoned;1995: Fewhad returnedto farm
Yearfarmingstarted
1981
1984
1985
1984
Table 1. Access to farmland in four case study villages on the Nigerian Shore of Lake Chad
Source: Key interviews and group discussions during the participatory rural appraisals of the four case-study villages in 1995
14
9
Inst
ituti
onal evolu
tion a
t L
ake C
had
14
8
Marie
-Thérèse
Sarch
Conflicts
None
None
None
None
Village
DabarShataKwata
KwatanDawashi
SabonTumbu
TumbunNaira
Restrictionsenforced
None
None
None
None
Taxes/Fees
The Bulama expects anacknowledgement from fish-ermen staying in the village
None
Fee paid to one of the three Bulamas
None
Taxes/Fees passed
No further
N/A
Used to meet taxdemands of Lawanof Baidari
N/A
MajorChanges
None
None
None
None
Year fishingstarted
1978
1980
1985
1984
Table 2. Access to rising flood fishing from four case study villages on the Nigerian Shore of Lake Chad
Source: Key interviews and group discussions during the participatory rural appraisals of the four case-study villages in 1995
19
92
, th
e d
amm
ing
of i
nla
nd
wat
er (
and
in
eff
ect
– d
um
ba
s) h
as b
een
pro
hib
ited
:
‘The
appro
pri
ate
auth
orit
y sh
all
regu
late
and c
ontr
ol t
he
buil
din
g
of d
ams,
wei
rs o
r ot
her
fix
ed b
arri
ers
or o
bst
ruct
ion t
o en
sure
the
free
mov
emen
t of
fis
h, a
nd w
her
e per
mis
sion
is
gran
ted t
o a
per
son
to b
uil
d a
dam
, w
eir
or o
ther
fix
ed b
arri
er o
r ob
stru
ctio
n,
fish
lad
der
s sh
all
be
bu
ilt
to e
nsu
re f
ree
mov
emen
t of
fis
h’
(In
lan
d
Fis
her
ies
Dec
ree
1992, Sec
tion
10 [
1])
.
Th
e L
ake
Ch
ad B
asin
Com
mis
sion
’s J
oin
t R
egu
lati
ons
on F
aun
a an
d F
lora
also
eff
ecti
vely
pro
hib
it d
um
bas.
6T
he
regu
lati
ons
spec
ify
that
mem
ber
sta
tes
wil
l ta
ke
the
nec
essa
ry m
easu
res
to p
rohib
it ‘.
.. d
ikes
, dam
s or
oth
er o
bst
acle
s
wh
ich
hin
der
or
pre
ven
t th
e m
igra
tion
of
fish
’ (s
ee p
art
B,
aqu
atic
fau
na,
arti
cle
6; ci
ted i
n M
osch
etta
1991).
Access
to f
ishin
g r
ights
in p
racti
ce
Bot
h F
eder
al a
nd
Loc
al G
over
nm
ent
hav
e at
tem
pte
d t
o m
anag
e fi
shin
g at
Lak
e C
had
. T
he
LG
As
in t
he
study
regi
on e
ndea
vour
to p
lay
an a
ctiv
e ro
le i
n
regu
lati
ng
and t
axin
g fi
shin
g in
thei
r ar
eas.
In 1
995,
for
exam
ple
, M
ongo
no
and M
arte
LG
As
char
ged a
200 N
aira
lic
ense
fee
to
fish
erm
en w
ithin
thei
r
juri
sdic
tion
. H
owev
er,
com
pli
ance
wit
h m
easu
res
such
as
thes
e is
lim
ited
by
a la
ck o
f L
GA
res
ourc
es,
and b
y an
inab
ilit
y of
thei
r st
aff
to r
each
the
mos
t
pro
duct
ive
fish
ing
area
s on
the
lake
to e
nfo
rce
them
. T
he
Fed
eral
Fis
her
ies
Dep
artm
ent
has
att
empte
d t
o en
forc
e th
e re
gula
tion
s of
the
1992 d
ecre
e at
Lak
e C
had
thro
ugh
vis
its
to t
he
lakes
ide
Loc
al G
over
nm
ent
area
s to
exp
lain
the
stip
ula
tion
s of
the
1992 d
ecre
e to
LG
A s
taff
.
In p
ract
ice,
acc
ess
to f
ish
ing
at L
ake
Ch
ad v
arie
s w
ith
th
e se
ason
(Tab
les
2 a
nd 3
). F
ishin
g duri
ng
the
risi
ng
floo
d i
s m
ore
or l
ess
open
acc
ess.
Anyo
ne
wit
h t
he
mea
ns
to d
o so
, ca
n f
ish t
he
risi
ng
floo
d w
ater
s. R
isin
g fl
ood
fish
ing
doe
s not
req
uir
e per
mis
sion
and i
s not
char
ged f
or d
irec
tly.
Ther
e ar
e,
how
ever
, in
dir
ect
cost
s. F
or e
xam
ple
, th
e dis
cret
ionar
y ch
arge
s im
pos
ed b
y
the
Join
t P
atro
l.7
As
the
floo
d p
eaks
and b
egin
s to
subsi
de,
fis
her
men
hav
e
the
opti
on t
o ei
ther
fis
h t
he
area
of
open
wat
er r
emai
nin
g at
the
centr
e of
the
lak
e b
asin
, or
to
fish
th
e p
ools
an
d c
han
nel
s of
res
idu
al f
lood
wat
er w
hic
h
rem
ain a
round t
he
vill
ages
of
the
study
area
(Tab
le 3
). A
cces
s to
thes
e fi
shin
g
grou
nds
is r
estr
icte
d t
o th
ose
who
pay
for
it,
usu
ally
in a
dva
nce
.
Th
e al
loca
tion
an
d t
axat
ion
of
du
mba
site
s h
as b
ecom
e an
im
por
tan
t
focu
s of
fis
her
ies
regu
lati
on s
ince
they
wer
e in
trod
uce
d i
n t
he
1980s.
Sin
ce
15
1
Inst
ituti
onal evolu
tion a
t L
ake C
had
then
, th
ere
has
bee
n c
onsi
der
able
com
pet
itio
n f
or s
uit
able
sit
es i
n w
hic
h t
o a
loca
te d
um
ba.
Un
til
19
93
, d
um
bas
had
bee
n a
sou
rce
of c
onfl
ict
bet
wee
n
dum
bafi
sher
men
and t
hos
e dow
nst
ream
of
them
. In
1993,
the
confl
ict
was
reso
lved
by
a w
ealt
hy
Law
ans,
who
agre
ed t
o is
sue
a w
ritt
en l
icen
se w
hic
h
could
be
chec
ked
and (
the
excl
usi
ve r
ights
of
the
lice
nse
e) e
nfo
rced
by
the
Join
t P
atro
l or
Arm
y.
Then
in 1
994,
Kukaw
a an
d M
arte
LG
As
atte
mpte
d t
o li
cense
and t
ax
the
dum
bas,
and c
onfu
sion
dev
elop
ed o
ver
who
had
the
righ
t to
lic
ense
them
.
This
was
res
olve
d w
hen
, in
ear
ly 1
995,
Fed
eral
fis
her
ies
offi
cers
vis
ited
the
LG
As
and
exp
lain
ed t
he
regu
lati
ons
of t
he
19
92
dec
ree.
Th
ese
pro
hib
it
dum
bas
and t
hus
pre
vent
LG
As
from
tax
ing
them
(Tab
le 2
). N
onet
hel
ess,
the
use
of
dum
bas
per
sist
s. T
he
‘tra
dit
ional
’ adm
inis
trat
ion f
ille
d t
he
void
cre
ated
by
the
wit
hd
raw
al o
f L
ocal
Gov
ern
men
ts a
nd
exp
and
ed i
ts a
uth
orit
y ov
er
fish
ing,
par
ticu
larl
y w
ith r
egar
d t
o th
e al
loca
tion
of
dum
bas.
Alt
hou
gh t
her
e w
as c
onsi
der
able
var
iati
on i
n t
he
syst
ems
of a
cces
s to
dum
bas
whic
h o
per
ated
fro
m e
ach c
ase
study
vill
age,
the
pro
fits
to
be
mad
e
from
du
mba
fish
ing
wer
e re
flec
ted in the
ubiq
uit
ousl
y hig
h lic
ense
fee
s w
hic
h
wer
e ch
arge
d f
or t
hem
. In
1995,
the
excl
usi
ve r
ights
to
oper
ate
a dum
baat
a
par
ticu
lar
site
wer
e so
ld f
or a
s m
uch
as
10,0
00 N
aira
, or
mor
e th
an U
S$100.
Not
surp
risi
ngl
y, t
he
focu
s of
acc
ess
inst
ituti
ons
has
shif
ted a
way
fro
m o
ther
met
hod
s of
rec
essi
on f
ishin
g. I
n g
ener
al,
the
excl
usi
ve r
ights
to
the
fish
ing
from
a d
um
ba
site
wer
e so
ld f
or c
ash
(in
ad
van
ce)
on a
sea
son
al b
asis
.
Purc
has
ers
of t
hes
e co
uld
then
sub-l
et t
hes
e ri
ghts
for
var
ious
tim
e per
iods
duri
ng
that
sea
son.
Dum
basi
tes
are
allo
cate
d b
y va
riou
s ag
ents
of
the
loca
l
La
wan, al
thou
gh r
arel
y th
e B
ula
ma
, w
ith t
he
obje
ctiv
es o
f re
venue
coll
ecti
on
and
con
flic
t p
reve
nti
on.
Th
e se
con
d o
f th
ese
obje
ctiv
es i
s sh
ared
wit
h t
he
Join
t P
atro
l, w
hos
e of
fice
rs a
lso
pro
fit
from
thei
r en
dor
sem
ent
of t
he
dum
ba
lice
nse
s is
sued
by
cert
ain L
aw
ans.
Dis
cuss
ion a
nd c
onclu
sion
Rat
her
th
an e
volv
ing
from
com
mu
nit
ies
in r
esp
onse
to
thei
r p
rod
uct
ion
stra
tegi
es,
the
syst
em o
f ac
cess
to
farm
land o
n t
he
curr
ent
Nig
eria
n s
hor
e of
Lak
e C
had
has
bee
n i
mpos
ed b
y an
ari
stoc
racy
, w
hic
h i
s bas
ed i
n t
he
tow
ns
and v
illa
ges
alon
g th
e fo
rmer
lak
e sh
ore.
This
sys
tem
was
fam
ilia
r to
mos
t in
the
case
stu
dy
com
munit
ies
and, si
nce
much
of
the
agri
cult
ura
l pro
duct
ion a
t
Lak
e C
had
is
for
sale
, th
e sy
stem
doe
s not
see
m t
otal
ly u
nw
orkab
le. H
owev
er,
15
0
Marie
-Thérèse
Sarch
Conflicts
Bulamainvolved indispute over thedumbalicence whichhe paid for in 1995and was subsequentlyignored and dumbarights denied
None mentioned
None mentioned
None mentioned
Village
DabarShataKwata
KwatanDawashi
SabonTumbu
TumbunNaira
Restrictionsenforced
Fishing at Dumbasites is restrictedand licencessold. Licencesare endorsedand enforced by the Army
Fishing at dumbasites is restrictedand licences sold
Fishing at dumbasites is restrictedand licences sold
Fishing at dumbasites is restricted &sites are allocatedby acting Bulamafor an initial fee
Taxes/Fees
Negotiated throughhis village-basedassistant and paid in cash to Lawan’srepresentative. A further fee is alsopaid to the Army
Fees negotiated withand paid in cash tothe Bulamawhoissues a LGA receipt
Negotiated through1 of the 3 Bulamas.Lawan’s rep. decideswhether to issuelicence & acceptspayment in cash
Taxes assessed inrelation to catchesand paid to actingBulama
Taxes/Feespassed to
The LawanofBaga
Kukawa LGA
A proportionis passed tothe LawanofBaidari (&on to DistrictHead)
A proportionis passed toLawanofMintar (& toDistrict Head)
Major Changes
In 1993, conflict led to regulationand licensing of dumbasite allo-cation, which had previouslybeen on a ‘first-come, first-servedbasis’
In 1994, Kukawa LGA took overdumbalicensing revenues fromLawan of Dogoshi (and theArmy). Recent enforcement of1992 decree challenges the LGAtaxation of dumbas
In 1994, Marte LGA took overdirect allocation and licensing ofdumbas, and then had to stopafter the enforcement of the 1992decree. The system then revertedback to its current status.
The system of dumbaregulationhad evolved by 1993.Mongonou LGA consideredtaking over dumbalicensing, butconsidered it too problematic
Dumbafishingstarted
1989
1989/1990
1989
1989
Table 3. Access to Dumbafishing during the receding flood from four case study villages on the Nigerian Shore ofLake Chad
Source: Key interviews and group discussions during the participatory rural appraisals of the four case-study villages in 1995
15
3
Inst
ituti
onal evolu
tion a
t L
ake C
had
dif
fer
from
th
ose
of t
he
syst
ems
of c
ust
omar
y te
nu
re i
n t
he
Fra
nco
ph
one
Sah
el. T
he
firs
t d
iffe
ren
ce i
s in
th
e re
lati
onsh
ip b
etw
een
th
e tr
adit
ion
al
adm
inis
trat
ion
an
d t
he
stat
e. R
ath
er t
han
bei
ng
un
der
min
ed b
y ‘m
oder
n’
tenure
arr
ange
men
ts,
the
Bri
tish
col
onia
l pol
icy
of c
olle
ctin
g ta
x th
rough
the
trad
itio
nal
ad
min
istr
atio
n s
erve
d t
o st
ren
gth
en i
t. T
his
leg
itim
ised
wh
at i
s
esse
nti
ally
a s
yste
m o
f fe
ud
al e
xplo
itat
ion
. T
he
curr
ent
syst
em d
iffe
rs v
ery
litt
le. H
owev
er, i
n t
he
pas
t th
e ‘N
ativ
e A
dm
inis
trat
ion’ p
asse
d o
n a
pro
por
tion
of t
he
tax
coll
ecte
d t
o th
e B
riti
sh,
wher
eas
today
, ve
ry l
ittl
e of
the
reve
nue
from
far
m t
axes
rea
ches
the
Loc
al G
over
nm
ent
or N
iger
ian A
rmy,
whic
h n
ow
def
ends
the
lake.
A s
econ
d l
ies
in t
he
obje
ctiv
es o
f th
e tw
o sy
stem
s. S
yste
ms
of c
ust
omar
y
tenure
hav
e bee
n c
har
acte
rise
d a
s bro
adly
ben
evol
ent,
in t
hat
they
sust
ained
rura
l li
veli
hoo
ds.
At
Lak
e C
had
, how
ever
, th
e ov
erri
din
g an
d o
vert
obje
ctiv
e
of i
nst
ituti
ons
for
reso
urc
e ac
cess
is
pro
fit.
Law
ans
coll
ect
taxe
s as
ren
t on
‘thei
r’ f
iefs
. T
he
abil
ity
of s
uch
fie
fhol
der
s to
acq
uir
e an
d e
xten
d t
hei
r fi
efs
has
not
bee
n t
he
resu
lt o
f an
y in
vest
men
t in
, or
his
tori
cal
asso
ciat
ion w
ith t
he
lak
e fl
oor.
Aft
er a
ll,
the
floo
r w
as o
nly
rev
eale
d a
fter
th
e la
ke
beg
an t
o
contr
act
in t
he
1970s.
Ess
enti
ally
, th
eir
abil
ity
to i
nst
igat
e th
e in
stit
uti
ons
f
or a
cces
s to
the
reso
urc
es o
f th
e la
ke
floo
r is
a f
unct
ion o
f th
e pow
er o
f th
e
‘tra
dit
ional
’ adm
inis
trat
ors
to p
urs
ue
thei
r ow
n i
nte
rest
s.
Th
e th
ird
mod
el c
onsi
der
ed w
as t
hat
of
the
inst
itu
tion
al d
evel
opm
ent
whic
h B
oser
up (1965) an
d N
etti
ng
(1993) li
nked
to
the
pro
cess
of ag
ricu
ltura
l
inte
nsi
fica
tion
gen
erat
ed b
y p
opu
lati
on g
row
th a
nd
an
in
crea
sed
dem
and
for
land.
The
mod
el p
redic
ts t
hat
the
inte
nsi
ty o
f re
sourc
e ex
plo
itat
ion w
ill
det
erm
ine
the
excl
usi
vity
of
pro
per
ty r
ights
, as
res
ourc
e use
rs w
ill
dev
elop
inst
ituti
ons
to e
xclu
de
other
s fr
om b
enef
itin
g fr
om t
hei
r re
sourc
e in
vest
men
t.
Agr
icult
ure
at
Lak
e C
had
has
not
exp
erie
nce
d i
nte
nsi
fica
tion
or
inst
ituti
onal
dev
elop
men
t in
the
way
that
Bos
erup, N
etti
ng
and o
ther
s hav
e des
crib
ed. T
he
contr
acti
on o
f th
e la
ke
has
pre
vente
d t
he
esta
bli
shm
ent
of l
ong-
term
rig
hts
to
farm
lan
d,
and
wh
ile
farm
ers
use
a h
igh
lev
el o
f w
ork
ing
cap
ital
an
d s
ell
a
larg
e p
rop
orti
on o
f th
eir
outp
ut,
th
ey h
ave
mad
e m
inim
al i
nve
stm
ents
in
fixe
d c
apit
al.
The
pro
cess
of
inst
ituti
onal
dev
elop
men
t at
Lak
e C
had
con
form
s m
ost
clos
ely
to t
he
mod
el p
rop
oun
ded
by
Nor
th (
19
90
), i
n w
hic
h i
nst
itu
tion
al
evol
uti
on d
eter
min
es t
he
outc
ome
of e
conom
ic d
evel
opm
ent,
rat
her
than
vic
e
vers
a. N
orth
mai
nta
ins
that
wher
e th
e ev
oluti
on o
f in
stit
uti
ons
is d
rive
n b
y th
e
inte
rest
s of
thos
e w
ith t
he
pow
er t
o dev
ise
them
, nep
otis
m,
mon
opol
ies
and
15
2
Marie
-Thérèse
Sarch
it i
s, l
arge
ly a
rbit
rary
, b
ecau
se f
arm
ers
hav
e n
o sa
y in
wh
o re
ceiv
es t
hei
r
taxe
s, o
r how
they
are
spen
t. U
nli
ke
duri
ng
the
pre
-col
onia
l er
a w
hen
pea
s-
ants
rec
eive
d p
rote
ctio
n f
rom
the
Kan
uri
ari
stoc
racy
, th
e fa
rmer
s of
the
lake
shor
e re
ceiv
e not
hin
g (o
ther
than
acc
ess
to f
arm
the
rece
ntl
y re
veal
ed l
ake
shor
e) i
n r
eturn
for
the
taxe
s pai
d t
o th
e L
aw
an.
Unli
ke
the
case
for
far
mla
nd, th
e sy
stem
s of
reg
ula
ting
acce
ss t
o fi
shin
g
hav
e on
ly b
een c
reat
ed r
ecen
tly.
They
dev
elop
ed i
n r
espon
se t
o th
e in
trod
uc-
tion
of
the
hig
hly
pro
fita
ble
met
hod
of
fish
ing,
wh
ich
led
to
con
flic
t an
d
confu
sion
. C
onfl
ict
bet
wee
n f
isher
men
dev
elop
ed o
ver
the
impac
t of
dum
bas
on d
ownst
ream
fis
her
ies,
as
wel
l as
con
fusi
on b
etw
een m
oder
n a
dm
inis
trat
ive
agen
cies
ove
r d
um
bare
gula
tion
and t
axat
ion.
Lar
ge d
um
bapro
fits
wer
e bot
h
a so
urc
e of
con
flic
t an
d a
mot
ive
for
the
trad
itio
nal
adm
inis
trat
ion t
o re
solv
e
the
confl
ict
in o
rder
to
ben
efit
fro
m t
he
pro
fits
.
Th
e in
stit
uti
ons
for
acce
ss t
o re
sou
rces
at
Lak
e C
had
do
not
rea
dil
y
con
form
to
exis
tin
g m
odel
s of
res
ourc
e te
nu
re.
Th
e fo
llow
ing
dis
cuss
ion
consi
der
s th
e ex
tent
to w
hic
h t
hos
e dis
cuss
ed a
t th
e st
art
of t
his
pap
er o
ffer
an e
xpla
nat
ion
of
reso
urc
e ac
cess
at
Lak
e C
had
. T
he
firs
t m
odel
to
be
consi
der
ed w
as o
utl
ined
by
Gor
don
(1954)
and d
escr
ibed
as
the
‘Tra
gedy
of
the
Com
mon
s’ b
y H
ardin
(1968).
This
was
bas
ed o
n t
he
not
ions
that
envi
ron-
men
tal
carr
yin
g ca
pac
ity
is f
init
e, ‘
trag
edy’
en
sues
on
ce t
his
cap
acit
y h
as
bee
n e
xcee
ded
an
d a
s th
e u
sers
of
a re
sou
rce
wil
l n
ot v
olu
nta
rily
res
tric
t
thei
r ex
plo
itat
ion o
f it
, th
e st
ate
must
im
pos
e an
d e
nfo
rce
excl
usi
ve r
ights
to
the
reso
urc
e. T
his
th
eory
can
not
be
app
lied
to
Lak
e C
had
, w
her
e a
maj
or
det
erm
inan
t of
en
viro
nm
enta
l ca
rryi
ng
cap
acit
y is
th
e ex
ten
t of
th
e fl
ood
,
whic
h f
luct
uat
es f
rom
yea
r to
yea
r. T
he
impac
t of
res
ourc
e ex
plo
itat
ion o
n t
he
capac
ity
of t
he
lake
to s
uppor
t it
s pop
ula
tion
is
uncl
ear
and i
n a
ny
even
t, i
s
rest
rict
ed b
y a
vari
ety
of i
nst
itu
tion
s w
hic
h c
ontr
ol a
cces
s to
th
e la
kes
reso
urc
es.
Th
e se
con
d m
odel
to
be
con
sid
ered
was
th
e h
isto
rica
l p
roce
ss o
f
inst
ituti
onal
ero
sion
obse
rved
in t
he
Fra
nco
phon
e Sah
el.
The
deg
radat
ion o
f
fore
sts
and r
ange
lands
thro
ugh
out th
e re
gion
has
bee
n a
ttri
bute
d to
the
par
tial
imp
osit
ion
of
‘mod
ern
’ st
atu
tory
mea
sure
s to
en
sure
th
eir
sust
ain
abil
ity.
Th
ese
not
on
ly f
aile
d i
n t
hei
r ob
ject
ives
, b
ut
un
der
min
ed t
he
cust
omar
y
ten
ure
arr
ange
men
ts t
hat
did
exi
st.
Th
e re
sult
has
bee
n a
du
al s
yste
m,
in
whic
h t
he
man
y ar
eas
wher
e te
nure
is
eith
er u
ncl
ear
or n
ot e
nfo
rced
, hav
e
bee
n o
ver-
explo
ited
. A
sim
ilar
inst
ituti
onal
dual
ism
exi
sts
at L
ake
Chad
and
this
als
o has
had
gap
s in
its
cov
erag
e. F
or e
xam
ple
, in the
allo
cati
on o
f fi
shin
g
righ
ts.
How
ever
, th
e fo
rtunes
of
the
trad
itio
nal
adm
inis
trat
ion a
t L
ake
Chad
15
5
Inst
ituti
onal evolu
tion a
t L
ake C
had
pro
ble
m o
f ad
dre
ssin
g th
e in
consi
sten
t nat
ure
of
much
tax
atio
n a
t th
e la
ke.
Whet
her
the
taxa
tion
is
legi
tim
ate
or n
ot,
is n
ot t
he
real
iss
ue.
Rat
her
, if
the
taxa
tion
is
at l
east
tra
nsp
aren
t, t
hen
hou
sehol
ds
could
pla
n f
or i
t. L
ower
ing
the
tran
sact
ion
cos
ts i
nvo
lved
in
bot
h a
cqu
irin
g an
d a
lloc
atin
g ac
cess
to
fish
ing
grou
nd
s w
ould
be
in t
he
inte
rest
of
bot
h t
he
hou
seh
old
s m
akin
g
thei
r li
vin
g on
th
e la
ke
shor
e, a
nd
th
e or
gan
isat
ion
s w
hos
e ag
ents
rel
y on
fish
ing
reve
nues
. T
his
wou
ld n
ot r
equir
e ri
gid r
egula
tion
s. T
he
com
par
ativ
e
succ
ess
of t
he
trad
itio
nal
adm
inis
trat
ion i
n a
lloc
atin
g fa
rmla
nd c
an b
e par
tly
attr
ibute
d t
o th
eir
flex
ibil
ity
in a
dap
ting
to t
he
chan
ging
envi
ronm
ent
at L
ake
Chad
. If
for
mula
e (r
ather
than
fix
ed a
mou
nts
or
dat
es)
could
be
esta
bli
shed
and d
isse
min
ated
for
tax
es w
hic
h m
ust
be
pai
d,
this
wou
ld r
educe
the
tran
s-
acti
on c
osts
for
all
invo
lved
.
Acknow
ledgm
ents
Th
e re
sear
ch a
t L
ake
Ch
ad w
as u
nd
erta
ken
as
par
t of
th
e T
rad
itio
nal
Man
agem
ent
of A
rtis
anal
Fis
her
ies
Pro
ject
(T
MA
F).
TM
AF
was
fu
nd
ed b
y
the
UK
Ove
rsea
s D
evel
opm
ent
Ad
min
istr
atio
n P
roje
ct N
o.R
54
71
, an
d w
as
con
du
cted
by
the
Un
iver
sity
of
Por
tsm
outh
(U
K),
in
col
lab
orat
ion
wit
h t
he
Univ
ersi
ty o
f M
aidugu
ri (N
iger
ia) an
d the
Fed
eral
Univ
ersi
ty o
f Tec
hnol
ogy
in
Yol
a (N
iger
ia).
Furt
her
anal
ysis
of th
is r
esea
rch h
as b
een m
ade
pos
sible
by
an
ESR
C r
esea
rch s
tuden
tship
aw
arded
to
Mar
ie-T
hér
èse
Sar
ch.
Endnote
s
1In
a s
imil
ar v
ein t
o H
ardin
, O
lson
(1965)
argu
ed t
hat
if
an i
ndiv
idual
can
der
ive
a ben
efit
from
a p
ubli
c go
od, th
ere
wou
ld b
e no
reas
on f
or s
he
or h
e to
con
trib
ute
to
the
good
. O
ther
auth
ors
hav
e des
crib
ed t
his
theo
ry u
sing
the
‘pri
soner
s’ d
ilem
ma’
, w
her
e in
div
idual
s ar
e
offe
red a
choi
ce b
etw
een c
ooper
atio
n w
ith
eac
h o
ther
or
def
ecti
on.
If b
oth c
ooper
ate
and
stin
t in
thei
r use
of
the
com
mon
res
ourc
e, i
ts o
ver-
explo
itat
ion i
s not
inev
itab
le.
How
ever
,
the
theo
ry p
redic
ts that
joi
nt use
rs o
f a
com
mon
res
ourc
e h
ave
no
ince
nti
ve to
stin
t in
thei
r
use
of
it,
as t
hey
can
not
be
sure
th
at t
hei
r co
-use
rs w
ill
do
lik
ewis
e. I
nst
ead
, th
ey w
ill
pu
rsu
e th
e ‘f
ree-
rid
er’
stra
tegy
an
d w
ill
ult
imat
ely
over
-exp
loit
, le
adin
g to
‘tr
aged
y’.
(Runge
1984, M
oore
hea
d &
Lan
e 1993, W
ade
1988)
2F
or e
xam
ple
: A
ches
on (
1975)
des
crib
es h
ow ‘f
ief’
hol
der
s hav
e cr
eate
d e
xclu
sive
rig
hts
to
the
lob
ster
s on
th
e M
ain
e co
ast;
McG
ood
win
(1
98
3)
des
crib
es a
var
iety
of
ind
igen
ous
mec
han
ism
s of
sel
f re
gula
tion
in u
nm
anag
ed f
isher
ies;
Wad
e (1
988)
show
s how
use
rs h
ave
dev
elop
ed a
sys
tem
of
man
agin
g ac
cess
to
irri
gati
on;
Ch
ild
(1
99
3)
des
crib
es h
ow r
ura
l
15
4
Marie
-Thérèse
Sarch
under
dev
elop
men
t re
sult
s. F
or h
ouse
hol
ds
mak
ing
thei
r li
ving
at L
ake
Chad
,
the
resu
lt o
f th
is p
roce
ss i
s ar
bit
rary
tax
atio
n. T
he
taxe
s im
pos
ed b
y th
e tr
adi-
tion
al a
dm
inis
trat
ion a
re i
lleg
itim
ate,
bec
ause
the
obli
gati
on t
o pay
them
is
not
mat
ched
by
a d
uty
to
pro
vid
e. S
uch
tax
es a
re i
nim
ical
to
live
lih
ood
s,
bec
ause
rev
enu
es a
re n
ot u
sed
to
pro
vid
e th
e sc
hoo
ls,
hea
lth
cen
tres
an
d
oth
er s
ocia
l an
d p
hys
ical
in
fras
tru
ctu
re t
hat
wou
ld e
nab
le h
ouse
hol
ds
to
buil
d o
n t
hei
r as
sets
.
Des
pit
e th
e ex
plo
itat
ion i
nher
ent
in i
t, t
he
syst
em o
f la
nd t
enure
at
Lak
e
Chad
has
im
por
tant
adva
nta
ges
over
the
syst
em o
f fi
sher
ies
man
agem
ent.
The
mos
t im
por
tant
of t
hes
e is
that
it
wor
ks.
The
inst
ituti
ons
for
acce
ss t
o la
nd a
re
wid
ely
un
der
stoo
d,
they
hav
e al
mos
t co
mp
lete
com
pli
ance
an
d t
hey
are
stab
le.
The
hou
sehol
ds
of t
he
lake
shor
e know
when
they
wil
l be
expec
ted t
o
pay
thei
r fa
rm t
ax,
they
know
who
they
wil
l pay
it
to,
they
know
rou
ghly
what
pro
por
tion
of
thei
r h
arve
st w
ill
be
req
uir
ed a
nd
rou
ghly
wh
at o
ther
hou
se-
hol
ds
in t
he
vill
age
wil
l be
pay
ing.
In c
ontr
ast,
the
allo
cati
on o
f fi
shin
g ri
ghts
vari
es f
rom
vil
lage
to
vill
age,
has
req
uir
ed t
he
Arm
y to
pre
vent
confl
ict,
and
has
sw
ung
bet
wee
n t
he
contr
ol o
f L
ocal
Gov
ernm
ent,
the
‘Nat
ive
Adm
inis
tr-
atio
n’ a
nd t
he
Arm
y.
Alt
hou
gh b
road
ly b
enev
olen
t an
d s
imil
ar i
n t
hei
r ai
ms
to s
ust
ain
fis
h
stoc
ks
and fis
hin
g li
veli
hoo
ds,
the
effo
rts
of the
Fed
eral
Fis
her
ies
Dep
artm
ent
and
Loc
al G
over
nm
ent
hav
e co
nfl
icte
d a
nd
res
ult
ed i
n f
ailu
re.
Fed
eral
atte
mp
ts t
o en
forc
e a
ban
on
du
mba
fish
ing
at t
he
beg
inn
ing
of 1
99
5,
pre
vente
d L
ocal
Gov
ernm
ent
regu
lati
on o
f d
um
bafi
shin
g. C
onse
quen
tly,
the
trad
itio
nal
ad
min
istr
atio
n r
esu
med
th
eir
allo
cati
on a
nd
tax
atio
n o
f d
um
ba
lice
nse
s, a
nd w
her
e dis
pute
s ar
ose,
the
Nig
eria
n A
rmy
wer
e pai
d t
o en
dor
se
thes
e ‘t
rad
itio
nal
’ li
cen
ses.
Du
mba
fish
ing
per
sist
s an
d L
ocal
Gov
ern
men
t
has
lit
tle
con
trol
ove
r it
. F
ish
erie
s m
anag
emen
t, l
ike
the
oth
er m
oder
n
adm
inis
trat
ive
inst
ituti
ons
at L
ake
Chad
, ca
nnot
oper
ate
effe
ctiv
ely
bec
ause
ther
e is
con
fusi
on o
ver
whic
h a
genci
es h
ave
juri
sdic
tion
ove
r w
hic
h a
reas
. In
addit
ion, th
e fo
rmula
tion
of
regu
lati
ons
cannot
to
kee
p u
p w
ith o
f dyn
amic
s of
the
Lak
e.
Alt
hou
gh f
arm
tax
es a
re n
eith
er a
ccou
nte
d f
or,
nor
in
vest
ed i
n t
he
com
munit
ies
who
pay
them
, th
e under
stan
din
g w
hic
h a
ll i
nvo
lved
hav
e ab
out
the
way
they
are
col
lect
ed i
s an
adva
nta
ge. M
ost
of t
he
other
tax
es i
mpos
ed a
t
Lak
e C
had
are
not
only
ill
egit
imat
e, b
ut
inco
nsi
sten
t to
o. T
he
allo
cati
on o
f
excl
usi
ve fis
hin
g ri
ghts
is
one
exam
ple
of th
is. T
he
inco
nsi
sten
t nat
ure
of th
ese
taxe
s se
vere
ly c
onst
rain
s th
e ab
ilit
y of
far
mer
s an
d fis
her
men
to
pla
n for
them
.
Th
ese
con
clu
sion
s in
dic
ate
a ra
dic
al r
oute
for
war
d w
ith
reg
ard
to
the
15
7
Inst
ituti
onal evolu
tion a
t L
ake C
had
Beh
nke,
Jnr.
R.
and S
coon
es,
I.,
1993,
Ret
hin
kin
g R
ange
Eco
logy
: Im
pli
cati
ons
for
Ran
gela
nd
Man
agem
ent
in A
fric
a, C
hap
ter
1 i
n B
ehnke,
Jnr.
R., S
coon
es,
I. a
nd K
erve
n,
C., (
eds)
,
Ra
ng
e E
colo
gy a
t D
iseq
uil
ibri
um
: N
ew M
od
els
of
Na
tura
l Va
ria
bil
ity a
nd
Pa
stora
l
Adapt
ati
on i
n A
fric
an S
ava
nnas,
Lon
don
: O
vers
eas
Dev
elop
men
t In
stit
ute
.
Ber
ry, S., 1
989, Soc
ial
Inst
ituti
ons
and A
cces
s to
Res
ourc
es, A
fric
a,5
9(1
):4
1-5
5, 1
98
9.
Ber
ry,
S., 1
993,
No
Con
dit
ion i
s P
erm
anen
t: T
he
Soc
ial
Dyn
am
ics
of A
gra
rian C
hange
in S
ub-
Sahara
n A
fric
a, M
adis
on: U
niv
ersi
ty o
f W
isco
nsi
n P
ress
.
Bor
no
Sta
te,
19
82
, B
orn
o S
tate
Loca
l R
even
ue
Com
mit
tee
Rep
ort
Au
gu
st 1
98
2,
Mai
du
guri
,
Nig
eria
: G
over
nm
ent
Pri
nte
r.
Bos
eru
p,
E.,
19
65
, T
he
Con
dit
ions
of A
gri
cult
ura
l G
row
th:
The
Eco
nom
ics
of A
gra
rian C
hange
under
Pop
ula
tion
Pre
ssure
, N
ew Y
ork: A
ldin
e P
ubli
shin
g C
ompan
y.
Bre
nn
er,
L.,
19
73
, T
he
Sheh
us
of K
uka
wa:
A H
isto
ry o
f th
e A
l-K
anem
i D
yna
sty
of B
ornu
, O
xfor
d:
Cla
rendon
Pre
ss.
Bri
nk
erh
off,
D.W
., 1
99
5,
Afr
ican
Sta
te-s
ocie
ty L
ink
ages
in
Tra
nsi
tion
: T
he
Cas
e of
For
estr
y
Pol
icy
in M
ali,
Canadia
n J
ourn
al
of D
evel
opm
ent
Stu
die
s,X
VI(
2):
201-2
28.
Bro
mle
y, D
.W.
and
Cer
nea
, M
.M.,
19
89
, T
he
Man
agem
ent
of C
omm
on P
rop
erty
Nat
ura
l
Res
ourc
es:
Som
e C
once
ptu
al a
nd
Op
erat
ion
al F
alla
cies
, W
orld
Ba
nk
Dis
cuss
ion
Pa
pers
No.
57, W
ashin
gton
DC
: T
he
Wor
ld B
ank.
Cad
dy,
J.F
. an
d G
ull
and,
J.A
., 1
983,
His
tori
cal
Pat
tern
s of
Fis
h S
tock
s, M
ari
ne
Pol
icy,
Oct
ober
,
pp
.26
7-2
78
.
Car
ney
, D
., 1
99
8,
Imp
lem
enti
ng
the
Su
stai
nab
le R
ura
l L
ivel
ihoo
ds
Ap
pro
ach
, C
hap
ter
1 i
n
Car
ney
, D
., (
ed),
Su
sta
ina
ble
Ru
ral
Liv
elih
ood
s. W
ha
t C
on
trib
uti
on
Ca
n W
e M
ake?
Lon
don
: D
epar
tmen
t fo
r In
tern
atio
nal
Dev
elop
men
t.
Car
swel
l, G
., 1
99
7,
Agr
icu
ltu
ral
Inte
nsi
fica
tion
an
d R
ura
l S
ust
ain
able
Liv
elih
ood
s: A
Th
ink
Pie
ce, ID
S W
orki
ng P
ape
r N
o.63
, B
righ
ton, U
K: In
stit
ute
for
Dev
elop
men
t Stu
die
s.
Char
les,
A.T
., 1
996,
Cre
ati
ng a
Col
laps
e: A
tlanti
c C
anada’s G
roundfi
sher
y, p
aper
pre
sente
d t
o
the
Eig
hth
Con
fere
nce
of
the
Inte
rnat
ional
Inst
itute
for
Fis
her
ies
Eco
nom
ics
and T
rade,
Mar
rakec
h, 1-4
July
1996.
Ch
ild
, B
., 1
99
3,
Zim
bab
we’
s C
AM
PF
IRE
Pro
gram
me:
Usi
ng
the
Hig
h V
alu
e of
Wil
dli
fe
Rec
reat
ion
to
R
evol
uti
onis
e N
atu
ral
Res
ourc
e M
anag
emen
t in
C
omm
un
al
Are
as,
Com
mon
wea
lth F
ores
try
Rev
iew
,7
2(4
):2
84
-29
6.
Cir
iacy
-Wan
tru
p,
S.V
. an
d B
ish
op,
R.C
., 1
97
5,
‘Com
mon
Pro
per
ty’
as a
Con
cep
t in
Nat
ura
l
Res
ourc
e P
olic
y, N
atu
ral
Res
ourc
es J
ourn
al,
15
:71
3-7
27
.
Cu
shin
g, D
.H.,
19
82
, C
lim
ate
and F
isher
ies,
Lon
don
: A
cadem
ic P
ress
.
Cu
shin
g, D
.H.,
19
88
, T
he
Pro
viden
t Sea
, C
ambri
dge
, U
K: C
ambri
dge
Univ
ersi
ty P
ress
.
Dav
ies,
S.,
19
98
, A
da
pta
ble
Liv
elih
ood
s: C
opin
g w
ith
Foo
d I
nse
curi
ty i
n t
he
Ma
lia
n S
ah
el,
Lon
don
: M
acm
illa
n.
15
6
Marie
-Thérèse
Sarch
com
munit
ies
in Z
imbab
we
now
man
age
and m
arket
thei
r w
ildli
fe s
ucc
essf
ull
y; a
nd K
uri
en
(1995)
des
crib
es h
ow c
omm
unit
ies
are
acti
ng
coll
ecti
vely
to
reju
venat
e co
asta
l fi
sher
ies.
3F
or e
xam
ple
, th
e P
rogra
mm
e N
ati
onal
de
Ges
tion
des
Ter
roir
s V
illa
geo
isin
Burk
ina
Fas
o
(see
T
oulm
in 1
99
1)
and
a
sim
ilar
st
rate
gy fo
r fo
rest
ry m
anag
emen
t in
M
ali
(see
Bri
nk
erh
off
19
95
). T
he
TM
AF
pro
ject
, th
rou
gh w
hic
h r
esea
rch
for
th
e th
esis
was
conduct
ed, i
s an
exa
mple
of su
ch a
n init
iati
ve funded
by
the
UK
DF
ID to
pro
mot
e co
mm
u-
nit
y-bas
ed s
oluti
ons
to p
erce
ived
fis
her
ies
man
agem
ent
pro
ble
ms.
The
rece
nt
UK
DF
ID
spon
sore
d C
apac
ity
Bu
ild
ing
for
Dec
entr
alis
ed D
evel
opm
ent
(CB
DD
) p
roje
ct,
bas
ed i
n
centr
al N
iger
ia, is
anot
her
exa
mple
.
4E
xtra
pol
atin
g fr
om fig
ure
s fo
r th
e fi
sh s
old in the
two
key
, lak
e-si
de
mar
ket
s, S
agua
(1991)
esti
mat
ed a
n a
vera
ge a
nnual
pro
duct
ion o
f 56,0
00 t
ons
(fre
sh w
eigh
t eq
uiv
alen
t) b
etw
een
1986 a
nd 1
989.
This
is
a fr
acti
on o
f th
e fi
gure
s ca
lcula
ted b
y D
ura
n (
1980)
for
the
1970-
19
77
per
iod
, w
hic
h a
llow
a c
omp
arab
le e
stim
ate
for
an a
vera
ge a
nn
ual
pro
du
ctio
n o
f
24
3,0
00
ton
s.
5Sin
ce 1
976,
vill
age
hea
ds
(i.e
. Law
ans
rath
er t
han
Bula
mas,
who
are
offi
cial
ly d
escr
ibed
as w
ard o
r ham
let
hea
ds)
hav
e, i
n t
heo
ry,
bee
n t
he
pai
d e
mplo
yees
of
Loc
al G
over
nm
ent
(see
Th
omas
, Ji
moh
& M
atth
es 1
99
3).
Th
is i
s n
ot,
how
ever
, al
way
s th
e ca
se f
or t
he
Law
ans,
whos
e ar
eas
of j
uri
sdic
tion
are
adja
cent
to L
ake
Chad
. T
he
pow
er a
nd s
tatu
s of
ind
ivid
ual
La
wa
ns
vari
es c
onsi
der
ably
: th
ose
wit
h l
east
are
mos
t li
kel
y to
att
end
LG
A
sess
ions,
and t
hos
e w
ith m
ost
wil
l not
. L
GA
off
icia
ls m
ay e
ven s
eek a
udie
nce
s w
ith t
he
mos
t pow
erfu
l Law
ans.
For
exa
mple
, th
e L
aw
an
of B
aga.
6A
lthou
gh t
he
Lak
e C
had
Bas
in C
omm
issi
on’s
Joi
nt
Reg
ula
tion
s on
Fau
na
and F
lora
wer
e
rati
fied
by
the
mem
ber
sta
tes
(Nig
eria
, N
iger
, C
amer
oon a
nd C
had
) in
1988, th
ey h
ave
not
bee
n e
nfo
rced
in N
iger
ia.
7In
theo
ry, fi
sher
s w
ere
requir
ed t
o hav
e li
cence
s is
sued
by
the
LG
A. In
pra
ctic
e, t
he
LG
A
doe
s not
enfo
rce
com
pli
ance
wit
h t
his
how
ever
mem
ber
s of
the
Join
t P
atro
l ca
n a
sk t
o se
e
thes
e li
cence
s an
d c
an e
xtor
t pay
men
t w
hen
they
are
not
pre
sente
d i
mm
edia
tely
.
Refe
rences
Ach
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, J.
M., 1
975,
The
Lob
ster
Fie
fs:
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nom
ic a
nd E
colo
gica
l E
ffec
ts o
f Ter
rito
rial
ity
in t
he
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ne
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994, Ic
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asi
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Nor
th W
est
Shor
es)
in p
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edin
gs o
f th
e C
onfe
rence
on t
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Pro
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arket
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44
.
15
9
Inst
ituti
onal evolu
tion a
t L
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Jod
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2,
Com
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ty R
esou
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ank
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IED
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iscu
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nsi
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ain
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n,
Mob
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d D
iver
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on f
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he
App
roch
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ituti
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tion a
t L
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Fed
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and U
se D
ecre
e.
1982
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atio
ns
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venti
on o
f th
e L
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e Sea
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rtic
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iger
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nla
nd F
isher
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ree.
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n,
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to
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nsi
fy t
he
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men
t of
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gri
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ony
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ctor
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.
Tem
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he
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ther
n P
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Fis
hin
g in
th
e fl
ood
pla
in,
Ch
apte
r 7
in
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lis,
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dam
s, W
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and
Am
inu
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he
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dej
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gu
ru W
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nd
s:
Envi
ronm
ent,
Eco
nom
y and S
ust
ain
abl
e D
evel
opm
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of a
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h, U
K: P
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Tif
fen
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d G
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Mor
e P
eopl
e, L
ess
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sion
: E
nvi
ron
men
tal
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over
y in
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hic
hes
ter,
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Tou
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Nat
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esou
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Man
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ent
at t
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d
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Wad
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Vil
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epu
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s: E
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s fo
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ctiv
e A
ctio
n i
n S
outh
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dia
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Wal
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S.
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ran
ce f
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ves
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onse
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ashin
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ress
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Wh
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arsh
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Nat
ura
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esou
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n a
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the
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Tec
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UK
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rin
g In
du
stry
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80
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ron
men
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ati
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Wil
liam
s, T
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19
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, M
ult
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Poo
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esou
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Sem
i-ar
id W
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Afr
ica:
A
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f E
xist
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Pra
ctic
es a
nd O
pti
ons
for
Sust
ainab
le R
esou
rce
Man
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ent,
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ral
Res
ourc
e P
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ecti
ves
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ute
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Yer
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Yer
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anag
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t at
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al a
nd
In
tern
atio
nal
Lev
els,
Chap
ter
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adza
ma,
N.M
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den
iji,
F.A
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ds,
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. and T
ham
bya
hpil
lay,
G.G
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s),
Ari
d Z
on
e H
yd
rolo
gy a
nd
Wa
ter
Res
ou
rces
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aid
ugu
ri,
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niv
ersi
ty o
f
Mai
dugu
ri P
ress
.
Legis
lati
on
1977
Join
t R
egula
tion
s on
Fau
na
and F
lora
of
the
Lak
e C
had
Bas
in C
omm
issi
on, ra
tifi
ed b
y th
e
Fed
eral
Gov
ernm
ent
of N
iger
ia i
n 1
988.
16
5
Wate
r W
ars:
Endurin
g M
yth
or
Impendin
g R
eality
?
An
tho
ny
Tu
rto
n
Intr
oducti
on
Ther
e is
a f
asci
nat
ion w
ith t
he
not
ion o
f a
Wat
er W
ar,
and t
he
exis
tence
of
such
a f
alse
phen
omen
on s
eem
s to
pre
vail
, des
pit
e ir
refu
table
evi
den
ce t
o th
e
contr
ary.
This
con
cludin
g ch
apte
r w
ill
sugg
est
that
it
is t
ime
for
us
to d
ebunk
the
myt
h o
f W
ater
War
s fo
r tw
o im
por
tant
reas
ons.
Fir
stly
, su
ch t
hin
gs t
end t
o
be
hig
hly
em
otiv
e, a
nd a
s su
ch, th
ey l
ure
us
away
fro
m t
he
real
iss
ues
that
we
shou
ld b
e fo
cuss
ing
on.
Wat
er W
ars
are
not
hin
g m
ore
than
a r
ed h
erri
ng,
consu
min
g ou
r co
llec
tive
res
earc
h e
ner
gy w
hen
ther
e ar
e ot
her
mor
e pre
ssin
g
pro
ble
ms
whic
h w
e nee
d t
o at
tack
. Sec
ondly
, th
is c
onst
ruct
ion o
f know
ledge
is a
ctiv
ely
fed
in
to t
he
med
ia,
wh
o th
en p
rop
agat
e th
e m
yth
as
if i
t w
ere
real
ity.
As
such
, th
e m
edia
is
doi
ng
us
a gr
ave
dis
serv
ice,
bec
ause
su
ch
unte
sted
info
rmat
ion i
nfo
rms
an a
lrea
dy
neg
ativ
e per
cepti
on t
hat
exi
sts
abou
t
Afr
ica,
whic
h u
nder
min
es i
nve
stor
con
fiden
ce a
nd c
onti
nues
to
mar
ginal
ise
the
con
tin
ent.
Wh
o, a
fter
all
, w
ould
wan
t to
in
vest
in
a r
egio
n w
hen
th
e
pop
ula
r bel
ief
is t
hat
it
is l
ikel
y to
sli
p i
nto
a q
uag
mir
e of
wat
er w
ars
duri
ng
the
twen
ty-f
irst
cen
tury
?
16
7
Wate
r w
ars
under
Eth
iopia
n r
ule
.
•B
etw
een 1
965 a
nd 1
966,
Isra
el a
nd S
yria
exc
han
ged f
ire
over
the
‘all
-Ara
b’ p
lan t
o div
ert
the
Jord
an R
iver
hea
dw
ater
s, p
resu
mab
ly i
n
ord
er t
o co
un
ter
the
Isra
eli
pla
ns
to d
evel
op t
he
‘nat
ion
al w
ater
carr
ier’
. C
onst
ruct
ion o
f th
e Syr
ian d
iver
sion
hal
ted i
n J
uly
1966.
•In
1975, Ir
aq c
laim
ed t
hat
thei
r w
ater
fro
m t
he
Eu
phra
tes
was
insu
f-
fici
ent,
cit
ing
upst
ream
dam
con
stru
ctio
n a
s th
e ca
use
. This
res
ult
ed
in S
yria
n-I
raq
i h
osti
lity
wit
h m
ilit
ary
pos
turi
ng,
bu
t su
cces
sfu
l
med
iati
on b
y Sau
di
Ara
bia
eve
ntu
ally
eas
ed t
ensi
ons.
•B
etw
een 1
989 a
nd 1
991,
two
Sen
egal
ese
pea
sants
wer
e kil
led i
n a
dis
pute
ove
r gr
azin
g ri
ghts
on t
he
Sen
egal
Riv
er.
This
spar
ked
off
ethnic
and l
and r
efor
m t
ensi
ons
in t
he
regi
on,
resu
ltin
g in
the
dea
th
of s
ever
al h
un
dre
d p
eop
le.
Sig
nif
ican
tly,
th
e fi
ghti
ng
was
not
bet
wee
n t
wo
arm
ies,
but
bet
wee
n c
ivil
ians
from
oppos
ing
sides
. T
he
arm
y in
terv
ened
and o
rder
was
res
tore
d.
We
can
th
eref
ore
safe
ly c
oncl
ud
e, t
hat
bas
ed o
n a
vail
able
evi
den
ce,
Wat
er
War
s as
def
ined
by
Turt
on (
2000)
are
very
rar
e in
dee
d. I
n f
act,
thei
r ex
iste
nce
is n
othin
g m
ore
than
a m
yth w
hic
h d
eser
ves
to b
e deb
unked
. T
he
concl
usi
on
of W
olf’s
com
pre
hen
sive
stu
dy
serv
es a
s a
wis
e w
arnin
g in
this
reg
ard —
he
said
that
, ‘w
hil
e w
ater
war
s m
ay b
e a
myt
h, th
e co
nnec
tion
bet
wee
n w
ater
and
pol
itic
al s
tabil
ity
cert
ainly
is
not
’ (W
olf
1998:2
61).
Con
sequen
tly,
we
shou
ld
acce
pt
that
wat
er a
nd c
onfl
ict
are
dee
ply
inte
rtw
ined
, th
eref
ore
we
nee
d t
o
focu
s m
ore
shar
ply
on t
he
finer
nuan
ces
of t
his
if
we
are
to m
ove
forw
ard w
ith
the
dis
cipli
ne
of h
ydro
pol
itic
s as
a d
isti
nct
bra
nch
of
pol
itic
al s
cien
ce.
When
it
com
es t
o w
ater
as
a ta
rget
of
war
, th
ere
is v
ast
lite
ratu
re t
o sh
ow
that
this
is
indee
d t
rue.
How
ever
, this
is
not
a w
ater
war
. It
can b
e re
gard
ed a
s
a co
nve
nti
onal
for
m o
f w
ar,
wit
h h
ydra
uli
c in
stal
lati
ons
as a
tac
tica
l co
mpo-
nen
t (T
urt
on 2
000).
The
bes
t ex
ample
s of
this
in s
outh
ern A
fric
a at
pre
sent
are
in A
ngo
la,
wher
e m
ajor
hyd
rauli
c in
stal
lati
ons
on t
he
Kunen
e R
iver
are
eith
er d
amag
ed o
r m
alfu
nct
ion
ing,
dir
ectl
y as
th
e re
sult
of
mil
itar
y ac
tion
(Mei
ssner
2000).
The
exis
tence
of
quas
i W
ater
War
s ca
n a
lso
be
found
in s
outh
ern A
fric
a.
In t
his
cas
e, t
he
confl
ict
is n
ot o
ver
the
reso
urc
e it
self
, but
the
thea
tre
of t
he
confl
ict
hap
pen
s to
coi
nci
de
wit
h a
quat
ic e
nvi
ronm
ents
. T
he
bes
t ex
ample
of
this
is
the
Kas
ikil
i/Sed
udu I
slan
d i
ssue,
whic
h w
as d
ealt
wit
h i
n t
he
chap
ter
by
Ash
ton
(2
00
0).
Th
ese
are
inte
rest
ing
case
s in
th
eir
own
rig
hts
, b
ecau
se
des
pit
e th
e fa
ct t
hat
the
Inte
rnat
ional
Cou
rt o
f Ju
stic
e has
mad
e a
ruli
ng
on
16
6
Anth
ony T
urto
n
The m
yth
of
wate
r w
ars
Wat
er W
ars
are
not
hin
g m
ore
than
a m
yth. T
her
e is
not
a s
hre
d o
f ev
iden
ce t
o
suppor
t th
eir
exis
tence
in a
ny
of t
he
chap
ters
in t
his
boo
k. Tru
e, t
her
e is
a l
ot
of c
onfl
ict,
or
pot
enti
al c
onfl
ict,
ove
r w
ater
res
ourc
es. T
his
is
par
ticu
larl
y tr
ue
wh
ere
thes
e w
ater
res
ourc
es a
re f
oun
d i
n s
har
ed r
iver
bas
ins
or a
qu
ifer
s.
How
ever
, th
is d
oes
not
mea
n a
war
ove
r w
ater
. In
this
sen
se, w
e nee
d c
once
p-
tual
cla
rity
(Turt
on 2
000a)
. W
ater
sca
rcit
y, a
s bot
h a
nec
essa
ry a
nd s
uff
icie
nt
condit
ion f
or g
oing
to w
ar, is
an a
lmos
t non
-exi
sten
t phen
omen
on.
In t
his
reg
ard
, it
is
illu
min
atin
g to
rea
d t
he
reve
alin
g fi
nd
ings
of
a
com
pre
hen
sive
res
earc
h p
roje
ct w
hic
h u
sed
th
e Tra
nsb
oun
dar
y F
resh
wat
er
Dis
pute
Dat
abas
e. O
ne
of the
mai
n c
oncl
usi
ons
was
that
, ‘th
e ac
tual
his
tory
of
arm
ed w
ater
con
flic
t is
som
ewhat
les
s dra
mat
ic t
han
the
wat
er w
ars
lite
ratu
re
wou
ld l
ead
on
e to
bel
ieve
: a
tota
l of
sev
en i
nci
den
ts,
in t
hre
e of
wh
ich
no
shot
s w
ere
fire
d.
As
nea
r as
we
can f
ind,
ther
e has
nev
er b
een a
sin
gle
war
fought
over
wate
r’ (
emphas
is i
n t
he
orig
inal
tex
t),
(Wol
f 1998:2
55)
This
has
bee
n t
he
case
sin
ce a
t le
ast
2,5
00
0 B
C,
wh
en t
he
Su
mer
ian
cit
y-st
ates
of
Lag
ash a
nd U
mm
a w
ent
to w
ar o
ver
the
righ
t to
exp
loit
bou
ndar
y ch
annel
s
alon
g th
e T
igri
s R
iver
(C
oop
er 1
98
3 a
s ci
ted
in
Wol
f 1
99
8:2
55
). H
owev
er,
that
was
not
eve
n a
tru
e w
ater
war
(Turt
on 2
000),
fal
ling
nea
tly,
inst
ead,
into
the
def
init
ion
of
a q
uas
i w
ater
war
. T
hes
e se
ven
in
cid
ents
are
bri
efly
as
foll
ows
(Wol
f 1998:2
56):
•T
he
1948 p
arti
tion
bet
wee
n I
ndia
and P
akis
tan s
aw t
he
Indus
Bas
in
bei
ng
div
ided
in
a c
onvo
lute
d f
ash
ion
. N
o le
ss t
han
12
yea
rs o
f
neg
otia
tion
s, l
ed b
y th
e W
orld
Ban
k,
resu
lted
in t
he
Indus
Wat
ers
Agr
eem
ent.
•B
etw
een 1
951 a
nd 1
953,
Syr
ia a
nd I
srae
l ex
chan
ged s
por
adic
fir
e
over
Isr
aeli
wat
er d
evel
opm
ent
in t
he
Huhle
h B
asin
. Is
rael
mov
ed
its
fres
hw
ater
inta
ke
to t
he
Sea
of
Gal
ilee
.
•In
19
58
, E
gyp
t m
oun
ted
an
un
succ
essf
ul
mil
itar
y ex
ped
itio
n i
nto
dis
pu
ted
Nil
e ri
par
ian
ter
rito
ries
. T
ensi
ons
ease
d w
hen
a p
ro-
Egy
pti
an g
over
nm
ent
was
ele
cted
in
Su
dan
an
d t
he
Nil
e W
ater
s
Agr
eem
ent
was
sig
ned
.
•B
etw
een
19
63
an
d 1
96
4,
bor
der
sk
irm
ish
es b
etw
een
Som
alia
an
d
Eth
iop
ia e
rup
ted
ove
r d
isp
ute
d t
erri
tori
es i
n t
he
Oga
den
Des
ert,
wh
ich
in
clu
ded
som
e cr
itic
al w
ater
(an
d o
il)
reso
urc
es.
Sev
eral
hundre
d d
eath
s oc
curr
ed b
efor
e th
e ce
asef
ire.
One
elem
ent
in t
his
confl
ict
was
the
fact
that
the
1948 b
oundar
y had
lef
t Som
ali
nom
ads
16
9
Wate
r w
ars
is t
he
idea
that
mee
ting
the
envi
ronm
enta
l ch
alle
nge
wil
l re
quir
e
new
con
cepti
ons
of s
ecuri
ty a
nd o
f th
e nat
ional
inte
rest
, an
d n
ew
form
s of
act
ion a
nd c
oord
inat
ion.
The
exis
ting
inte
rnat
ional
pol
it-
ical
an
d e
con
omic
sys
tem
, gr
oun
ded
in
th
e p
aroc
hia
l in
tere
sts
of s
tate
s an
d i
nd
ust
ries
, is
see
n a
s a
maj
or p
art
of t
he
pre
sen
t
envi
ron
men
tal
pro
ble
m.
Ind
eed
, th
e en
viro
nm
ent
is s
een
as
the
quin
tess
enti
al g
lobal
iss
ue.
... It
is
seen
as
bei
ng
abov
e id
eolo
gy. I
t
serv
es a
s so
met
hin
g of
a u
nif
yin
g co
nce
pt
lin
kin
g a
ran
ge o
f
pro
ble
ms
whic
h n
eed c
onnec
ted, t
ransn
atio
nal
, com
ple
x st
rate
gies
if t
hey
are
to
be
trea
ted
. It
is
an e
lem
ent
in s
tate
craf
t, f
orei
gn
pol
icy,
Can
ada’
s re
lati
ons
wit
h o
ther
sta
tes
and i
n C
anad
a’s
par
tic-
ipat
ion i
n i
nte
rnat
ional
bod
ies’
.
If e
nvi
ronm
enta
l se
curi
ty i
s in
crea
singl
y bec
omin
g an
iss
ue,
and i
f E
nvi
ron-
men
tal
Dip
lom
acy
is b
ecom
ing
a pos
t-C
old W
ar p
hen
omen
on, th
en t
he
whol
e
issu
e of
con
flic
t m
itig
atio
n b
ecom
es r
elev
ant.
Th
us,
th
e th
ird
maj
or i
ssu
e
rela
tes
to c
onfl
ict m
itig
atio
n, w
ith tw
o si
des
of th
e co
in b
eing
evid
ent.
The
one
side
rela
tes
to c
onfl
ict
reso
luti
on,
wher
eas
the
other
sid
e re
late
s to
con
flic
t
mit
igat
ion. A
num
ber
of
key
iss
ues
are
cen
tral
to
bot
h o
f th
ese
com
pon
ents
:
•W
e nee
d t
o re
ach c
onse
nsu
s on
what
a h
ydro
pol
itic
al h
otsp
ot i
s an
d
how
we
def
ine
it.
This
is
com
pli
cate
d a
nd n
ot e
asy
to d
evel
op.
The
chai
n r
eact
ion
of
casc
adin
g p
rob
lem
s is
evi
den
t in
Moz
amb
iqu
e,
wher
e dam
s th
at a
re b
uil
t dow
nst
ream
as
the
dir
ect
resu
lt o
f re
duce
d
flow
(ca
use
d b
y u
pst
ream
use
), i
n t
urn
res
ult
in
flo
odin
g an
d
unse
ason
al w
ater
supply
on p
easa
nt
land (
Lee
stem
aker
2000).
The
con
trib
uti
on b
y M
eiss
ner
(2
00
0)
show
s th
e va
lue
of d
evel
opin
g
a h
ydro
pol
itic
al
his
tory
of
ea
ch
maj
or
rive
r b
asin
. T
his
w
ill
hel
p c
onte
xtu
alis
e ea
ch c
onfl
ict
wit
hin
a b
road
er h
isto
rica
l an
d
geog
raphic
al s
etti
ng,
and w
ill
assi
st w
ith t
he
gener
atio
n o
f en
duri
ng
confl
ict
mit
igat
ion s
trat
egie
s.
•T
he
role
of
good
gov
ern
ance
is
also
hig
hli
ghte
d u
nd
er t
his
bro
ad
hea
din
g (M
och
ebel
ele
20
00
). W
e n
eed
to
un
der
stan
d w
hat
goo
d
gove
rnan
ce e
nta
ils,
and t
hen
tra
nsp
lant
it f
rom
one
bas
in s
etti
ng
to
anot
her
if
we
are
to e
ffec
tive
ly m
itig
ate
confl
ict.
An e
lem
ent
of g
ood
gove
rnan
ce i
s th
e es
tabli
shm
ent
of a
cle
ar s
et o
f in
stit
uti
onal
guid
e-
lin
es t
hat
em
bra
ce t
he
valu
es o
f so
ciet
y (N
un
dw
e &
Mu
len
dem
a
2000).
In t
his
reg
ard,
the
conce
pt
of t
he
‘hyd
ro-s
ocia
l co
ntr
act’ i
s of
crit
ical
im
por
tan
ce (
Tu
rton
& M
eiss
ner
20
00
). T
hu
s, w
e n
eed
to
16
8
Anth
ony T
urto
n
the
case
s, t
he
fundam
enta
l dyn
amic
s of
the
confl
ict
hav
e not
bee
n c
onsi
der
ed
in t
he
judge
men
ts.
The
confl
ict
can r
eturn
, in
res
pon
se t
o fl
uvi
al d
ynam
ics
and t
ecto
nic
mov
emen
ts, w
hic
h c
an i
n f
act
affe
ct a
num
ber
of
other
isl
ands
in
the
area
. C
lear
ly t
his
is
an i
nte
rest
ing
area
of
futu
re w
ork,
and o
ne
that
wil
l
yiel
d r
ich p
ickin
gs f
or t
he
rese
arch
er.
The im
porta
nt
em
ergin
g iss
ues
So,
if
Wat
er W
ars
are
unli
kel
y – a
t le
ast
in t
he
true
sense
of
the
def
init
ion –
wh
at a
re t
he
real
ly i
mp
orta
nt
hyd
rop
olit
ical
iss
ues
th
at w
e sh
ould
con
cern
ours
elve
s w
ith?
At
leas
t si
x dis
tinct
iss
ues
can
be
isol
ated
at
this
tim
e.
Th
e fi
rst
maj
or i
ssu
e is
th
at w
hic
h r
elat
es t
o th
e ro
le o
f ci
vil
soci
ety.
Rec
ent
wor
k (
Turt
on &
Mei
ssner
2000)
sugg
ests
that
civ
il s
ocie
ty h
as b
ecom
e
an i
ncr
easi
ngl
y im
por
tant
role
pla
yer
wit
hin
the
wat
er s
ecto
r. N
owher
e is
this
mor
e ev
iden
t th
an in the
acti
viti
es o
f N
GO
s. I
n this
reg
ard, N
GO
s ar
e li
kel
y to
pla
y a
key
rol
e in
at
leas
t th
ree
area
s – t
he
envi
ronm
ent,
hum
an r
ights
and
wat
er s
ervi
ce d
eliv
ery
– a
nd s
hou
ld b
e re
gard
ed a
s le
giti
mat
e hyd
ropol
itic
al
role
pla
yers
. T
his
im
pli
es t
hat
con
flic
t is
in
evit
able
as
mor
e ro
le p
laye
rs
bec
ome
invo
lved
in w
hat
use
d t
o be
the
excl
usi
ve d
omai
n o
f th
e go
vern
men
t.
This
con
flic
t is
lik
ely
to c
entr
e on
the
inte
ract
ion b
etw
een,
and d
efin
itio
n o
f,
legi
tim
ate
role
s fo
r ea
ch a
ctor
. C
onse
qu
entl
y, t
her
e is
th
e n
eed
to
con
du
ct
rese
arch
in
to t
his
pro
ble
m,
in o
rder
to
map
ou
t th
e p
roce
sses
at
wor
k a
nd
sugg
est
viab
le s
oluti
ons.
The
seco
nd m
ajor
iss
ue
is t
hat
reg
ardin
g en
viro
nm
enta
l se
curi
ty,
whic
h
is a
llu
ded
to
in t
he
Ch
ongu
ica
(20
00
) co
ntr
ibu
tion
. E
lem
ents
of
this
are
exp
and
ed o
n i
n t
he
con
trib
uti
on b
y D
u P
less
is (
20
00
). T
his
is
lik
ely
to
bec
ome
a m
ajor
thru
st o
f pol
itic
al s
cien
ce s
tudie
s in
the
futu
re,
espec
iall
y as
Envi
ronm
enta
l D
iplo
mac
y is
incr
easi
ngl
y bro
ugh
t to
bea
r by
the
dev
elop
ed
countr
ies
of the
wor
ld. T
o th
is e
nd, t
he
wor
ds
of R
odal
(1996) ar
e il
lum
inat
ing:
‘[T
]he
envi
ronm
enta
l is
sue
sym
bol
ises
the
logi
c an
d c
omple
xity
of
the
new
age
nda,
a d
efin
ing
elem
ent
in t
he
emer
gence
of
a dif
fere
nt
shap
ing
spir
it o
f w
orld
pol
itic
s. ... E
nvi
ronm
enta
l is
sues
sym
bol
ise
what
appea
r to
be
amon
g th
e sa
lien
t fe
ature
s of
the
pos
t-C
old W
ar
[and]
the
emer
gence
of
an a
genda
com
pri
sing
truly
glo
bal
iss
ues
.
In t
he
Wes
t, a
t le
ast,
th
e h
ealt
h o
f th
e gl
obal
en
viro
nm
ent
is
com
mon
ly p
erce
ived
to
be
crit
ical
for
the
sust
ainab
ilit
y of
civ
ilis
a-
tion
, an
d y
et t
o be
in d
eepen
ing
cris
is.
Inte
gral
to
this
con
cepti
on
17
1
Wate
r w
ars
one
han
d,
stat
e so
vere
ign
ty a
s em
bod
ied
in
th
e U
nit
ed N
atio
ns
Ch
arte
r is
taken
to
be
abso
lute
; w
her
eas
on t
he
other
han
d,
the
chan
ging
conse
nsu
s on
the
des
irab
ilit
y of
Inte
grat
ed C
atch
men
t M
anag
emen
t pla
ces
the
emphas
is o
n
the
enti
re r
iver
bas
in a
s an
inte
gral
unit
. T
hus,
thes
e tw
o co
nce
pts
are
mutu
-
ally
exc
lusi
ve o
f on
e an
other
if
inte
rpre
ted i
n e
xtre
me
form
s. C
onse
quen
tly,
acce
pta
ble
mid
dle
gro
un
d n
eed
s to
be
fou
nd
. In
ter
ms
of t
his
iss
ue,
th
e
foll
owin
g ar
e bec
omin
g in
crea
singl
y re
leva
nt:
•T
he
nee
d t
o dec
onst
ruct
the
conce
pt
of s
over
eign
ty w
as e
xpre
ssed
at
the
Sec
ond W
orld
Wat
er F
orum
at
The
Hag
ue.
In t
his
reg
ard,
ther
e
has
bee
n a
cal
l fo
r th
e ac
cepta
nce
that
nat
ional
sov
erei
gnty
is
lim
ited
by
the
resp
ect
for
the
sove
reig
nty
an
d r
igh
ts o
f ot
her
sta
tes
(GC
I
2000b:6
1).
We
nee
d t
o m
ap o
ut
the
ram
ific
atio
ns
of t
his
new
tre
nd.
•R
elat
ed t
o th
is i
s th
e em
ergi
ng
deb
ate
on r
ights
ver
sus
nee
ds,
whic
h
was
als
o ev
iden
t at
bot
h t
he
1999 S
tock
hol
m W
ater
Sym
pos
ium
and
the
Sec
ond W
orld
Wat
er F
orum
at
The
Hag
ue.
Wher
eas
the
abso
lute
sove
reig
nty
par
adig
m f
ocuse
s on
the
righ
ts t
hat
sta
tes
hav
e to
appro
-
pri
ate
wat
er i
n a
giv
en i
nte
rnat
ion
al r
iver
bas
in,
the
alte
rnat
ive
nee
ds-
bas
ed p
arad
igm
sugg
ests
that
we
shou
ld a
ppro
ach the
issu
e of
allo
cati
on i
n a
mor
e hum
ane
way
. A
n e
xam
ple
of
the
form
er i
s th
e
Har
mon
Doc
trin
e, a
nd
an
exa
mp
le o
f th
e la
tter
is
the
pri
nci
ple
of
equit
able
uti
lisa
tion
as
found i
n t
he
Hel
sinki
Rule
s. T
his
is
gain
ing
cred
ibil
ity
and
is
extr
emel
y im
por
tan
t fr
om a
con
flic
t m
itig
atio
n
per
spec
tive
, b
ecau
se
the
righ
ts-b
ased
ap
pro
ach
is
in
her
entl
y
con
flic
tual
(b
ein
g b
ased
on
th
e ze
ro-s
um
pri
nci
ple
), w
her
eas
the
nee
ds-
bas
ed a
pp
roac
h i
s in
her
entl
y co
nci
liat
ory.
Th
is d
ebat
e is
lik
ely
to f
ind
rea
dy
sup
por
ters
in
th
e so
uth
ern
Afr
ican
reg
ion
.
Dow
nst
ream
sta
tes
whic
h h
ave
a hea
vy r
elia
nce
on e
xoge
nou
s w
ater
are
likel
y to
suppor
t th
e nee
ds-
bas
ed m
odel
, w
hil
e upst
ream
sta
tes
are
lik
ely
to s
up
por
t th
e ri
ghts
-bas
ed m
odel
. T
her
e ar
e cl
earl
y
impli
cati
ons
for
this
whic
h w
e nee
d t
o st
art
under
stan
din
g in
a m
ore
pro
found m
anner
.
•L
inked
to
the
not
ion o
f so
vere
ignty
is
the
pro
ble
m o
f in
tern
atio
nal
bor
der
dis
pute
s. T
hes
e ty
pic
ally
fal
l in
to t
he
cate
gory
of
quas
i-w
ater
war
s as
def
ined
by
Tu
rton
(2
00
0a)
, an
d s
outh
ern
Afr
ica
has
a
nu
mb
er o
f p
oten
tial
hot
spot
s u
nd
er t
his
hea
din
g. A
t th
e ti
me
of
wri
ting,
ther
e ar
e te
nsi
ons
over
the
vari
ous
isla
nds
in t
he
Zam
bez
i
Bas
in a
round t
he
Cap
rivi
Str
ip,
and t
he
ram
ific
atio
ns
of s
hif
ting
the
Sou
th A
fric
an/N
amib
ian
bor
der
to
the
cen
tre
of t
he
Ora
nge
Riv
er
17
0
Anth
ony T
urto
n under
stan
d t
his
bet
ter.
•W
hen
tal
kin
g of
hot
spot
s, t
he
issu
e of
geo
grap
hic
sca
le i
mm
edia
tely
com
es t
o m
ind. W
hat
is
a cr
uci
ally
im
por
tant
issu
e at
the
wat
er-h
ole
or h
ouse
hol
d l
evel
, se
ems
to p
ale
into
insi
gnif
ican
ce a
t th
e in
tern
a-
tion
al l
evel
. W
olf’
s (1
99
8:2
61
) fi
nd
ing
– t
hat
th
ere
is a
n i
nve
rse
rela
tion
ship
bet
wee
n t
he
leve
l of
geo
grap
hic
sca
le (
rangi
ng
from
the
inte
rnat
ion
al d
own
to
the
hou
seh
old
or
farm
er)
and
th
e d
egre
e of
viol
ence
– i
s th
eref
ore
hig
hly
rel
evan
t. I
n o
ther
wor
ds,
an i
ndiv
idual
is m
ore
likel
y to
res
ort
to v
iole
nce
ove
r w
ater
than
a c
ountr
y is
. Y
et
each
lev
el i
s re
leva
nt,
and e
ach i
s pot
enti
ally
a s
ourc
e of
endem
ic
con
flic
t. T
hu
s, w
e n
eed
to
map
th
ese
out
and
un
der
stan
d t
hem
bet
ter
as p
art
of a
com
pre
hen
sive
con
flic
t m
itig
atio
n s
trat
egy
at t
he
SA
DC
lev
el.
•A
n a
ge-o
ld c
opin
g st
rate
gy h
as b
een t
he
use
of
trad
e. I
n h
ydro
pol
it-
ical
ter
ms,
this
tra
de
in ‘
Vir
tual
Wat
er’
– t
he
wat
er t
hat
is
use
d t
o
pro
duce
a c
rop o
r pro
duct
– h
as o
ffer
ed a
via
ble
way
of
bal
anci
ng
the
wat
er b
ud
get
at t
he
stra
tegi
c le
vel.
‘V
irtu
al W
ater
’ is
th
eref
ore
likel
y to
bec
ome
incr
easi
ngl
y re
leva
nt
to c
onfl
ict
mit
igat
ion.
Yet
we
un
der
stan
d l
ittl
e of
th
is p
roce
ss.
Wh
erea
s a
lot
of w
ork
has
bee
n
don
e in
the
Mid
dle
Eas
t/N
orth
Afr
ica
(ME
NA
) re
gion
, m
ost
not
ably
by
Pro
fess
or T
ony
All
an,
very
lit
tle
has
bee
n d
one
in s
outh
ern
Afr
ica.
We
nee
d t
o as
k t
his
cen
tral
qu
esti
on:
can
‘V
irtu
al W
ater
’
trad
e be
an e
ffec
tive
alt
ernat
ive
to a
ugm
enta
tion
wit
hin
the
SA
DC
Reg
ion,
and i
f so
, w
hat
do
we
nee
d t
o do
in o
rder
to
imple
men
t th
is
as
a co
her
ent
stra
tegy
? In
tr
uth
, th
is
is
a co
mp
lex
pro
ble
m,
des
ervi
ng
a m
ajor
res
earc
h init
iati
ve. O
ne
crit
ical
iss
ue
whic
h n
eeds
to b
e u
nd
erst
ood
is
the
imp
lica
tion
of
chan
gin
g fr
om a
pol
icy
of
nat
ional
sel
f-su
ffic
iency
in f
ood p
roduct
ion,
to o
ne
of f
ood s
ecuri
ty.
Th
ere
are
far-
reac
hin
g ra
mif
icat
ion
s re
gard
ing
this
iss
ue,
an
d w
e
hav
e not
yet
beg
un t
o m
ap t
hes
e ou
t in
a c
oher
ent
way
.
Th
is l
ead
s on
to
the
fou
rth
em
ergi
ng
hyd
rop
olit
ical
iss
ue,
nam
ely
that
of
Sov
erei
gnty
. A
t th
e hea
rt o
f nor
mal
inte
rnat
ional
pol
itic
al i
nte
ract
ion i
s th
e
con
cep
t of
sov
erei
gnty
, w
hic
h i
s sa
id t
o b
e in
div
isib
le a
nd
ab
solu
te,
resu
ltin
g
in a
n i
nte
rnat
ion
al p
olit
ical
mil
ieu
in
wh
ich
all
sta
tes
are
trea
ted
as
lega
l
equ
als.
Th
is i
s a
myt
h h
owev
er,
as s
tate
s ar
e eq
ual
on
ly i
n t
erm
s of
leg
al
fict
ion
. N
owh
ere
is t
his
pro
ble
m m
ore
evid
ent
than
in
in
tern
atio
nal
riv
er
bas
ins,
wh
ere
you
hav
e tw
o m
ajor
iss
ues
con
fron
tin
g on
e an
oth
er.
On
th
e
17
3
Wate
r w
ars
crit
ical
im
por
tan
ce i
f w
e ar
e to
eff
ecti
vely
mit
igat
e ag
ain
st t
he
con
flic
t
pot
enti
al i
n t
he
south
ern A
fric
an r
egio
n.
Con
sequen
tly,
we
nee
d t
o fo
cus
on
the
dev
elop
men
t of
a m
ult
idis
cipli
nar
y ca
pac
ity,
acr
oss
inte
rnat
ional
bor
der
s,
bet
wee
n b
ure
aucr
atic
enti
ties
, an
d w
ithin
the
bro
ader
fra
mew
ork o
f SA
DC
.
To
this
end, w
e nee
d t
o lo
ok t
o th
e SA
DC
Wat
er S
ecto
r an
d a
sk w
hat
nee
ds
to
be
don
e to
em
pow
er t
his
str
uct
ure
in o
rder
to
mak
e it
an e
ffec
tive
veh
icle
for
del
iver
y? O
ne
imp
orta
nt
elem
ent
of t
his
pro
ble
m i
s th
e es
tab
lish
men
t of
a
set
of c
once
pts
and m
odel
s w
hic
h c
an b
e use
d t
o li
nk t
he
vari
ous
dis
cipli
nes
.
An
oth
er c
riti
cal
elem
ent
is h
ow w
e d
eal
wit
h t
he
issu
e of
his
tori
call
y
adva
nta
ged
ver
sus
his
tori
call
y d
isad
van
tage
d i
nst
itu
tion
s. T
hu
s, w
e ar
e
confr
onte
d w
ith t
he
chal
lenge
of
dev
elop
ing
capac
ity
– a
gain
st t
he
tren
ds
of
the
his
tori
call
y sk
ewed
pat
tern
s w
hic
h c
har
acte
rise
sou
ther
n A
fric
a –
bet
wee
n c
ountr
ies,
inst
ituti
ons
and d
isci
pli
nes
.
Th
ese
six
issu
es a
re t
he
imp
orta
nt
ones
, d
eser
vin
g of
ou
r u
nd
ivid
ed
atte
nti
on.
Th
eref
ore,
to
focu
s an
y m
ore
ener
gy o
n W
ater
War
s w
ill
mer
ely
dil
ute
th
ose
effo
rts
and
un
der
min
e th
e lo
ng-
term
nee
d t
o d
evel
op e
ffec
tive
copin
g st
rate
gies
to
ensu
re s
ocia
l st
abil
ity
in a
reg
ion f
acin
g in
crea
sing
leve
ls
of w
ater
sca
rcit
y.
Propose
d r
ese
arch p
roje
ct
for s
outh
ern A
fric
a
Hav
ing
not
ed t
hat
the
Wat
er W
ar d
ebat
e is
lar
gely
ste
rile
, an
d t
hen
hav
ing
sugg
este
d s
ix m
ore
fruit
ful
area
s of
hyd
ropol
itic
al r
esea
rch,
it n
ow b
ecom
es
pos
sible
to
pro
pos
e a
focu
ssed
res
earc
h a
genda
for
consi
der
atio
n b
y va
riou
s
fundin
g ag
enci
es,
gove
rnm
ents
and i
nst
ituti
ons.
It
seem
s th
at w
hat
is
nee
ded
in s
outh
ern A
fric
a is
a r
egio
nal
map
of
exis
ting
and p
oten
tial
hyd
ropol
itic
al
hot
spot
s. I
n s
hor
t, w
e nee
d a
n a
tlas
of
such
pro
ble
m a
reas
, ca
pab
le o
f ov
er-
com
ing
the
issu
e of
sca
le.
Su
ch a
ven
ture
wou
ld p
rovi
de
dec
isio
n-m
aker
s
wit
h a
sol
id f
oundat
ion o
f em
pir
ical
ly d
eriv
ed d
ata
on w
hic
h t
hey
can
bas
e
futu
re d
ecis
ions.
This
wil
l go
a l
ong
way
to
mit
igat
e co
nfl
ict
bef
ore
it f
lare
s up
to u
nm
anag
eable
pro
por
tion
s. W
e th
eref
ore
nee
d a
thre
e phas
ed a
ppro
ach t
o
the
pro
ble
m.
Ph
ase
1 w
ould
en
tail
th
e d
evel
opm
ent
of a
cle
arer
con
cep
tual
un
der
-
stan
din
g of
what
we
actu
ally
mea
n w
hen
we
refe
r to
a ‘h
ydro
pol
itic
al h
otsp
ot’.
Idea
lly,
th
is w
ould
be
con
sen
sus-
bas
ed a
nd
wou
ld c
ross
all
of
the
inte
rna-
tion
al b
ord
ers
wit
hin
SA
DC
. T
he
outc
ome
of t
his
in
itia
l p
roce
ss w
ould
tcon
sist
of
two
dis
tinct
ite
ms:
Fir
stly
, th
ere
wou
ld b
e a
gener
al u
nder
stan
din
g
17
2
Anth
ony T
urto
n (Ash
ton
20
00
) ar
e on
ly s
tart
ing
to b
e ap
pre
ciat
ed b
y go
vern
men
t.
We
nee
d t
o unra
vel
the
dyn
amic
s of
thes
e is
sues
furt
her
, so
that
we
can e
ffec
tive
ly r
esol
ve t
hem
in a
pea
cefu
l an
d s
ust
ainab
le m
anner
.
The
fift
h e
mer
ging
hyd
ropol
itic
al i
ssue
is d
irec
tly
rela
ted t
o w
ater
sca
rcit
y at
the
regi
onal
lev
el. S
outh
ern A
fric
a is
char
acte
rise
d a
t pre
sent
by
the
dev
elop
-
men
t (o
r pla
nnin
g) o
f m
ajor
inte
r-bas
in t
ransf
ers
of w
ater
, som
e of
whic
h c
ross
inte
rnat
ion
al b
ord
ers.
Som
e of
th
ese
pro
ject
s ar
e ex
trem
ely
amb
itio
us.
Th
e
Eas
tern
Nat
ion
al W
ater
Car
rier
in
Nam
ibia
is
a co
mp
lex
syst
em o
f d
ams,
pip
elin
es,
canal
s an
d a
quif
ers.
Pla
ns
exis
t to
augm
ent
supply
by
buil
din
g a
pip
elin
e fr
om t
he
Okav
ango
Riv
er a
t R
undu.
Ther
e is
a n
etw
ork o
f pip
elin
es
and c
anal
s w
hic
h t
ake
wat
er f
rom
the
Kunen
e R
iver
into
Ow
ambol
and.
Pla
ns
exis
t fo
r har
nes
sing
wat
er f
rom
the
Con
go (
Zai
re)
Riv
er a
nd t
ransf
erri
ng
it t
o
Nam
ibia
. This
wou
ld t
rave
rse
Ango
la, l
inkin
g at
lea
st t
hre
e dif
fere
nt
south
ern
Afr
ican
cou
ntr
ies,
one
of w
hic
h (
Ango
la)
has
bee
n t
he
centr
e of
an o
ngo
ing
civi
l w
ar t
hat
appea
rs t
o be
unst
oppab
le.
The
firs
t phas
e of
the
Nor
th-S
outh
Car
rier
has
bee
n c
omp
lete
d i
n B
otsw
ana,
an
d a
dd
itio
nal
ph
ases
are
bei
ng
pla
nn
ed (
Ch
enje
& J
ohn
son
19
96
:20
2).
Th
e M
ateb
elel
and
Zam
bez
i W
ater
Pro
ject
is
pla
nned
to
take
wat
er f
rom
the
Zam
bez
i R
iver
to
Bula
way
o (C
hen
je
& J
ohn
son
19
96
:17
4)
(Ber
ry &
Nel
19
93
), b
ut
at p
rese
nt
no
fun
din
g is
avai
lable
. In
dic
atio
ns
are
that
this
may
be
linked
, at
som
e fu
ture
dat
e, w
ith
the
Nor
th-S
outh
Car
rier
in
Bot
swan
a. T
hen
th
ere
is t
he
Les
oth
o H
igh
lan
ds
Wat
er P
roje
ct w
hic
h i
s al
read
y in
exi
sten
ce.
Th
ese
pip
elin
es a
re g
etti
ng
incr
easi
ngl
y co
mple
x, c
ostl
y an
d v
uln
erab
le t
o th
e va
gari
es o
f in
tern
atio
nal
pol
itic
al t
ensi
ons.
Thus,
we
nee
d t
o dev
elop
a d
eeper
under
stan
din
g of
the
pol
itic
s of
pip
elin
es (
Turt
on 2
000b)
wit
hin
the
conte
xt o
f SA
DC
. T
he
centr
al
ques
tion
s her
e ar
e:
•W
ho
ben
efit
s?
•W
ho
pay
s?
•To
what
ext
ent
is r
esou
rce
captu
re j
ust
ifia
ble
?
•W
hat
are
the
impac
ts o
n t
he
envi
ronm
ent?
•C
an ‘V
irtu
al W
ater
’ tra
de
be
a vi
able
alt
ernat
ive
to p
ipel
ine
dev
elop
-
men
t, a
nd i
f so
, w
hat
nee
ds
to b
e don
e to
mak
e th
is s
ust
ainab
le?
Six
thly
, w
e nee
d t
o gr
asp t
he
fact
that
the
pro
ble
ms
we
are
bei
ng
confr
onte
d
wit
h a
re b
ecom
ing
incr
easi
ngl
y co
mple
x. A
s W
olf
(1998:2
63)
not
es,
wat
er i
s
an i
nte
rdis
cip
lin
ary
reso
urc
e, t
her
efor
e th
e at
ten
dan
t d
isp
ute
s ca
n o
nly
be
reso
lved
thro
ugh
act
ive
dia
logu
e bet
wee
n a
nd a
mon
g dis
cipli
nes
. T
his
is
of
17
5
Wate
r w
ars
of a
ll o
f th
e re
gion
s’ l
eader
s. F
rom
this
, th
e dev
elop
men
t of
sol
id i
nst
ituti
onal
stru
cture
s m
ust
evo
lve.
Thes
e, i
n t
urn
, m
ust
be
emp
ower
ed w
ith t
he
nec
es-
sary
in
tell
ectu
al a
nd
fin
anci
al c
apit
al.
In s
hor
t, t
he
so-c
alle
d s
econ
d-o
rder
reso
urc
es a
re l
ikel
y to
be
the
key
det
erm
inan
ts o
f ou
r jo
int
futu
res.
For
that
reas
on,
a u
niq
ue
and
sp
ecif
ic r
esea
rch
pro
ject
has
bee
n p
rop
osed
— t
he
Hyd
rop
olit
ical
Hot
spot
Atl
as o
f S
outh
ern
Afr
ica.
If
adop
ted
, it
wil
l fo
ster
coop
erat
ion
acr
oss
inte
rnat
ion
al b
ord
ers,
dev
elop
in
tell
ectu
al c
apit
al a
nd
red
istr
ibu
te t
his
sca
rce
reso
urc
e in
a m
ore
equ
itab
le w
ay,
wh
ich
wil
l u
lti-
mat
ely
hel
p g
ener
ate
the
blu
epri
nt
for
sust
ainab
le p
eace
. In
shor
t, u
nle
ss w
e
effe
ctiv
ely
dev
elop
sec
ond
-ord
er r
esou
rces
wh
ere
they
are
nee
ded
in
th
e
wat
er s
ecto
r, s
ocia
l in
stab
ilit
y is
lik
ely
to r
esu
lt f
rom
in
crea
sin
g le
vels
of
wat
er s
carc
ity.
Refe
rences
Ash
ton
, P.
, 2
00
0,
Sou
ther
n A
fric
an W
ater
Con
flic
ts:
Are
th
ey I
nev
itab
le o
r P
reve
nta
ble
? in
Sol
omon
, H
. an
d T
urt
on,
A.R
., (
eds)
, W
ate
r W
ars
: E
nduri
ng M
yth o
r Im
pendin
g R
eali
ty?
Durb
an: A
CC
OR
D.
Ber
ry,
B.
and N
el,
E., 1
993,
‘Oper
atio
n P
ipel
ine’
– B
ula
way
o’s
Sea
rch f
or W
ater
, in
Geo
gra
phy,
No.
78
, p
p.3
12
-31
5.
Chon
guic
a, E
., 2
000,
Wat
er a
nd t
he
Envi
ronm
ent
as a
Loc
us
for
Con
flic
t in
Sou
ther
n A
fric
a, i
n
GC
I, (
20
00
a),
Wa
ter
for
Pea
ce i
n t
he
Mid
dle
Ea
st a
nd
Sou
ther
n A
fric
a,
Gen
eva:
Gre
en
Cro
ss I
nte
rnat
ional
.
Chen
je, M
. an
d J
ohnso
n, P.
, (e
ds)
, 1996, W
ate
r in
Sou
ther
n A
fric
a, M
aser
u/H
arar
e:
SA
DC
/IU
CN
/SA
RD
C.
Coo
per
, J.
, 1
98
3,
Rec
onst
ruct
ing
His
tory
fro
m A
nci
ent
Insc
ript
ion
s: T
he
La
ga
sh-U
mm
a B
ord
er
Con
flic
t, M
alib
u: U
nden
a.
Du
P
less
is,
A.,
2
00
0,
Ch
arti
ng
the
Cou
rse
of th
e W
ater
D
isco
urs
e th
rou
gh th
e F
og of
Inte
rnat
ion
al R
elat
ion
s T
heo
ry,
in S
olom
on,
H.
and
Tu
rton
, A
.R.,
(ed
s),
Wa
ter
Wa
rs:
Enduri
ng M
yth o
r Im
pendin
g R
eali
ty?
Durb
an: A
CC
OR
D.
GC
I, 2
00
0(a
), W
ate
r fo
r P
eace
in
th
e M
idd
le E
ast
an
d S
outh
ern
Afr
ica
, G
enev
a: G
reen
Cro
ss
Inte
rnat
ional
.
GC
I, 2
00
0(b
), N
ati
on
al
Sove
reig
nty
an
d I
nte
rna
tion
al
Wa
terc
ou
rses
, G
enev
a: G
reen
Cro
ss
Inte
rnat
ional
.
Lee
stem
aker
, J.
, 2
00
0,
Th
e D
omin
o E
ffec
t. A
Dow
nst
ream
Per
spec
tive
on
Wat
er M
anag
emen
t in
Sou
ther
n A
fric
a, i
n G
CI,
2000(a
), W
ate
r fo
r P
eace
in t
he
Mid
dle
East
and S
outh
ern A
fric
a,
Gen
eva:
Gre
en C
ross
Inte
rnat
ional
.
17
4
Anth
ony T
urto
n
of w
hat
is
mea
nt
by
the
term
‘hyd
ropol
itic
al h
otsp
ot’.
If s
uff
icie
nt
conse
nsu
s
has
bee
n a
chie
ved
, th
en t
his
con
cep
t w
ould
be
legi
tim
ate;
Sec
ond
ly,
ther
e
shou
ld b
e a
clea
rly
def
ined
res
earc
h m
ethod
olog
y, c
apab
le o
f bei
ng
use
d i
n
ever
y ri
ver
bas
in i
n s
outh
ern A
fric
a. T
his
wil
l hav
e to
be
dev
elop
ed i
n c
lose
consu
ltat
ion w
ith a
wid
e sp
ectr
um
of
role
pla
yers
.
Phas
e 2 w
ould
then
con
sist
of
a num
ber
of
indep
enden
t st
udie
s, a
t th
e
leve
l of
th
e re
spec
tive
riv
er b
asin
s, b
ut
usi
ng
the
agre
ed m
eth
odol
ogy
that
emer
ged f
rom
Phas
e 1.
Idea
lly
thes
e st
udie
s w
ould
foc
us
on t
he
maj
or r
iver
bas
ins,
but
if p
ossi
ble
, th
e en
tire
SA
DC
reg
ion s
hou
ld b
e co
vere
d.
The
end
pro
duct
of
this
pro
cess
wou
ld b
e a
seri
es o
f bas
in-w
ide
studie
s, a
ll u
sing
the
sam
e m
ethod
olog
y an
d s
har
ing
a co
mm
on t
erm
inol
ogy.
Phas
e 3 w
ould
then
enta
il t
he
synth
esis
of
thes
e bas
in-w
ide
studie
s in
to
one
coh
eren
t A
tlas
. Id
eall
y, t
his
ph
ase
wou
ld r
esu
lt i
n t
hre
e d
isti
nct
en
d
pro
duct
s: F
irst
ly,
a H
ydro
pol
itic
al H
otsp
ot A
tlas
wou
ld b
e ge
ner
ated
, w
hic
h
wou
ld s
how
up
eve
ry e
xist
ing
and
pot
enti
al p
rob
lem
are
a; S
econ
dly
, a
coh
eren
t co
nfl
ict
mit
igat
ion
pla
n w
ill
be
dev
elop
ed f
or c
onsi
der
atio
n b
y
SA
DC
an
d m
emb
er c
oun
trie
s; T
hir
dly
, sc
ien
tist
s fr
om a
wid
e va
riet
y of
dis
cip
lin
es,
from
acr
oss
the
enti
re S
AD
C r
egio
n,
wou
ld b
e ab
le t
o se
e th
e
pro
ble
m i
n a
mor
e hol
isti
c w
ay, an
d a
ttac
k i
t w
ith a
n a
rsen
al o
f new
ly-d
efin
ed
conce
pts
and m
odel
s th
at a
re b
oth i
ndig
enou
s an
d a
ppro
pri
ate.
Conclu
sion
This
boo
k h
as b
een a
n a
ttem
pt
to s
tart
the
journ
ey t
owar
ds
the
esta
bli
shm
ent
of a
reg
ion
al h
ydro
pol
itic
al c
onfl
ict
mit
igat
ion
/res
olu
tion
cap
abil
ity.
Th
e
auth
ors
hav
e co
vere
d a
wid
e va
riet
y of
top
ics,
som
e of
them
fro
m a
bro
ader
Afr
ican
per
spec
tive
. W
hil
e it
see
ms
dou
btf
ul
that
Wat
er W
ars
wil
l hap
pen
,
this
doe
s not
mea
n to
say
that
con
flic
t ov
er w
ater
wil
l si
mply
go
away
. It w
on’t!
In f
act,
con
flic
t ov
er w
ater
res
ourc
es i
s li
kel
y to
esc
alat
e, b
ut
pro
bab
ly o
nly
at
the
sub-n
atio
nal
lev
el.
It i
s ab
undan
tly
clea
r th
at w
ithin
sou
ther
n A
fric
a, w
e
alre
ady
hav
e th
e n
eces
sary
goo
dw
ill
to c
oop
erat
e in
a p
eace
ful
way
. O
ur
com
bin
ed c
hal
lenge
is
to t
ransf
orm
the
pre
vail
ing
neg
ativ
e pea
ce –
the
mer
e
abse
nce
of
open
hos
tili
ty –
to
a co
ndit
ion o
f pos
itiv
e pea
ce —
the
exis
tence
of
all
the
nec
essa
ry p
re-c
ondit
ions
for
pro
sper
ity,
inve
stm
ent,
job
cre
atio
n a
nd
soci
al s
tabil
ity.
For
this
to
hap
pen
, at
lea
st f
our
key
ele
men
ts a
re n
eeded
. SA
DC
must
get
full
y in
volv
ed i
n t
he
pro
cess
. W
e al
so n
eed t
he
full
pol
itic
al c
omm
itm
ent
17
7
Note
s on C
ontr
ibuto
rs
Pete
r A
shto
n
Dr.
Pet
er A
shto
n t
rain
ed a
s a
bot
anis
t at
Rhod
es U
niv
ersi
ty i
n G
raham
stow
n
and r
ecei
ved h
is P
hD
in a
quat
ic p
lant
ecol
ogy
in 1
983.
He
is a
Pro
fess
ional
Mem
ber
of
the
Sou
th A
fric
an I
nst
itu
te o
f E
colo
gist
s an
d E
nvi
ron
men
tal
Sci
enti
sts,
an
d i
s al
so a
mem
ber
of
eigh
t ot
her
Sou
th A
fric
an a
nd
in
tern
a-
tion
al s
cien
tifi
c as
soci
atio
ns.
He
has
bee
n e
mplo
yed b
y th
e C
SIR
sin
ce 1
975
as a
wat
er q
ual
ity
and r
esou
rces
spec
iali
st,
and w
as a
ppoi
nte
d a
s D
ivis
ional
Fel
low
on
1 J
anu
ary
19
98
. H
e h
as c
arri
ed o
ut
envi
ron
men
tal
stu
die
s an
d
con
sult
anci
es i
n s
ever
al A
fric
an c
oun
trie
s. P
eter
Ash
ton
was
ele
cted
as
Vic
e-P
resi
den
t of
the
Inte
rnat
ional
Com
mis
sion
on W
ater
Qual
ity
(IC
WQ
) of
the
Inte
rnat
ional
Ass
ocia
tion
of
Hyd
rolo
gica
l Sci
ence
s (I
AH
S)
(1999-2
003),
and
w
as
also
ap
poi
nte
d
as
Hon
oura
ry
Pro
fess
or
of
Wat
er
Res
ourc
es
Man
agem
ent
at t
he
Univ
ersi
ty o
f P
reto
ria
for
a th
ree-
year
ter
m (
1999-2
002).
He
has
stu
die
d t
he
imp
act
of l
and
use
an
d d
evel
opm
ent
pro
ject
s on
th
e
qu
anti
ty a
nd
qu
alit
y of
wat
er r
esou
rces
an
d,
in p
arti
cula
r, t
hei
r ef
fect
s on
aqu
atic
eco
syst
ems,
as
wel
l as
th
eir
role
in
in
tegr
ated
cat
chm
ent
man
age-
men
t. H
e h
as a
sp
ecia
l in
tere
st i
n t
he
role
of
aqu
atic
eco
logi
cal
issu
es i
n
dec
isio
n-m
akin
g p
roce
sses
for
con
flic
t p
reve
nti
on o
r re
solu
tion
, an
d t
he
man
agem
ent
of w
ater
res
ourc
es i
n s
har
ed r
iver
bas
ins.
Pet
er A
shto
n i
s th
e
auth
or a
nd c
o-au
thor
of
mor
e th
an 8
0 a
rtic
les
on a
quat
ic p
lant
ecol
ogy
and
man
agem
ent,
ph
ytop
lan
kto
n s
ucc
essi
on p
atte
rns,
nu
trie
nt
cycl
ing,
sal
ine
lakes
, ge
ner
al l
imnol
ogy,
the
impac
ts o
f dev
elop
men
t on
aquat
ic e
cosy
stem
s,
wat
er r
esou
rce
man
agem
ent
in s
har
ed r
iver
bas
ins.
In
ad
dit
ion
, h
e is
th
e
auth
or a
nd c
o-au
thor
of
mor
e th
an 7
0 t
echnic
al r
epor
ts f
or e
xter
nal
con
trac
t
17
6
Anth
ony T
urto
n
Mei
ssner
, R
., 2
000,
Hyd
ropol
itic
al H
otsp
ots
in S
outh
ern A
fric
a: T
he
Cas
e of
the
Kunen
e R
iver
,
in S
olom
on, H
. and T
urt
on, A
.R., (ed
s), W
ate
r W
ars
: E
nduri
ng M
yth o
r Im
pendin
g R
eali
ty?
Durb
an: A
CC
OR
D.
Moc
heb
elel
e, R
.T.,
20
00
, G
ood
Gov
ern
ance
an
d t
he
Avo
idan
ce o
f C
onfl
icts
: T
he
Les
oth
o
Hig
hla
nds
Wat
er P
roje
ct E
xper
ience
, in
GC
I, 2
000(a
), W
ate
r fo
r P
eace
in t
he
Mid
dle
East
and S
outh
ern A
fric
a, G
enev
a: G
reen
Cro
ss I
nte
rnat
ional
.
Nundw
e, C
.D. an
d M
ule
ndem
a, C
., 2
000, M
itig
atio
n o
f C
onfl
icts
der
ived
fro
m W
ater
Use
-rel
ated
Pro
ble
ms
– Z
ambia
, in
GC
I, 2
000(a
), W
ate
r fo
r P
eace
in t
he
Mid
dle
East
and S
outh
ern
Afr
ica, G
enev
a: G
reen
Cro
ss I
nte
rnat
ional
.
Rod
al,
B.,
19
96
, T
he
En
viro
nm
ent
an
d C
ha
ng
ing
Con
cept
s of
Sec
uri
ty,
Com
men
tary
No.
47
,
Can
adia
n S
ecu
rity
In
tell
igen
ce S
ervi
ce P
ub
lica
tion
, IS
SN
11
92
-27
7X
, C
atal
ogu
e JS
73
-
1/4
7,
avai
lab
le f
rom
CS
IS,
P.O
.Box
97
32
, P
osta
l S
tati
on T
, O
ttaw
a, O
nta
rio
K1
G 4
G4
,
Can
ada.
Tu
rton
, A
.R.,
20
00
(a),
Wat
er W
ars
in S
outh
ern
Afr
ica:
Ch
alle
ngi
ng
Con
ven
tion
al W
isd
om,
in
Sol
omon
, H
. an
d T
urt
on,
A.R
., (
eds)
, W
ate
r W
ars
: E
nduri
ng M
yth o
r Im
pendin
g R
eali
ty?
Durb
an: A
CC
OR
D.
Tu
rton
, A
.R.,
20
00
(b),
Pre
cip
itat
ion
, P
eop
le,
Pip
elin
es a
nd
Pow
er:
Tow
ard
s a
‘Vir
tual
Wat
er’
Bas
ed P
olit
ical
Eco
logy
Dis
cours
e, i
n S
tott
, P.
and S
ull
ivan
, S., (
eds)
, P
olit
ical
Eco
logy:
Sci
ence
, M
yth a
nd P
ower
, L
ondon
: E
dw
ard A
rnol
d.
Turt
on, A
.R. an
d M
eiss
ner
, R
., 2
000, T
he
Hyd
ro S
ocia
l C
ontr
act
and i
ts M
anif
esta
tion
in S
ocie
ty,
AW
IRU
Occ
asi
onal
Pape
r, F
orth
com
ing
in a
boo
k a
s ye
t unti
tled
. A
vail
able
fro
m W
ebsi
te
<htt
p:/
/ww
w.u
p.a
c.za
/aca
dem
ic/l
ibar
ts/p
olsc
i/aw
iru>
.
Wol
f, A
.T., 1
998, C
onfl
ict
and C
ooper
atio
n a
long
Inte
rnat
ional
Wat
erw
ays,
in W
ate
r P
olic
y, V
ol.1
,
pp
.25
1-2
65
.
17
9
Sch
ool of
Dev
elop
men
t Stu
die
s at
the
Univ
ersi
ty o
f E
ast A
ngl
ia. T
his
fol
low
ed
from
her
wor
k o
n a
UK
-DF
ID s
pon
sore
d p
roje
ct i
n n
orth
ern
Nig
eria
an
d
pre
viou
s as
sign
men
ts i
n A
fric
a fo
r U
SA
ID,
OD
I an
d o
ther
non
-gov
ernm
ent
orga
nis
atio
ns.
Sh
e h
as w
ritt
en n
um
erou
s re
por
ts i
ncl
ud
ing
dev
elop
men
t
impac
t st
udie
s an
d e
valu
atio
ns
of p
arti
cipat
ory
rese
arch
init
iati
ves,
and h
as
pu
bli
shed
wid
ely
on t
he
dev
elop
men
t is
sues
su
rrou
nd
ing
fish
erie
s. S
he
is
now
a r
esea
rch
fel
low
at
Mid
dle
sex
Un
iver
sity
’s F
lood
Haz
ard
Res
earc
h
Cen
tre
and
her
cu
rren
t re
sear
ch i
nte
rest
s ce
ntr
e on
how
flo
od d
epen
den
t
com
munit
ies
const
ruct
thei
r li
veli
hoo
ds
on t
he
floo
dpla
in.
She
is b
uil
din
g a
net
wor
k o
f re
sear
cher
s w
orkin
g at
the
land-w
ater
in
terf
ace.
Em
ail:
t.s
arch
@m
dx.
ac.u
k
Huss
ein
Solo
mon
Pro
fess
or H
uss
ein
Sol
omon
is
hea
d o
f th
e U
nit
for
Afr
ican
Stu
die
s at
th
e
Cen
tre
for
Inte
rnat
ional
Pol
itic
al S
tudie
s, U
niv
ersi
ty o
f P
reto
ria
and i
s Sen
ior
Ass
ocia
te o
f th
e A
fric
an C
entr
e fo
r th
e C
onst
ruct
ive
Res
oluti
on o
f D
ispute
s
(AC
CO
RD
). H
e is
als
o a
Res
earc
h A
ssoc
iate
of
the
Cen
tre
for
Def
ence
Stu
die
s in
Zim
bab
we
and t
he
Inst
itute
for
Sec
uri
ty S
tudie
s in
Pre
tori
a. H
is
rese
arch
inte
rest
s in
clude
inte
rnat
ional
rel
atio
ns
theo
ry,
confl
ict
and c
onfl
ict
reso
luti
on i
n A
fric
a, a
nd S
outh
Afr
ican
for
eign
pol
icy.
Em
ail:
huss
ein@
acco
rd.o
rg.z
a
Anth
ony T
urto
n
Anth
ony
Turt
on is
hea
d o
f th
e A
fric
an W
ater
Iss
ues
Res
earc
h U
nit
(A
WIR
U) at
the
Cen
tre
for
Inte
rnat
ional
Pol
itic
al S
tudie
s (C
IPS),
Univ
ersi
ty o
f P
reto
ria.
A
pol
itic
al s
cien
tist
by
trai
nin
g, h
e has
a s
pec
ial
inte
rest
in a
quat
ic e
cosy
stem
s
and t
hei
r as
soci
ated
soc
ial
and p
olit
ical
envi
ronm
ents
. M
r Tu
rton
is
also
an
asso
ciat
e of
the
SO
AS W
ater
Iss
ues
Stu
dy
Gro
up a
t th
e U
niv
ersi
ty o
f L
ondon
.
He
curr
entl
y se
rves
on
th
e C
oord
inat
ing
Com
mit
tee
for
Wat
er E
cosy
stem
Res
earc
h (
CC
WE
R)
at t
he
Wat
er R
esea
rch C
omm
issi
on. H
is e
-mai
l ad
dre
ss i
s
awir
u@
pos
tino.
up.a
c.za
, ar
t@ic
on.c
o.za
and a
t31@
soas
.ac.
uk.
Mr.
Turt
on i
s
acti
ve i
n t
he
inte
rnat
ion
al w
ater
sec
tor,
hav
ing
coor
din
ated
an
d l
ed t
he
17
8
clie
nts
. P
eter
Ash
ton i
s D
ivis
ional
Fel
low
/Wat
er Q
ual
ity
and W
ater
Res
ourc
es
Sp
ecia
list
at
the
Div
isio
n o
f W
ater
, E
nvi
ron
men
t &
For
estr
y Tec
hn
olog
y,
CSIR
em
ail:
pas
hto
n@
csir
.co.
za
Anto
n d
u P
less
is
An
ton
du
Ple
ssis
is
Pro
fess
or o
f In
tern
atio
nal
Rel
atio
ns,
Dep
artm
ent
of
Pol
itic
al S
cien
ces
at t
he
Univ
ersi
ty o
f P
reto
ria.
He
has
als
o le
cture
d a
t th
e
Univ
ersi
ties
of
Ste
llen
bos
ch a
nd P
reto
ria.
Pro
fess
or d
u P
less
is i
s a
spec
iali
st
in i
nte
rnat
ional
rel
atio
ns
theo
ry, fo
reig
n a
ffai
rs a
nd s
trat
egic
for
ecas
ting,
wit
h
an e
mphas
is o
n g
eost
rate
gic
conce
rns.
He
is a
con
trib
uto
r to
sev
eral
boo
ks,
auth
or o
f va
riou
s m
onog
raphs
and h
as a
lso
wri
tten
num
erou
s ar
ticl
es o
n inte
r-
nat
ional
rel
atio
ns
and r
elat
ed i
ssues
. H
e re
ceiv
ed a
D.P
hil
in I
nte
rnat
ional
Pol
itic
s fr
om t
he
Univ
ersi
ty o
f P
reto
ria
in 1
985.
He
is a
mem
ber
of
seve
ral
asso
ciat
ion
s, i
ncl
ud
ing
the
Sou
th A
fric
an P
olit
ical
Stu
die
s A
ssoc
iati
on a
nd
the
Sou
th A
fric
an I
nst
itute
of
Inte
rnat
ional
Aff
airs
.
Em
ail:
adupple
s@pos
tino.
up.a
c.za
.
Ric
hard M
eis
sner
Ric
har
d M
eiss
ner
is
Res
earc
h A
ssoc
iate
at
the
Afr
ican
Wat
er I
ssues
Res
earc
h
Un
it,
e-m
ail
add
ress
, m
eiss
@m
web
.co.
za.
Ric
har
d M
eiss
ner
has
a M
aste
r’s
deg
ree
in P
olit
ical
Stu
die
s ob
tain
ed f
rom
th
e R
and
Afr
ikaa
ns
Un
iver
sity
.
His
Mas
ter’
s th
esis
was
on
: W
ater
as
a S
ourc
e of
Pol
itic
al C
onfl
ict
and
Coo
per
atio
n:
A C
ompar
ativ
e A
nal
ysis
of
the
Mid
dle
Eas
t an
d S
outh
ern A
fric
a.
He
is c
urr
entl
y busy
wit
h h
is D
.Phil
. in
Pol
itic
al S
cien
ces
at t
he
Univ
ersi
ty o
f
Pre
tori
a. T
he
study
wil
l be
on t
he
role
and i
nvo
lvem
ent
of i
nte
rest
gro
ups
in
inte
rnat
ional
wat
er p
olit
ics.
Marie
-Thérèse
Sarch
Mar
ie-T
hér
èse
Sar
ch B
Sc,
Msc
, P
hD
, R
esea
rch F
ello
w.
Dr.
Sar
ch c
omple
ted
her
doc
tora
l w
ork
on
fis
hin
g an
d f
arm
ing
live
lih
ood
s at
Lak
e C
had
in
th
e
18
0
Sou
ther
n A
fric
an P
anel
at
the
Sec
ond W
orld
Wat
er F
orum
whic
h w
as h
eld a
t
The
Hag
ue
duri
ng
Mar
ch 2
000.
Mr.
Turt
on i
s cu
rren
tly
doi
ng
his
D.P
hil
. in
Inte
rnat
ional
Rel
atio
ns
at t
he
Univ
ersi
ty o
f P
reto
ria,
wit
h h
is t
hes
is b
eing
on
the
pol
itic
s of
the
inte
rnat
ional
riv
er b
asin
s in
Sou
th A
fric
a, w
ith a
n e
mphas
is
on c
onfl
ict
mit
igat
ion
, re
gim
e cr
eati
on a
nd
in
stit
uti
onal
dev
elop
men
t. A
n
elem
ent
of t
his
is
the
pro
pos
ed d
evel
opm
ent
of a
Hyd
ropol
itic
al H
otsp
ot A
tlas
for
use
at
the
regi
onal
lev
el. H
e al
so h
as a
n a
ctiv
e in
tere
st i
n t
he
dev
elop
men
t
of h
ydro
pol
itic
al t
heo
ry,
spec
ific
ally
wher
e th
is c
an b
e use
d t
o as
sist
wit
h t
he
dev
elop
men
t of
pol
icy
for
dev
elop
ing
countr
ies
in w
ater
-sca
rce
regi
ons.
Mr.
Turt
on a
lso
wor
ks
as a
con
sult
ant
in t
he
wat
er s
ecto
r, a
nd i
s a
mem
ber
of
the
Inte
rnat
ional
Unio
n o
f A
nth
ropol
ogic
al a
nd E
thnol
ogic
al S
cien
ces
(IU
AE
S),
the
Sou
th A
fric
an I
nst
itu
te o
f In
tern
atio
nal
Aff
airs
(S
AII
A),
th
e S
outh
ern
Afr
ican
Soc
iety
of
Aq
uat
ic S
cien
ces
(SA
SA
QS
), t
he
Afr
ica
Inst
itu
te (
AI)
,
Pugw
ash a
nd t
he
Pro
fess
ional
Ass
ocia
tion
of
Div
e In
stru
ctor
s (P
AD
I).