integrated marketing communication: the needs of
TRANSCRIPT
INTEGRATED MARKETING COMMUNICATION:
THE NEEDS OF ADVERTISING AND PUBLIC RELATIONS EMPLOYERS
IN THE COMMUNICATIONS WORKPLACE
by
TORISE ANDERSON BATTLE
(Under the Direction of Bryan Reber)
ABSTRACT
Traditionally, advertising and public relations are two distinct functions; however, their similarities can possibly be combined in education and in the workplace. This study uses qualitative in-depth interviews of Atlanta communications employers to determine how combining advertising and public relations affects communications work. In addition, the study also determines the educational requirements recent graduates should have to be successful in advertising and/or public relations jobs. Employers from advertising agencies, public relations firms and in-house communications departments were interviewed about the qualifications they require from new employees, the job duties that their current employees perform, and the usage and effects of Integrated Marketing Communication in their workplaces. Most participants believe that IMC has had a positive effect on their communications practices and that it will become a widely-used concept in the future. Nevertheless, IMC should be used mostly on a case-by-case basis depending on a client’s needs and organizational goals.
INDEX WORDS: Integrated Marketing Communication, IMC, advertising, public relations,
communication, employers, graduate, workplace, employees
INTEGRATED MARKETING COMMUNICATION:
THE NEEDS OF ADVERTISING AND PUBLIC RELATIONS EMPLOYERS
IN THE COMMUNICATIONS WORKPLACE
by
TORISE ANDERSON BATTLE
B.A., The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 2002
A Thesis Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of The University of Georgia in Partial Fulfillment
of the Requirements for the Degree
MASTER OF ARTS
ATHENS, GEORGIA
2006
© 2006
Torise Anderson Battle
All Rights Reserved
INTEGRATED MARKETING COMMUNICATION:
THE NEEDS OF ADVERTISING AND PUBLIC RELATIONS EMPLOYERS
IN THE COMMUNICATIONS WORKPLACE
by
TORISE ANDERSON BATTLE
Major Professor: Bryan Reber Committee: Mariko Morimoto James Hamilton
Electronic Version Approved: Maureen Grasso Dean of the Graduate School The University of Georgia May 2006
iv
DEDICATION
“Delight yourself in the Lord and He will give you the desires of your heart.” –Psalm
37:4. Thank you Lord for giving me the courage to write this thesis and for guiding me through
this process. I could never repay you for your grace and mercy upon me. Your praises shall
continually be in my mouth.
Thank you mom and dad (Birta and Ronnie Battle) for being everything to me and for
setting me free to pursue this goal. Your unconditional love means the world to me. I love you
both eternally.
To my brother, Joel: I love you and I can’t wait to see you cross that stage in 2007!
To the Battle, Anderson, Farrow and Colvin families: I love you, and thanks for all your
support.
To my best friend Tyra: Thanks for everything, especially “Peace, Be Still!” I love you.
To my best friends Angel and Puggy: I love you both. Thanks for being my rocks.
To Cecil: Thank you for being such calming force in this stage of my life. I pray that we
will always be friends and that I can motivate you the way you’ve motivated me.
To Antoine: Thank you for encouraging me to go to grad school and for helping me
prepare for it.
Thanks to Vanessa, Robert, Nadine, Mrs. Sandra, Dr. Ford, LaRetha, Jackie, D.Willie,
Keener, Kathryn, Aubrey, Courtney, Nikki, Kellen and Telicia for making coming to work such
a fun and rewarding experience each day. I love you all and will miss you dearly.
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To Candace and Chris: Thanks for believing in InfUSion from the beginning. I am so
proud of your dedication and commitment to our magazine and to everything you’ve
accomplished on campus. Candace, you are truly a leader and a lady. Chris, your vision for
change is amazing. Continue to strive for change for the betterment of us all. I love you both!
To LaRonda, DeShaun, Shazia, Sara Guevara, Chad, Andrew, and Yomi: I love all of you
and will miss chillin’ with you in the office. Continue to do great things.
To the MSP students and the staff of InfUSion: I love you all, and I look forward to
seeing you all do wonderful things in the future.
To Maya, Davia and Nakia: Who knew that I would gain three of the greatest friends of
my lifetime here in grad school? I will miss our listening parties, karaoke sessions, meetings at
Carrabbas and Zaxby’s, our crazy phone calls and text messages, and our rants and raves about
all the work we had to do! I love you all, and I wouldn’t have made it through grad school
without each of you. Chocolate D.I.V.A.s—are you your sister’s keeper? Yes, I am!
To Quiana, Kaylan, and the Caucus (Brandon, Christopher and Kerry): Thanks for all the
memories: the Unity Ball, IHOP, Classic City, Caucus meetings at Chris’ place, Soul Food Night
Part I and II, Maya’s Listening Party, Dr. Brooks’ house, GAPS meetings, Cachet’s party, etc. I
love you all and will miss you dearly. The fun doesn’t end here….
To Ada, Laura, Patricia, Sooyeon, Hye Jin and Rebekah: Thanks for your friendship and
support since our 8010 study group. I’m so glad we all became friends, and I hope we always
stay in touch. I love you all.
If I left anyone out, thank you and I love you….
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Thank you Dr. Morimoto and Dr. Reber for chairing my thesis committee and for
pushing me so hard to do my best. Thank you Dr. Hamilton for serving on my committee and for
teaching me in three classes at UGA. Also, thank you Dr. Macias for being my adviser and a
great professor.
Thank you to Dr. Acosta-Alzuru who made me realize the importance of studying both
advertising and public relations. Thank you to Dr. Brooks for being such a great professor,
mentor and friend.
Thank you to Vanessa Smith and the Office of Multicultural Services and Programs for
allowing me to use the phone lines in the office for my thesis interviews. Thank you to Robert
Bryant for offering me advice about transcription and qualitative research. Thanks to Dr. Lori
Reaves, Zaheerah Biggers, Rosonja Seay, Sandrika Crawford and the staff at the UGA Center for
Family Research for allowing me to gain experience in interviewing and conducting research.
Thanks to all my professors: Dr. Carolina Acosta-Alzuru, Dr. Dwight Brooks, Dr. Jay
Hamilton, Dr. Seock-Ho Kim, Dr. Jooyoung Kim, Dr. Karen King, Dr. Ruthann Weaver-Lariscy,
Dr. Wendy Macias, Dr. Gabriel Ruhumbika, Dr. Karen Russell, Dr. Jeffrey Springston and Dr.
Spencer Tinkham.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS........................................................................................................... vi
LIST OF TABLES......................................................................................................................... xi
CHAPTER
1 INTRODUCTION .........................................................................................................1
Purpose of Study ......................................................................................................2
2 LITERATURE REVIEW ..............................................................................................4
Similarities and Differences Between Advertising and Public Relations .................4
Combining Advertising and Public Relations ...........................................................8
Integrated Marketing Communications...................................................................11
History of IMC ........................................................................................................14
Perceptions and Debates about IMC .......................................................................15
Advertising, Public Relations and IMC Education .................................................17
Debates in IMC Education ......................................................................................19
Converging Education.............................................................................................21
What Employers Want ............................................................................................23
3 THE STUDY ...............................................................................................................27
Research Questions .................................................................................................27
Sample .....................................................................................................................28
Method.....................................................................................................................28
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4 RESULTS ....................................................................................................................31
Sample Characteristics ...........................................................................................31
Hiring Processes ......................................................................................................36
Communications Job Skills ...............................................................................36
New Skills Needed in Advertising and Public Relations ..................................38
Communications Experience.............................................................................39
Educational Requirements.................................................................................41
Job Training and Changes in Communication ..................................................46
Job Duties ................................................................................................................48
Integrated Marketing Communications...................................................................51
Definitions of Advertising and Public Relations...............................................51
Definitions of Integrated Marketing Communication .......................................53
IMC Implementation .........................................................................................55
Improvements and Hindrances of IMC .............................................................59
The Future of IMC ............................................................................................64
5 DISCUSSION..............................................................................................................68
Communications Skills and Technology.................................................................68
Work Experience and Education.............................................................................71
IMC’s Effects in the Workplace..............................................................................73
6 CONCLUSION............................................................................................................78
Implications .............................................................................................................78
Limitations and Future Research ............................................................................79
Conclusion...............................................................................................................80
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REFERENCES ..............................................................................................................................81
APPENDICES ...............................................................................................................................85
A In-depth Interview Guideline.......................................................................................85
B Basic Skills in Advertising, Public Relations and General Communications .............90
C Extraordinary Skills in Advertising, Public Relations and General Communications 90
D Most Desired Skills in Advertising, Public Relations and General Communications.91
E Important Skills in Advertising, Public Relations and General Communications.......92
F New Skills in Advertising, Public Relations and General Communications...............94
G Previous Job Experiences Needed ...............................................................................95
H Importance of Having a College Degree .....................................................................95
I Importance of Having a Communications Degree.......................................................96
J Educational Background Needed.................................................................................96
K Hiring Practices Across Fields ....................................................................................97
L Main Job Responsibilities of Present Employees ........................................................98
M Duties Taken on Outside of Normal Job Duties ..........................................................98
N Frequency of Job Duties Crossing Into Other Fields (Categorized by Department
Type) .......................................................................................................................99
O Frequency of Job Duties Crossing Into Other Fields (Categorized by
Organization/Business Type) ..................................................................................99
P Phrases Mentioned in Advertising Definitions ..........................................................100
Q Phrases Mentioned in Public Relations Definitions ..................................................100
R Familiarity with the Term Integrated Marketing Communication ............................101
S Phrases Mentioned in IMC Definitions .....................................................................101
x
T Organizations with Distinct Advertising or Public Relations Functions/Departments102
U Utilization of IMC......................................................................................................102
V Prediction for IMC Usage in the Future ....................................................................102
xi
LIST OF TABLES
Page
Table 1: Sample Characteristics.....................................................................................................32
Table 2: Important Skills in Advertising, Public Relations and General Communications .........38
Table 3: Comparison between Educational Preferences and Willingness to Hire Workers without
Communications Education ............................................................................................45
Table 4: Main Job Responsibilities................................................................................................48
Table 5: Percent of IMC Utilized...................................................................................................58
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
Traditionally, the practice of advertising focuses on the selling of products, services and
brands, while public relations focuses on building relationships and reputations for clients
(Hendrix, 2004). With these distinctions noted, the two fields might seem apparently different;
however, they both offer some similarities that could arguably be combined in practice (Schultz,
1993). Furthermore, professors are combining the two fields of study and are suggesting that
students should become familiar with both fields before they enter the job market (Pasadeos,
2000). Many employers also feel that advertising and public relations work better collaboratively
and are combining the fields in practice (Griffin & Pasadeos, 1998).
These changes pose startling questions about the future of each discipline surviving on its
own. Some experts believe that public relations is gradually merging with advertising to offer
clients more comprehensive promotional options (Cook, 1997; Low, 2000). Some feel that
public relations and advertising should stand alone to produce different results for its clients
(Pasadeos, 2000). Others feel that the two fields work best when they are combined, producing
results that are more dynamic than either would single-handedly (Griffin & Pasadeos, 1998; Ries
& Ries, 2002). Some educators are welcoming the change to Integrated Marketing
Communication (IMC), which combines advertising and public relations education with business
concepts, while others are fighting for discrete disciplines (Griffin & Pasadeos, 1998). Moreover,
as college students in advertising and public relations graduate and begin working in their first
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communications jobs, they may have to borrow skills from the opposite field to perform those
jobs effectively (Ahles & Bosworth, 2004).
Examining the implementation of both advertising and public relations in the
communications workplace is an important topic of investigation. This field of study can help
determine how well workers with educations in either discipline or both fields are prepared to
adjust to the requirements of jobs using both skill sets. In addition, employers’ opinions about
this issue are infrequent but need to be shared to alert educators on how they can improve their
training of future communications workers or how using the fields in tandem has helped or
hindered their communications efforts.
Purpose of Study
This exploratory study examines the hiring practices and the job specifications of various
communication departments of Atlanta-based companies. Through applied research, the study
examines the needs of communications employers in hiring workers with skills in advertising
and/or public relations. It also studies how advertising and public relations are used in tandem in
communications efforts.
This study provides an opportunity for managers to review their employee practices and
decide if their present method of communication is the most beneficial strategy for their
respective companies. It also allows managers to voice their opinions on current convergence
and help set a standard for future communication employers who will have to develop
management styles for their departments. In addition, communication managers can examine the
benefits and downfalls that converged communication has afforded other employers. This
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knowledge will allow them to compare their current practices and adopt different techniques to
improve practices in their communication workplaces.
Students of communication programs will benefit from this research by gaining insight
about what some metropolitan employers are looking for in communication professionals.
Students will be able to make better decisions about what courses they should enroll in and what
skills they should master to thrive in their first communication jobs.
This study is also beneficial to educators who can learn what skills employers are
seeking, incorporate those skills in their courses, and enhance the academic and professional
growth of their communication students. Data from this study will reveal what areas professors
are current in as well as those in which they fall short.
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CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW
Similarities and Differences Between Advertising and Public Relations
In order to discuss the pros and cons of the convergence of advertising and public
relations, the differences that set the fields apart must be noted as well as the common elements
that they share.
Pardun and McKee (1999) define public relations as a field whose goal is to develop and
maintain relationships with key publics through the combination of media and communication.
Richards and Curran (2002) define advertising as a field that seeks to influence consumers’
thoughts or actions through purchased, moderated messages whose source and intent are
recognized. Both advertising and public relations are similar in that they deal with
communicating influential messages to specified groups of people. Both fields utilize a variety of
media outlets, some mass communications and some niche outlets, to distribute their messages
(Wilcox, Cameron, Ault & Agee, 2003). However, a major difference between them is that
advertisers usually pay the media to disseminate their messages. In many cases, public relations
practitioners create persuasive messages and disseminate them to the media in hopes that their
messages will be communicated (Wilcox et al., 2003). This facet of public relations, known as
publicity, is defined as the dissemination of facts about an organization in the form of editorial
media (i.e., news coverage, printed articles). Advertising is usually obviously placed (i.e., radio
commercials, banner ads) to relay information about products and services (Wilcox et al., 2003).
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The fields also differ in the amount of control that practitioners have over their message’s
dissemination. Because advertisements are paid for, the advertiser has total control over when
and where their message will be communicated, especially when mass media outlets are used
(Hendrix, 2004; Wilcox, et al., 2003). For example, if an advertiser creates a television spot, he
can create his own content and also buy time on a specific channel or during a certain program to
run his message, thereby controlling its dissemination.
Uncontrolled media, which are usually not paid for, are controlled by media gatekeepers
who decide what information will be disseminated, at what time and in what form. These media
include press releases, video news releases, photo opportunities, media kits, public service
announcements and guest appearances. Nevertheless, public relations practitioners utilize some
controlled communications, (i.e., brochures, display boards, suggestion boxes, film strips) of
which they can manage the dissemination (Hendrix, 2004). However, the main goal for both
fields in disseminating those messages is to reach their specific audience or public and influence
them to perform an action or to raise consciousness.
Furthermore, public relations and advertising differ in the range of functions each field
provides. Public relations also incorporates crisis management, issues management, constituent
relations, investor relations, public affairs, outreach, internal communications, community
relations, consumer relations and international relations (Botan & Soto, 1998; Hendrix, 2004;
Wilcox, et al., 2003). Most of these aspects are not included in traditional advertising work,
which includes facets such as branding products and profit building (Lane & Russell, 2001).
Another major difference between the fields is that advertising usually caters to markets
rather than publics (Wilcox et al., 2003). Markets—or target markets—are mostly external;
advertisers are mainly concerned with selling the market members their product or services
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(Botan & Soto, 1998, Wilcox, et al., 2003). On the other hand, publics—also called audiences or
stakeholders—have interests that influence or are influenced by an organization (Wilcox et al.,
2003). In addition, publics can be internal, usually including people that work inside the
organization (Botan & Soto, 1998). These publics materialize as various situations arise that can
affect a company’s profit and/or reputation; however markets are essential to sales for most
advertisers (Reber, Frisby & Cameron, 2003).
Although most advertising markets are external, more and more companies are
developing strategies to advertise to their internal employee markets. Mitchell (2002) states that
internal advertising boosts employee morale, helps employees cope with sudden turnover or
important changes, and influences employees to believe in their companies. However, even
though public relations works with publics and advertising with markets, both fields are working
to communicate messages to groups of concerned citizens.
In addition, public relations and advertising both utilize client research but on different
levels. Both fields use content analyses and surveys in many studies (Pasadeos, 2000). Yet,
public relations tends to research an organization’s history, former troubles, and the company’s
publics (Hendrix, 2004). Advertisers also research heavily via account planning and media
planning to determine consumers’ wants and needs, past advertisement strategies, and the cost
and availability of media outlets (Rod, 1997). Advertisers also use more experimental designs
than do public relations researchers, while public relations professionals use more qualitative
studies (Pasadeos, 2000).
The fields are also separated by their use of sponsor mentions. Nan and Faber (2004)
point out that advertising is distinct because the sponsors’ names are clearly noted in each ad,
whereas public relations media usually keep their sponsor names under wraps. In most video
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news releases, feature stories, personal appearances and opinion-editorials, the sponsor may or
may not be recognizable (Nan & Faber, 2004). Nevertheless, workers in both fields are seeking
to introduce their message to certain publics but by different means (Wilcox et al., 2003).
One of the most similar aspects of advertising and public relations is the development and
implementation of goals and objectives. Advertising and public relations are communications
functions that require setting goals and objectives for communications strategies. Advertising
employees often use marketing plans, which express the main goals and objectives, tactics,
situation outline, obstacles, opportunities, budget matters, and educational research (Lane &
Russell, 2001). In public relations, the management by objective (MBO) format is often used.
MBO includes determining a client’s wants and needs, key publics, media outlets, resources,
communication tactics, message perceptions, and visual aids (Wilcox et al., 2003). Public
relations practitioners also develop their own procedures for developing goals and objectives.
For instance, Ketchum Communications created its own Strategic Planning Model for public
relations, which includes information, objectives, publics and messaging (Wilcox et al., 2003).
While both public relations and advertising employ different elements, the main outcome from
both is a compilation of goals and objectives that the organization hopes to achieve for its clients
by using an outlined strategy and specific tactics.
Although differences are noted, it can be argued that each field has some crossover into
the other. Those similarities are possibly why many employers may have considered combining
the fields in practice. Both fields are related enough that many of the duties in each can be
combined and performed by one person or in one department. For example, an advertising
department for a major corporation could increase its internal advertising through employee
press releases or focus groups. In addition, where one field falls short, another field could
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possibly take up the slack to increase communication benefits for a company’s client. For
instance if a company experiences a serious crisis, public relation’s crisis management combined
with creative advertising can restore client faith in the company’s abilities. Both fields employ
similar tactics, yet they are performed and categorized slightly different.
Combining Advertising and Public Relations
Advertising and public relations are distinctly different, yet in today’s communication
settings, in several instances, advertising and public relations have merged to benefit both
corporate and consumer image. Ries and Ries (2002) argue that companies benefit from having
two distinct fields, and those differences allow each to be used in separate functions. However,
there are many instances in which both can be used hand in hand and can fill in each other’s
shortcomings. Neither takes precedence over the other, yet advertising and public relations have
functions which, while very different, are also complementary (Ries & Ries, 2002)
Benigni and Cameron (1999) believe that the efficiency of a company hinges on good
public relations. Public relations builds trust and favorable attitudes toward brands and
businesses via journalists or specific publics over a longer, more constant progression than
advertising, which may be viewed as implausible (Benigni & Cameron, 1999). However, Cook
(1997) contends that more and more public relations campaigns are being developed with
advertising foundations, which create a more long-lasting effect of brands on the consumer. This
practice shows that integration has become useful within both fields.
Ries and Ries (2002) state that public relations and advertising each have their own
strengths, yet they each have elements that the other field lacks. For instance, advertising can use
creative strategies in hopes of persuading consumers into action; however, many consumers
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believe that advertising is not credible. On the other hand, public relations is seen as a more
credible field because it often uses editorial media to disseminate messages, so combining public
relations tactics with advertising strategies could help convince wary consumers (Ries & Ries,
2002). They also suggest that public relations should be implemented before advertising
strategies in campaigns. Public relations endears the consumer to a company and establishes trust
between the two. Once those tactics are achieved, a campaign’s advertising can be introduced to
seal deals between companies and their audiences or publics (Ries & Ries, 2002). Companies
that house brands and products also rely on public relations to create positive images for their
brand and to handle any bad media exposure, product defects, recalls and other threats to their
products (Standard and Poors’ Advertising Industry Survey, 2003). Advertising can be used as a
subset of public relations, while public relations can also reinforce the work of advertising
(Wilcox et al., 2003).
A successful example of advertising combining with public relations is the 1984
Kellogg’s All-Bran campaign. The National Cancer Institute (NCI) was seeking better ways to
communicate the positive health effects of fiber in decreasing cancer. The NCI teamed with
Kellogg’s to produce an advertising campaign that noted the effects of high-fiber diets—
especially that found in Kellogg’s All-Bran—in fighting off cancer. This collaborative campaign
ignited a surge of food brands to spotlight the healthful aspects of their foods, and in turn sparked
an interest among the public about healthier eating habits (Calfee, 1998).
Many advertising professionals are adopting more communication-based models as used
in public relations to reach their consumers. Duncan and Moriarty (1998) argue that “interactive
relationships” allow customers to speak and advertisers to listen and then implement the
consumers’ suggestions, which will maintain more consumer relationships. They also believe
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that communication is the link between marketing, advertising and public relations and that it
bridges gaps between businesses, their consumers, their investors and various publics (Duncan &
Moriarty, 1998). A zero-based planning method for marketing communications helps advertisers
define the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats (a technique often used in public
relations practices) to identify the most effective ways of communicating to their audiences
(Duncan & Moriarty, 1998). In addition public relations helps advertising professionals build and
maintain good relationships with their advertising clients (Standard and Poors’ Advertising
Industry Survey, 2003).
While public relations can often buttress the work of advertising, public relations
practitioners also frequently use advertising as a means to disseminate some of its messages
(such image and advocacy advertising); (Wilcox, et. al, 2003). Pardun and McKee (1999) also
argue that newer forms of advertising, such as product placement, are actually public relations
tactics mistakenly categorized as advertising. Although the majority of product placement deals
are brokered through advertising agencies or departments, public relations practitioners ensure
that products are placed in the most effective, attractive and respectable ways. For instance, a
public relations practitioner would discuss the scenes in which the product is placed or used so
that it would reach the desired audience without its presence being too obvious. However,
practitioners could only input their suggestions if the producers allow it, especially since product
placements are usually not paid for and may be considered uncontrolled media. Moreover, since
many placements are usually traded for other services and are not paid for, they do not follow
most experts’ definitions of advertising and are more in line with public relations two-way
communication practices. Product placement can be viewed as promotional public relations
tactics that involve little or no monetary exchange (Pardun & McKee, 1999).
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Whether or not advertising and public relations are used separately or combined, it is
clear that each one can benefit from the other. Public relations can lay the groundwork in
building client relations; advertising adds the bells and whistles that excite and further influence
the client. Advertising disseminates a stimulating message to its target audience; public relations
ensures that the audience can communicate their attitudes toward the message and suggest how it
can be improved. Both fields work well alone; however, when combined, advertising and public
relations may create a stronger impact on the audience and the effectiveness of the message.
Integrated Marketing Communications
Even though some advertising and public relations programs are separated, some are
combined through Integrated Marketing Communications (IMC) (Caywood, 1997; Kitchen,
2005; Cook, 1997; Schultz & Kitchen, 1997; Griffin & Pasadeos, 1998).
IMC is a relatively new term in the communications world with several definitions from
various scholars and practitioners. Griffin and Pasadeos (1998) state that IMC combines
advertising and public relations with marketing components such as direct marketing and sales
promotion to improve various facets of communication. Pasadeos (2000) states that IMC’s
merging of advertising, public relations and marketing uses multiple media to accomplish a
maximum influence over newly fragmented publics. According to Low (2000), others have
defined it as a business theory, an academic curriculum, or a convergence between business
sectors. Low (2000) thinks of IMC as a range of factors that incorporate (1) how often
communications tactics are implemented by one person, (2) the uniformity of communication
attempts and (3) the similarities found in communicated forms. Duncan and Moriarty (1998)
state that IMC is a collaborative media effort to enhance the worth of a company’s brand. Phelps
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and Johnson (1996) describe IMC as the combination of marketing, advertising and public
relations that yield new elemental tenets for communicating to key publics.
Kitchen (2005) states that IMC takes the best aspects from various communication
functions to strengthen each in their weakest areas. Kitchen (2005) claims that the key aspects of
marketing communication are advertising, public relations, sales promotion, direct marketing,
personal selling, exhibitions, point-of-purchase, cybermarketing and sponsorship. Yet, the most
important aspect of IMC is two-way communication, which is the crux of any relationship
(Kitchen, 2005). Caywood (1997) defines IMC as bringing together all communications
elements for product promotion to create consumer purchases and commitment to brands. Shimp
(2000) reveals that IMC should embody the five following characteristics:
1. IMC should influence actions via communication.
2. The client should come first; IMC practitioners should consider communication based
on the clients wants and needs.
3. All communication types and organizational resources should be incorporated when
using IMC.
4. Synergy is key in developing strong brand representations.
5. IMC communications should link the brand to the consumer through a strong rapport.
Because so many IMC definitions exist, for the purpose of this study, the following
definition will be used: IMC is a collaborative effort among advertising, public relations and
marketing used to streamline communications processes and provide all-inclusive
communication concepts and strategies for clients and brands. In this definition, streamlining
refers to using the unique factors of each field and combining similar factors as not to duplicate
13
efforts from a single field. All-inclusive refers to various communication strategies (e.g., media
relations, television commercials, product placement) used to promote one brand or service.
Several scholars have proposed a variety of definitions to capture the essence of IMC, yet
this divisiveness hampers the field in being accepted as a credible or viable management
function. Many experts agree on the basic aspects of IMC (i.e., its administrative makeup or
communications implementations), yet the field lacks stabilized theory, functional procedures
and research techniques (Cornelissen & Lock, 2000). Nevertheless, others believe that many
communication and marketing processes cannot be accurately measured, making the alleged
effects of IMC questionable (Kitchen, 2005).
However, Gould (2000) challenges these claims by stating that there is no such thing as
accurate or perfect theory in any academic field and that IMC should not be a victim to that
claim. Moreover, Gould (2000) claims that IMC is based on inductive reasoning by which IMC
theory can be created when pooled with qualitative research. IMC is also a wide-spread practice
among many communications employers, nationally and internationally. However, to study it,
one must look at it on small scales because it is practiced and taught differently in various sectors
(Gould, 2000).
Because of the field’s uncertainty, many communications professionals use the term IMC
carelessly (Cornelissen & Lock, 2000). Currently, the IMC field is structuring management and
functional aspects as it continues to work on a trial basis (Schultz & Kitchen, 2000). However, as
a new marketing idea, IMC is showing great development (Schultz & Kitchen, 2000).
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History of IMC
The roots of IMC began in the 1970s and 1980s when product and brand competition and
the age of the individual-thinking consumer began to peak (Cornelissen & Lock, 2000). At this
juncture, advertising agencies began to change their focus and decrease their budgets by offering
their clients more public relations-centered campaigns that reached narrowly targeted audiences
and fortified relationships with clients and publics (Reber et al., 2003). Instead of rallying to
reach mass markets as in the past, IMC encouraged the use of various media types, catered to
customers’ individual inclinations, and upheld brand loyalties and images (Kitchen, 2005). More
competitive brands and advertising efforts also provoked companies to streamline their
communications functions to include more budget-friendly promotions (Caywood, 1997).
In addition to these trends, more customers were growing tired of barefaced advertising
efforts and began resisting the appeal of traditional advertising. Also, with the heightened brand
competition, traditional media outlets were inundated with advertisements, most of which
consumers ignored. Even though television was constantly adding new networks and channels, a
decrease of advertising on network television affected the market. Added to these factors, was
the onslaught of new technologies (i.e., VCRs, video games, and computers), which created
other activities for which potential consumers could occupy their time (Caywood, 1997).
The early 1990s marked the beginning of research and dialogue about IMC, especially by
communication employees (Schultz & Kitchen, 1997; Reber et al., 2003). In 1995, the
Advertising Research Foundation created the Integrated Marketing Communication Council to
help build theoretical and practical foundations for the field (Schultz & Kitchen, 2000).
According to Caywood (1997), by 1993, at least 80 marketing departments in a study by The
Marketing Report allotted 20 percent of their yearly marketing funds to public relations efforts.
15
However, by 1996 IMC was still considered a paradigm in its early stages of development
(Schultz & Kitchen, 1997).
In addition, IMC rose out of the need for communications professionals to embrace better
technology (Cornelissen & Lock, 2000). IMC allows communication professionals in several
fields to transition from older advertising and publicity trends such as direct mail and sales
promotion to technology-based trends such as Internet advertising, which offers better
communication opportunities (Cornelissen & Lock, 2000). Schultz and Kitchen (1997) believe
that IMC helps distribute messages faster via electronic media sources than advertising or public
relations alone. Because technology is rapidly advancing, IMC provides a great segue into the
future of communications tactics.
Perceptions and Debates about IMC
Several scholars and practitioners have weighed in with their opinion of IMC. For many
consumers, advertising and public relations are thought of as the same field, therefore, the
difference between messages from either field are rarely dichotomized (Low, 2000). When most
people consume messages, their thought processes do not differentiate between the two fields; all
tactics are thought of as one unit, thereby making the transition to IMC an easy one for
communication recipients (Caywood, 1997). Because of this consumer integration, Low (2000)
predicts the fields will eventually integrate themselves to accommodate consumers’ habitual
actions.
Kitchen (2005) argues that IMC enhanced communication efforts and creative campaigns
as well as showed uniformed communication between both public relations and advertising
efforts. Moreover, these aspects increased return on investments for communications clients.
16
However, many communications heads were skeptical of these results because of IMC’s
newness and their doubtfulness in its cost effectiveness (Kitchen, 2005).
Reber et al. (2003) believe that relationship building should be the center of strategic
marketing plans like IMC. In addition to relationship building, strategic communication also
incorporates research, organizational skills, sensitivity to various ethnicities and societies,
technology and many communication aspects (Reber et al., 2003). From a study by Schultz and
Kitchen (1997), many employers believe that IMC is a viable communications concept because it
(1) incorporates collaborative work between communication sectors, (2) aids in database
building, (3) is an important factor providing clients with the best service possible, and (4)
allows for new ways to gain profit. Indeed, there are those who believe that varying amounts of
collaborative efforts can be tolerated, while some efforts should remain separated. Nevertheless,
companies must acquire workers with several communications skills so that collaborations can
be successful.
In both professions, many consider IMC to be a whim in the United States that will soon
disappear (Schultz & Kitchen, 1997). Others see it as a convoluted form of advertising and
public relations, claiming that convergence between these two fields is not a new concept but has
been in practice before its apparent debut in the 1970s and 1980s (Schultz & Kitchen, 1997;
Reber et al., 2003). Yet, others believe it is a permanent fixture in communications, bringing
together the best of what each field offers for more expansive and efficient communication
(Cook, 1997).
Many questions and concerns have been raised over IMC. Yet, IMC is a perfect tool for
simplifying communications efforts and providing the most complete communication strategies
for its clients. Although many kinks need to be worked out in forming definitions, measurements
17
and theories, IMC is a new way of looking at a concept that, while it may have been utilized in
previous decades, is being used more frequently today. Moreover, even though public relations
practitioners are more likely to denounce IMC, there is no doubt that each field borrows from the
other and that collaborations yield easier results for communications clients.
A study from Northwestern University shows that 70 to 80 percent of directors for
management, marketing, advertising and sales departments agree that IMC could increase their
communications efficiency (Caywood, 1997). The average consumer may be oblivious to the
link between advertising and public relations, yet they have helped companies post higher returns
on investment by responding to the integrated approach (Low, 2000; Kitchen, 2005). Moreover,
executives realize the financial and structural benefits of IMC. With these positive perceptions
noted, IMC shows great potential for being a more efficient way to perform communications
business.
Advertising, Public Relations and IMC Education
Basic courses for advertising or public relations majors also differ, yet many IMC
departments on college and university campuses have made efforts to combine the two
disciplines.
Campaigns courses are the capstone for public relations, implementing all the theories
and fundamentals that accompany the field. These courses offer “real world”, hands-on
applications to prepare students for what they will face in the workplace. Current public relations
programs offer much technical experience but lack in administrative training (Benigni &
Cameron, 1999). Students have reported that in teamwork exercises, such as campaigns, the most
important skills needed are dependability, commitment to the campaign, and an optimistic
18
approach to the work. The least important characteristics were the actual tactical skills, such as
technological skills, advertising or public relations practical skills (Ahles & Bosworth, 2004).
Although campaigns courses should prepare students for their future careers, many professors
are at odds over what the industry is looking for, and end up skirting the skills that many
employers seek. These skills range from message and media strategies, event planning, theory,
research, budgeting, client relations and more that may be studied in hypothetical or real-life
situations (Benigni & Cameron, 1999).
Developing a good portfolio is essential for advertising students who want to impress
employers. Trade schools for advertising offer programs specifically for portfolio building, while
universities and colleges incorporate more inclusive curricula of graphics and conceptual
thinking (Ha, Beard & Kelsey, 1998). Extensive knowledge of computer, art and design skills
has become also essential for advertising majors, especially in creative avenues. These skills are
necessary in the business world, in addition to knowledge about presentation and statistical
software (i.e., PowerPoint and SPSS) (Ha et al., 1998). Overall, however, employers are looking
for conceptual minds who can generate unique ideas and not necessarily those who can literally
execute them. Ideal advertising employees should be able to conceptualize ideas as well as build
business relationships, enhance their portfolio, keep up with news and immerse themselves in
knowledge of the advertising business (Slayden, Broyles & Kendrick, 1998).
Some advertising programs are now housed in business and marketing schools on college
campuses. Yet historically, advertising tasks were performed by copywriters trained in schools of
journalism, where the majority of advertising departments on college campuses are housed today
(Marker, 1999). Griffin and Pasadeos (1998) argue that advertising and public relations could be
categorized as a part of both business or communications, but each field relies on principles
19
from both sectors. Nevertheless, journalism-housed advertising programs still send students to
business and marketing schools to gain more integrated curricula. Public relations students are
now being equipped with strategic communications expertise, planning skills and research
capabilities. Marker (1999) suggests bringing business and statistics courses to journalism
schools to turn the “advertising major” into a “marketing communications major”.
Debates in IMC Education
Some of the most debatable arguments about IMC occur in the education world.
Advertising and public relations professionals have expressed concerns about IMC, stating that
while education must reflect the times, it does not have to surrender to a new structure. In
addition, in most cases, educators in advertising and public relations do not read academic works
in each other’s fields, which can lead to a messy integration process (Pasadeos, 2000). Because
they specialize in their own fields, they may not realize the value of other communication fields
to their practice (Griffin & Pasadeos, 1998). Also, professors argue that if students are forced to
learn a variety of disciplines including advertising, public relations and marketing, they will not
become authorities in a particular practice (Griffin & Pasadeos, 1998).
Many professionals and educators in marketing and advertising seem willing to accept
IMC (Cornelissen & Lock, 2000). Although some advertising and public relations educators are
averse to IMC, more public relations professors are opposed to the merger than advertising
educators. They feel that public relations is not part of paid advertising, but serves an extensive
range of publics and functions (Griffin & Pasadeos, 1998). Other public relations practitioners
believe that other fields have taken over the work of public relations and that they should
repossess what was rightfully theirs (Gower & Reber, 2003). While many advertising
20
practitioners see IMC as combining the greatest aspects of both fields, many public relations
practitioners believe it encompasses more marketing and profit-building instead of management
and relationships (Kitchen, 2005; Reber et al., 2003, Gower & Reber, 2003). In addition,
marketing experts believe that public relations can be learned via on-the-job training instead of in
a classroom, implying that marketing and advertising professionals can learn it without
integration into their previous education (Griffin & Pasadeos, 1998). Because much of public
relations work is in-house and counselor-oriented, public relations professionals are not
comfortable with many outside marketing processes (Pasadeos, 2000).
In 1975, the Commission on Public Relations Education suggested that public relations
degree programs should focus on writing skills, graphic design and publicity in courses that
encompassed management communications Even though this suggestion was not accepted by
the 1981 commission, they recommended that students hone their writing, graphics and publicity
skills in other courses (Gower & Reber, 2003). In addition, skills such as advertising techniques,
broadcasting, persuasion and media writing became the focus of public relations curriculum over
other techniques such as propaganda and public opinion (Gower & Reber, 2003).
The Public Relations Society of America (PRSA) is still fighting for a wider range of
education for public relations students, including a focus on business (Griffin & Pasadeos, 1998).
The International Public Relations Association suggested that public relations programs follow
the concentric circle model: the innermost circle represents public relations courses, the middle
circle reflects general communications courses, and the outermost circle mirrors liberal arts and
humanities (Walmsley, 1998).
Reber et al. (2003) believe that degree programs that incorporate many communications
realms (i.e., advertising, public relations, marketing,) offer students a more diverse
21
communication education and help them develop more skills. In fact, in their study, they
discovered that 73 percent of students at a Midwestern university believe that a combined
communications degree would be more beneficial than separated education. They also noted that
43 percent of students believe that this integration would be more beneficial at the graduate level
and that 38 percent believed that integrated education benefits graduates more so in the
workplace than singular education would. Overall, more advertising students believed this than
public relations students (Reber et al., 2003). Several public relations programs are incorporating
marketing information into their lesson plans. Authorities believe that current post-graduate
degrees should be revamped to include a more inclusive education. Undergraduate study should
be separated so that students can hone the fundamentals before they branch off into other areas
(Griffin & Pasadeos, 1998; Reber et al., 2003).
Also, advertising curricula offer more varied content than public relations (Griffin &
Pasadeos, 1998). However, even though three quarters of advertising education derives from
other fields, advertising agencies generally feel that students need more diverse education
(Griffin & Pasadeos, 1998). When communications programs teach integration, whether they
work for separated or integrated departments, students benefit by learning what is needed to
work in both fields. Experts believe, however, that instructors in both fields must discern what
skills and qualifications need to be taught in order for their students to successfully work in an
IMC environment (Reber et al., 2003).
Converging Education
Duncan, Caywood and Newsom (1993) suggested an integrated communications program
that implemented liberal arts education; courses in verbal communication; writing and visual
22
communication; managerial and organizational structure courses; and an understanding for other
communication fields. However, depending on the instructor’s background, a typical IMC
management class could lean more heavily toward a public relations management or advertising
management class and not span both worlds (Pasadeos, 2000).
From 1995 to 2000, advertising and public relations departments with combined curricula
increased the number of students in their graduating classes by 78.1 percent, and faculty
increases topped that at 87.6 percent. The number of new students enrolled in these programs
increased 85.5 percent, while the number of integrated programs increased 47.2 percent (Johnson
& Ross, 2000). This shows a significant tendency to implement more joint or integrated
programs, thereby increasing enrollment and IMC faculty numbers. Educators polled in Johnson
and Ross’ (2000) study feel that advertising and public relations have several similar attributes
that have been replicated in some of the course load. That replication has caused the programs to
be combined to save money in their respective departments (Johnson & Ross, 2000).
Pasadeos (2000) recommends that students take certain core classes in both fields. For
instance, there are distinct differences between advertising and public relations writing that each
student must learn separately. Then during the integration of campaigns classes, students can
attain hands-on experience to bring both advertising and public relations ideals together to solve
business problems. In cases in which faculty are not adept in teaching integrated courses, some
classes can be taught by professors from both fields in tandem to integrate the two disciplines
(Pasadeos, 2000). To cure this problem for the future, doctoral degree programs should teach
candidates both disciplines to prepare them for potential integrated teaching after graduation
(Pasadeos, 2000).
23
Communication education varies on many levels; however, at the basic, fundamental
level, students should learn the technical aspects and skills related to their specific program of
study. Conversely, to ensure that students are prepared for entry-level positions, educational
programs should be more varied to include aspects from other communication disciplines. Even
though many experts agree that IMC works better in graduate degree programs, many students
with graduate degrees are seeking managerial positions that are not as technical or hands-on as
entry-level work. Newly graduated undergraduate students who are looking for entry-level
positions more than likely will utilize IMC most in practical tasks, giving them an advantage if
they were educated in integrated degree programs.
What Employers Want
Depending on the needs of the business, a mixture of advertising and public relations can
gain advantages for corporations. Many employers believe that IMC is beneficial in carrying out
business campaigns. In addition, this synergy aids in measurability and accountability in business
and enables companies to combine their advertising and public relations departments to save
money. These practices also help employers calculate better returns on investment (Griffin &
Pasadeos, 1998).
Generally speaking, employers in many fields prefer workers who have a variety of skills
and abilities, not just those that are listed in their job descriptions (Ahles & Bosworth, 2004).
Moreover, most employers who hire new graduates are pleased with the specific skills that they
learned in college (i.e., writing press releases, designing advertising layouts). Yet, more
employers desire new graduates to exhibit skills that are not as applied (i.e., communication
skills, timeliness, team building) (Ahles & Bosworth, 2004).
24
IMC has become a favorite for employers. In a study by Schultz and Kitchen (1997), they
report that 75 percent of agencies in their sample assigned one-quarter of their time to IMC.
Twenty-five percent of their sample reported using 75 percent of their time on IMC work
(Schultz & Kitchen, 1997). In addition, the researchers show that agencies of all sizes utilize
IMC to some extent; however, the smaller the business size, the more IMC is utilized. Caywood
(1997) believes that smaller companies do not have enough money to solicit services from
separate communication types, so IMC helps them combine their needs as well as save money.
To effectively put IMC in action in the communications workplace, budgeting, staffing,
skill sets and organizational makeups must all be considered and applied effectively (Kitchen,
2005). This integration has already become commonplace in smaller businesses in which both
employee types cannot be hired because of budget concerns. These employees are multi-tasking
the jobs of advertising, public relations and marketing professionals (Griffin & Pasadeos, 1998).
In addition, many new graduates are not working with agencies, but are working as
“communication specialists” in which their job duties call for integration (Griffin & Pasadeos,
1998).
Although Ries and Ries (2002) suggest that new graduates begin working for smaller
companies when they graduate, they also state that larger firms are moving more toward
integrated approaches than before. With smaller companies, new employees can input more of
their ideas and possibly use integrated communication more than larger ones. However, large
conglomerates are researching more ways to integrate advertising and public relations so that it
can introduce its products in more innovative ways (Ries & Ries, 2002). Reber et al. (2003)
believe that strong communication strategies that can influence audiences and publics are key to
the success of tomorrow’s communication employee. Therefore, IMC and collaborative
25
communication will provide the best communication solutions for tomorrow’s clients (Reber et
al., 2003).
After the 1980s technology wave, the “demassification” of society divided what was a
mass audience into specified niche markets (Griffin & Pasadeos, 1998). Today, communicators
need multi-faceted campaigns to gain niche consumers, yet advertising and public relations
education remain separated in several universities (Griffin & Pasadeos, 1998). Several employers
are concerned that advertising and public relations education programs are lagging behind
current trends and are hurting graduates in finding employment in their respective fields.
Employers state that current advertising curricula are too constricted and that educators are not
aware of the needs and changes that advertising employers desire (Griffin & Pasadeos, 1998).
Employers also believe that educators should be proactive in detecting future changes in the
communication workplace instead of reacting when changes occur (Griffin & Pasadeos, 1998).
These needs could include team-building concepts and dependability, as well as the ability to
conceptualize ideas and build business relationships (Ahles & Bosworth, 2004; Slayden et al.,
1998). This communicates the fissure between academia and practitioners on how to prepare
students for work in the communications field (Griffin & Pasadeos, 1998).
According to the Association for Education in Journalism and Mass Communication
(AEJMC), many educators have confessed to falling behind the times in learning the new needs
of professional communicators (Griffin & Pasadeos, 1998). Public relations instructors believe
that they have kept up with changes in the professional world more so than advertising educators.
In that same vein, advertising professionals also believe that advertising educators are lagging
behind in keeping their instruction current. On the other hand, instructors from both fields
26
believe that employers are looking for skills in their graduates that neither field contains (Griffin
& Pasadeos, 1998).
Employers believe that advertising students have limited knowledge upon graduation due
to narrow focus. According to the Advertising Task Force, employers believe that professors are
not changing their syllabi to reflect the changes in the advertising working world (Griffin &
Pasadeos, 1998). There is a vast discrepancy between what students are taught and what
employers expect them to know. For both disciplines, students are earning degrees because they
have learned the fundamentals. Yet, they are not mastering the art of the hands-on applications
(Griffin & Pasadeos, 1998). Furthermore, employers have complained about the lack of synergy
between advertising and public relations in education and how graduates are not equipped with
the skills to handle both fields plus marketing objectives. They are proponents to merging
education between business and communication skills. Nevertheless, few employers have offered
suggestions on how to make this merger successful (Griffin & Pasadeos, 1998).
Regardless of employees’ feelings about IMC’s encroachment or instability, many
studies show that IMC can provide employees with streamlined and budget-friendly options for
their communications endeavors. Employers admitted that workers with a variety of skills can
bring more to their tables than those with one-track training. This feature definitely works well
with small businesses that may have tight budgets or larger ones that want to cut spending and
simplify their workloads. Market trends show that many employers are seeking workers with
integrated education. The time has come for educators to prepare their students for the integrated
workplace.
27
CHAPTER 3: THE STUDY
Research Questions
The purpose of this study is to discover the qualifications and skills that communications
employers from various types of companies need from entry-level communications workers.
This study will answer the following research questions:
RQ1. What job skills are required to work in today's communication workplaces?
RQ2. What areas could future job candidates be prepared in to meet the needs of
communication employment?
RQ3. How, if at all, does academic training prepare or hinder employees in entry-level
communication positions with converged or separated requirements?
RQ4. How, if at all, does the convergence of advertising and public relations (IMC) in the
workplace affect the work of communication employees?
Examining the implementation of both advertising and public relations in the
communications workplace is an important topic of investigation. This applied research study
can help discover how well workers with educations in either discipline or both fields are
prepared to adjust to the requirements of jobs using both skill sets. In addition, employers’
opinions about this issue are infrequent. However, they need to be shared to alert educators on
28
how they can improve their training of future communications workers or how using the fields in
tandem has helped or hindered their communications efforts.
Sample
Participants from this study were chosen from a compilation of approximately 190
businesses and organizations. The business contact information was compiled from the
University of Georgia Career Center online spring 2006 career fair directory, the Metro-Atlanta
Chamber of Commerce online membership directory, and Internet search engine queries.
Fifteeen participants from this sampling frame consented to participate.
This purposive sample was chosen to represent a variety of communications business and
department types that use advertising and public relations in their daily business endeavors. The
participants included communications employers in supervisory positions (i.e., executives,
managers, owners and directors) of communication departments in various types of Atlanta-
based companies. Employers work for various types of organizations (i.e., public relations firms,
advertising agencies, boutique agencies, in-house communications departments of corporations
and regional businesses, non-profits). Eligible employers had been a supervisory
communications professional for at least two (2) years and are 21 years old or more. Each
participant was assigned a psuedonym to protect their identity in this study.
Method
Telephone interviews were conducted from February 13, 2006 to March 15, 2006. Fifteen
employers were interviewed and audio recorded with the participants’ consent using in-depth
interview protocol. The interviews lasted 26 minutes on average, with the shortest interview
29
lasting 16 minutes and the longest lasting 39 minutes. Some participants were called a second
time to clarify data recorded in their first interviews. The data were analyzed qualitatively for
this exploratory study. The conversations were transcribed so that the researcher could comb the
interviews for themes through an adaptation of the constant comparative method (Lincoln &
Guba, 1985).
The participants’ responses were divided by two categories: business type and
department type. Business type included six sub-categories: public relations firm, advertising
agency, large corporation, regional business, non-profit and boutique. Department type included
three categories: public relations, advertising and mixed departments. The department types were
used to cateogorize in-house communications departments by the field in which they specialized.
For instance, a manager of a regional business’ communications department could explain that
his department specializes in advertising. This department would be categorized as a regional
business under business type and an advertising department under department type. Each
participants’ responses were analyzed within both categories.
Participants were interviewed in depth on factors that influence or deter companies from
using converged communication strategies; the training and skills needed for entry-level
employees to adequately perform their jobs; their own knowledge and use of Integrated
Marketing Communications; and personal background information on their education and job
experiences. Questions about job hiring processes and skills were derived from Walmsley
(1998); Johnson and Ross (2000); Gower and Reber (2003); and Griffin and Pasadeos (1998).
Questions about trends in advertising and public relations education and implementation were
derived from studies by Benigni and Cameron (1999); Slayden et al. (1998); Duncan, et al.
(1993); and Pasadeos (2000). Questions about Integrated Marketing Communication were
30
derived from Griffin and Pasadeos (1998); Ries and Ries (2002); Low (2000); Phelps and
Johnson (1996); and Cornelissen and Lock (2000). Questions about advertising and public
relations definitions were derived from Pardun and McKee (1999) and Richards and Curran
(2002). For the complete interview guideline, refer to Appendix A.
31
CHAPTER 4: RESULTS
Sample Characteristics
Fifteen employers participated in in-depth interviews for this study. Their job positions
ranged from six lower level management positions (i.e., creative director, public relations
manager) to nine upper level positions (i.e., presidents, vice presidents, founders, owners). Nine
women and six men were interviewed; all participants were in positions of management and had
the authority to hire employees in their businesses or departments. Each of the companies and
organizations are operated in metro- or suburban Atlanta.
The participants work for a variety of business types. Three participants work in public
relations companies. One participant worked for a boutique agency that specializes in both
advertising and public relations. Four participants worked for advertising agencies. One
advertising agency also offers public relations services.
Two participants worked for regional businesses in Georgia. Both regional business
employers considered their departments to focus on a mix of advertising and public relations.
Two participants worked for large corporations (both with branches in several states).
One large corporation employer described his department to be public relations based, and the
other stated that her department focused on mostly advertising.
Three participants worked for local non-profits, who all stated that their communication’s
departments focused on public relations.
32
Table 1. Sample Characteristics Name Job Title Company Type Education Number of
Employees Supervised/ Positions
Organiza-tions’ Total Number of Employees
Clint M. Vice President
Public relations firm
Undergraduate degree in communication
Two: production assistant and intern
10
Kelly G. Executive Vice President, Co-founder
Public relations firm
Undergraduate degree in radio, television and film
Six: two operations managers, four freelance media relations representatives
10
Alice H. Manager of Communi-cation and Executive Director for an account
Public relations firm
Undergraduate and graduate degrees in food/nutrition sciences; undergraduate minor in communi- cations
Two: communications manager and communications specialist
170
Earl L. President
Advertising/ public relations boutique
Junior college and college education in fine arts; no degree
Two: new media manager and accounts manager
3
Carl C. Creative Director
Advertising agency
Undergraduate degree in advertising
None 1
Karen B. Senior Vice President Media Director
Advertising agency
Undergraduate degree in journalism (concentration in marketing)
None; plans to hire media buyers and media planners within the next year
18
33
Mark N. Vice President Group Brand Director
Advertising/mar-keting agency (also uses public relations)
Undergraduate degree in fine arts
Three: group brand manager, senior brand manager, and brand manager
29
John H. President, Owner and Founder
Advertising agency
Undergraduate degree in communica-tions and advertising
12-15: designers, art directors, copywriters, and marketing staff
12-15
Lana F. Senior Vice President, Marketing and Communi-cations
Regional business
Undergraduate degree in business administration, concentration in management and marketing
Two: advertising/marketing representative and public relations officer
425
Rhonda D.
Director of Marketing and Strategic Planning
Regional business Undergraduate degree in public relations; tourism marketing professional certification
Three: tourism group sales manager, assistant director of marketing, and intern
50
Jim D. Vice President of Communi-cations and Public Relations
Large Corporation with franchises (public relations based)
Undergraduate degree in mass communication
Five: graphic designer, public relations coordinator, events planner, customer service representative and office manager
30,000
Maggie C.
Advertising and Marketing Communi-cations Manager
Large Corporation; subsidiary of a larger national conglomerate (advertising based)
Undergraduate degree in journalism and mass communication
12: ranges from administrative assistant to advertising specialists to an advertising supervisor
9,000 (parent company has 26,000 employees)
34
Marie B. Vice
President of Communi-cations
Non-profit
Undergraduate degree in communica-tions, minors in political science and history, Master’s degree in journalism
One: communications assistant
83
Sheila Y. Director of External Affairs
Non-profit Undergraduate degree in arts and sciences, major was criminal justice
One to three: external affairs manager; also supervises one or two interns
20
Leslie C. Public Relations Manager
Non-profit
Undergraduate degree in public defense, Master’s degree in political management
One: public relations coordinator
150
When categorized by department type, four participants worked in departments or
businesses that specialize in advertising only; seven participants worked in public relations
departments, and four participants worked in mixed departments.
All 15 participants have attended college, and 14 have undergraduate degrees. Most
participants have undergraduate degrees in communications-related fields—mass
communication, broadcasting, advertising, public relations or journalism. Others have degrees in
the areas of fine arts, business administration, public defense, criminal justice and nutrition/food
science. Some participants had minors or concentrations in speech communications,
communications, political science, history, marketing and management. Five participants have
35
graduate degrees in the fields of mass communications, journalism, political management, and
nutrition and food science.
All participants had extensive previous job experience in the communications field,
mostly working in public relations, advertising, journalism and broadcasting positions. Other
fields included environmental canvassing, a record company, political campaigning, and a
convention and visitors bureau; however, these positions did incorporate communication skills.
One of the advertising managers also served as the director of an Integrated Marketing
Communications company.
The employers supervise a total of 53 to 58 employees at their respective companies. The
number of employees varies at some companies because of internships and seasonal business
practices. Most participants supervise three employees or less; the highest number of employees
supervised is 15. One advertising employer currently does not supervise any employees but has
done so previously within the same business. Most of the participants serve in communications-
based positions; other positions included a tourism manager, events planner, and a customer
service representative which use communications in their lines of work. A few employers
reported that they also supervise administrative assistants.
Employee responsibilities vary across the six business types, but some of the most
mentioned duties included developing message strategies, media relations, pitching to the media,
media/message dissemination, internal/employee communications, graphic design, newsletter
production, Website production and management and crisis planning/management. A more
detailed description of employee responsibilities is given in the hiring processes and job duties
section of this study.
36
Hiring Processes
Communication Job Skills
When asked what are the skills needed to work in communications fields, participants
overwhelmingly elicited similar responses. Participants listed the ability to write well (17 total
responses) and to communicate well orally (15 total responses) as the most basic, most
extraordinary and most desired skills needed in their fields. Even though written and oral
communications skills were the top responses among public relations departments, at least one
participant from each of the business types mentioned both these skills. These answers confirm
that writing and speaking well are the foundations of both advertising and public relations fields.
Other frequently mentioned skills included computer/graphic design skills, having initiative,
organization, presenting oneself well/positive attitude, communications education, sales skills,
event planning, inquisitive nature, the ability to work with various media outlets, and multi-
tasking
Alice H. from public relations stressed the importance of strong writing skills. Alice
believes that media workers will always communicate through written formats, whether the
audience is the media, other employees in the organization, or any external audiences. Alice H.’s
public relations firm requires each job candidate to take a writing test before they are hired. She
states, “So much of communication is written, especially dealing with the media …developing
fact sheets, writing backgrounders, writing press releases and things of that nature.” She believes
that many professionals today do not have strong writing skills, but for those who do, they can
usually succeed at any task. Jim D. of public relations believes that oral communications goes
hand in hand with customer interactions, a major component of his business. Jim D. states, “I
really see a correlation there because you have to know how to gather the information, format it,
37
and communicate it clearly.” Maggie C. from advertising believes that good verbal and written
communications are two of the “typical things that [one] would expect somebody…with a
degree” to have. No matter what job communications’ managers are hiring for, writing and
speaking will almost always be in high demand.
A substantial number of public relations and mixed department managers stated that
written and oral communications skills were important for new hires to possess. On the other
hand, more advertising managers felt that employees needed creative thinking and attention to
detail to work in communications. This split shows that much of public relations work depends
more on writing and verbal communication, whereas advertising concentrates more on creative
and artistic communication. Nevertheless, many mixed departments also stated that writing and
oral communication are important, thereby suggesting that these skills are needed for both fields
(refer to Appendices B, C, and D for the entire lists of basic, desired and extraordinary skills).
Participants were also asked to rank a list of skills important to their respective jobs using
a scale of one to 10, with one being the least important and 10 being the most important. The list
of skills included those that were unique to each field; however, the highest ranked skills could
be shared by both advertising and public relations departments. This analysis shows that the
fields have various areas of overlap that encompass the skills and goals of both fields—oral
communications, written communications, planning and organizing, problem solving and
decision making, and message strategy. In addition, the three skills chosen by advertising and
public relations participants separately could also be utilized in either field. This analysis
supports commonalities that both fields share and the common communications skills that are
needed in both disciplines.
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Table 2. Important Skills in Advertising, Public Relations and General Communications General Communications (n=15)
Public Relations (n=11)
Advertising (n=8)
Written communications (8.93)
Setting goals and objectives (8.54)
Oral Communications (8.83) Message strategy (8.63) Planning and organizing (8.40) Problem solving and decision making (8.40)
Understanding social responsibility/ethics (8.46)
Conceptual and creative thinking (8.38)
Note. This table represents an average score from all participants who responded for all skills that had an average ranking of 8.00 or more. Note. Sample size of public relations and advertising skills also includes responses from mixed department participants. Note. See Appendix E for complete list of responses.
New Skills Needed in Advertising and Public Relations
When asked what are the new skills that job candidates possess that were not considered
five years ago, a significant number of participants mentioned skills that relate to new media
technology, the Internet, email or graphic design.
Leslie C. of a public relations department felt that more media outlets are now available
because of technological advancements, and communications workers must learn to operate
those technologies. “There’s so much more out there than just print and TV now,” Leslie C. said.
“So it’s just being able to identify different ways to use the Internet to get your message out.”
Lana F. of a mixed department claimed that having graphic design experience, especially with
both PCs and Macs, is one of the newest skills needed in communications today. “That is
39
something that has really lent itself to giving someone the edge in being hired—someone who
has been real savvy at being able to work with different graphics packages,” Lana said. “In the
past, you would just take someone’s word that they could do a newsletter and that they could
design a lot of good stuff, but now we have the ability to really do what advertising agencies do.”
Rhonda D. of public relations stated that new employees have grown up using technological
terms and equipment, which makes them more computer savvy even with simple word
processing or spreadsheet programs. Earl L. of a mixed department stated that communicating
via the Internet “appeal[ed] to an audience of people who want instant gratification.” These
arguments show that the future of communications involves technological advancements, and
new workers must be prepared to use those skills each day on the job.
Communications Experience
In addition, participants also stated that having previous communications experience, be
it through internships, campus publications or actual work experience, was also helpful and an
advantage in hiring. In fact, having previous communications experience was the most noted
extraordinary experience that the participants mentioned. Respondents who managed public
relations departments mentioned previous experience more than any other department type.
Lana F. states, “Training is difficult in this fast-paced environment. It’s helpful when
you’ve got someone who is really cracker-jack at understanding the software and the ability to
think on their feet, make decisions, and who has that ability to be a good writer. You have to
have someone who has that proven background.” She believes that the more experience someone
has upon starting a job, the quicker they can begin working on their own. Maggie C. believes that
any form of previous experience gives job candidates advantages, even if the experience was
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through campus organizations or media outlets. “When someone’s hiring, especially in a large
corporation,” Maggie said, “there needs to be some evidence that you’ve done some practical
work.” Previous work experience proves that a job candidate has taken what they learned in the
classroom and applied it to a real-life media strategy that will be communicated to specific
audiences, much like in a real-world setting.
Participants noted specific work experiences that are important for communications job
candidates to possess. A few participants stated that they usually hire workers with one year or
more of real-world experience after college. One stated that he shows no preference in hiring
recent graduates who may or may not have job experience. Nevertheless, the participants
commented that they look for candidates who have former journalism experience (newsroom
experience, broadcasting, dealing with the media) even if the experience is through internships or
campus organizations.
According to these responses, journalism experience is especially important to public
relations managers. Kelly G. from public relations stated that future employees should know how
to pitch media stories or discern and disseminate media pitches that come to them. Kelly stated
that pitching is “hard core media relations work” and that the results of pitching to the media
(i.e., if articles were written) are advantages for job candidates. Candidates who do not have
relevant communications experience are more disadvantaged than those who do. Therefore, job
seekers should gain as much experience in the media as possible and learn how to work in the
media.
Knowledge of journalism was the most frequent response from participants in all three
business types, followed by industry-specific knowledge. This shows that although job
candidates should have communications experience, they should also be versed in a variety of
41
industries and business types. Both advertising and public relations employees will work with
clients from various fields, therefore, employees with a wide variety of knowledge of different
industries can bring that familiarity to each client. Moreover, if a candidate desires to work for a
specific industry type (sports, animal rights, conservation, etc.), then he or she should have
knowledge and/or experience in those fields as well as in advertising and/or public relations.
Educational Requirements
All except one participant reported that having a college degree mattered when hiring for
communications positions. The three mixed department managers believed that having a college
degree is important; however, they also felt that having a degree is not the most vital factor in
hiring. Mark N. of a mixed department believes that having a degree shows signs of commitment
and dedication, yet he would not eliminate a candidate from a job search if he or she did not have
one. Mark stated “it’s more of the personal characteristics and if they’ve also had actual work
experience in the communications field as interns” that matter when hiring for his agency.
Rhonda D. stated that experience is a more important determinant in hiring than educational
degrees.
However, of the 14 participants who felt having degrees was important, just more than
half of the participants stated that having a communications degree was important, and many of
them agreed that communications degrees are not the most important factor in hiring. Kelly G.
said, “I think it’s important to have an understanding of communications. It doesn’t always have
to be book learning. It could be [that] you worked at radio stations [or] television stations as
well.”
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Most of the advertising managers felt that communication degrees were important. Carl
C. from advertising felt that degrees in advertising, marketing, graphic design or journalism
could best prepare a student to work for his firm. Karen B. of advertising believed that a new
employee should already be aware of the work he or she will be doing, therefore having a
relevant educational background is crucial. She stated, “There are so many people out there who
do have advertising or public relations degrees that you can usually find a qualified candidate
who actually understands what they’re going to be doing when they start working. That’s an
advantage versus people who just think they want to work in advertising.”
These responses showed that all the advertising employers wanted more employees with
job-specific education so that they can begin working early on and not have to be trained on how
to perform job duties. The participants who did not feel that communications degrees were vital
commented that having experience and an understanding of communication as well as a
successful track record in the field are more important.
When asked what types of educational backgrounds they look for in qualified job
applicants, the participants’ answers varied. The answers were categorized into four groups—
communications education; communications education and work experience; best match for the
job/organization; and solid college education.
Most participants stated that they would consider applicants with communications
degrees, with a few participants citing that relevant experience is also needed. The remaining
participants were looking for the employee who was the best match for their company in terms of
skills, education, and experience or someone who had a solid college education in no particular
field. Earl L. said, “The job would go to the individual who is best at presenting themselves in
written and verbal skills, and [for] those, we don’t find any correlation with formal education.”
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From this data, most of the participants agreed that communications education was vital
to being hired, spotlighting the importance of specializing in communications in undergraduate
programs. The importance of gaining communications work experience is also echoed in these
responses, especially for those employers who looked for education and experience and those
who are looking for a specific skill set. Clint M. of public relations commented that having a
communications degree is especially important for employees who are entering their first jobs
out of college. Kelly G., Maggie C. and Mark N. all agree that having a communications degree
is important, but if a job candidate had a degree in another field and had relevant
communications experience, that candidate would not be overlooked.
On the other hand, almost half of the employers wanted job candidates with general
educational backgrounds or that best matched the needs of their open positions. Jim D. stated
that his company is upwardly mobile, shifting people from lower ranks in the company to higher
positions based on their experience and knowledge of the organization. Lana F. felt that in
advertising and marketing, there are various skills that are utilized daily, therefore, candidates
who best fit the needs of the department are considered over those with only communications
degrees. This affirms that workers without communications degrees can be hired as long as they
can learn the requirements of the job.
Many of the participants who preferred communications training stated that public
relations and advertising skills are very distinct and should be honed before starting a new
position in those fields. The two large corporation managers, Jim D. and Maggie C., both
preferred employers with specified communications training. Jim D. stated that public relations
is a vast field, so having a background in it is important.
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The participants who stated they would hire outside those fields felt that some
communications job skills had a general skill set and could be taught on site. Many of the
respondents who would hire outside of the communications field wanted workers with broader
scopes of skills and experience and who had knowledge in many communications facets. Clint
M. states that even though a job candidate may not have a public relations degree, if they have
relevant education and experiences, more than likely they can develop the skills for a public
relations job.
When asked about what educational backgrounds they prefer for job candidates, eight
participants replied that communications degrees were important. Conversely, when asked if
they would hire someone who was educated outside their respective field, 10 participants stated
that they would hire workers with degrees in fields other than communications.
Four public relations managers and three advertising managers gave contradictory
answers in responding to these questions. When asked what type of educational background she
prefers for job candidates, Alice H. responded that she likes to hire communications majors.
However, when asked about her willingness to hire workers who do not have communication
educations, she responded that she considers candidates of various majors who have relevant job
experience. She stated, “Depending on if we’re looking for a public relations person, we want to
see that they’ve got experience pitching with the media, but that doesn’t mean that we wouldn’t
take someone that has relevant skills that might fit that niche. People get their majors in all kinds
of things, and I think it usually depends on their experience.” When asked about his preferences
in educational backgrounds, Jim D. stated that he looked for the best fit for the position.
However, when asked about his willingness to hire workers trained in other fields, he stated that
45
he would hire public relations majors only because the field has so many diverse and unique
aspects.
Table 3. Comparison Between Educational Preferences and Willingness to Hire Workers Without Communications Education Name Company
Type/Department type Educational Preferences Willingness to Hire Workers
Outside Communications Clint M. PR firm/PR Communications education
and work experience
Would hire from another field
Kelly G. PR firm/PR Communications education and work experience
Would hire from another field
Alice H. PR firm/PR Communications education
Would hire from another field
Jim D. Corporation/PR Best match for the job/organization
Would hire in PR only
Maggie C. Corporation/Advertising Communications education and work experience
Would hire in either advertising or PR
Carl C. Ad Agency/Advertising Solid college education Would hire in advertising only
Karen B. Ad Agency/Advertising Communications education
Would hire from another field
Mark N. Ad Agency/Mixed Best match for the job/organization
Would hire from another field
John H. Ad Agency/Advertising Communications education
Would hire in advertising only
Marie B. Non-profit/PR Communications education Would hire in PR only
Sheila Y. Non-profit/PR Best match for the job/organization
Would hire from another field
Leslie C. Non-profit/PR Best match for the job/organization
Would hire from another field
Lana F. Regional Business/Mixed
Best match for the job/organization
Would hire from another field
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Rhonda D. Regional Business/Mixed
Best match for the job/organization
Would hire from another field
Earl L. Boutique/ Mixed Solid college education Would hire from another field Note. Italicized responses represent contradictory answers
These opposing responses suggest that although some employers wish to hire workers
educated in communications, there are exceptions for which they would hire outside their ideal
categories. The data show that although communications fields can be fixed, they also can
encompass many broad aspects and can involve work with various industry types. Therefore, by
having experience or knowledge in a variety of fields of study enhances one’s qualifications that
they can offer employers. Moreover, for employers who have a range of job duties that need to
be filled, workers with broad knowledge can contribute more skills than those with only
communication skills. While employers may desire to hire employees with majors specific to the
job in question, they are willing to work with someone who has a different educational
background and possibly experience in the field.
Job Training and Changes in Communication
Just more than half of the participants believed that job training in communications has
kept up with the trends and changes in their fields. They believe that candidates are taking part in
continuing education and learning technological skills that keep their qualifications current. Jim
D. believes that recent graduates from rigorous public relations programs have kept up with the
trends in his field; job candidates who have been out of school for a few years have gained job
experience that keeps their skills current. Lana F. felt that new graduates have thoroughly learned
communications theory and concepts and also have an expanded knowledge of technology and
graphic design software. Nevertheless, Lana believes that the key to keeping these skills current
47
is to apply them in a real-world workplace, especially in work experiences that are new to recent
graduates.
The participants who responded negatively or ambivalently claimed that students needed
to participate in more internships and work experience to stay abreast of their fields. Mark N. felt
that although a graduate’s skills suggest competence in communications, relevant work
experience seals the deal. Mark N. believes that students should try to gain as many internships
and campus communications opportunities as they can because these jobs prove their talents
versus jobs unrelated to the field (waiter, clerk).This need for previous communications
experience was echoed in the participants’ responses about communication work skills.
Two advertising managers felt that training has not kept up with the trends and changes
in their field. Carl C. claims that public universities have not stayed current with the trends and
changes in the creative side of advertising. He feels that art and portfolio schools prepare
students for the creativity in advertising better than public universities. John H. of advertising felt
that students may keep up with the creative and graphic aspects; however, keeping up with new
theory has not been a strong suit. John believes that having cursory creative knowledge is not
enough; a more theoretical foundation is also needed. These responses suggest that although
students may have first-rate educations upon graduating from four-year colleges or universities,
they should continue to stay abreast of any new knowledge and improvements in their field. In
addition, if graduates want to work in creative advertising, they should hone their creative and
artistic skills in either specialized schools or through work experience.
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Job Duties
Across the board, the participants stated that their employees perform mostly
communications duties.
These job duties include a heavy focus in media strategy, media relations, pitching and
promotion, producing collateral, message development and strategy, creating presentations and
crisis management for public relations employees. For advertising employees, job duties mostly
include media strategy and placement, graphic design and research. Employees of mixed
departments mostly perform media relations, community relations and Website duties. In
addition, public relations employees in non-profits have duties which include media relations,
pitching stories to the media, and producing collateral pieces, all of which are typical public
relations duties. For the most part, the participants’ employees are performing job duties typical
of their respective field. This suggests that many of the participants are not utilizing integrated
approaches in their daily job duties and tasks.
Table 4. Main Job Responsibilities Duties Total
Number ofResponses
Advertising Responses
Public Relations Responses
Mixed Department Responses
Media strategies/placement 9 4 4 1 Media relations 8 5 3 Pitching stories to media/persuasion 5 5 Research 4 2 1 1 Promotion 4 3 1 Graphic design 4 2 1 1 Producing collateral (brochures, postcards)
3 2 1
Message development/strategy 3 2 1 TOTAL 40 8 23 9 Note. Refer to Appendix L for complete list of responses.
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Only four employers stated that their employees do not perform job duties outside their
written job descriptions. The other employers commented on the actual duties that their
employees take on outside their individual responsibilities, including mixed department and
public relations employees producing collateral pieces and communications strategy. Gower and
Reber (2003) suggest that producing collateral and communications strategy are also part of
public relations duties, which mixed departments incorporate; therefore most of the participants’
employees do not take on outside duties. However, in response to this measure, product testing is
performed by public relations departments as well as advertising departments performing event
planning duties. In addition, mixed departments are also taking on marketing duties, which
suggest these extra duties are not related to their respective communications field.
Employers vary on the reasons why their employees take on extra job duties. Maggie C.
believes communications workers can possess a bevy of skills that can be utilized in various
capacities and departments. Mark N. claims that employees should have an initiative to pitch in
with other duties after their priorities are completed. Meanwhile, Clint M. believes that smaller
companies have to share responsibilities across various skill sets. Clint said, “With a smaller core
group of people, you have people doing a little bit of everything across the board. Sometimes
that is a more junior person taking a greater role in developing strategy for a client. At the same
time, it’s a more senior person doing production things like putting together mailers.” However,
while most of the participants work for companies with 100 employees or less, four participants
claimed that none of their employees take on job duties outside their own. The other participants,
from both small and large businesses, reported that their employees take on extra job duties. This
suggests that both smaller and larger business employees often perform extra responsibilities.
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When asked if their employees’ job duties ever cross into other fields (advertising into
public relations, public relations into marketing), most of the advertising department managers
replied that their employees’ duties cross into public relations or marketing. Conversely, six
participants replied that their duties do not cross into other fields. Of those six participants, three
worked in public relations firms. The participants from the public relations departments replied
that budget concerns and outsourcing advertising work are the main reasons for their separations.
Companies whose employees’ job duties did cross into other fields cited that their
departments helped others that were short staffed and that each field could trade skills to get the
best person for the job from another department. In addition, by crossing over, each field could
give and receive different viewpoints on issues. Also, similar departments that use
communications have common characteristics, so ideas and duties could be merged. However,
some duties are still specific to certain fields. Job crossover also depends on how visible one
wants their message to be, so other fields may be called upon for extra manpower to produce
better strategy.
This suggests that many communications fields share common skills and needs.
However, the three public relations department managers did have duties outside their
departments, suggesting that separated duties may only be a trend within firms and not for in-
house departments.
Most participants allow their employees to give input on their delegated tasks and yearly
goals and objectives. Many participants commented that their employees have some input over
the job tasks and duties assigned to them. This shows a willingness of employers to consider
suggestions about methods for performing job duties as well as new ideas recommended by
employees. Moreover, advertising managers responded that they delegate more tasks to
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employees without considering feedback or suggestions, whereas public relations managers
allow for feedback and suggestions from their employees.
Integrated Marketing Communication
Definitions of Advertising and Public Relations
Each participant was asked to give his or her personal definitions of the terms advertising
and public relations. A number of participants mentioned the following words and phrases in
their definitions of advertising: paid, brands or brand promise, message to target audience or
market, controlled content, and guaranteed placement. Collectively, the employers believed that
advertising involves paid messages with controlled content whose placement is guaranteed and
that is directed at a target audience to make them aware of a brand or brand promise.
Karen B. defined advertising as the “art of communicating a product or service’s brand
promise to its potential customers” by paying for media placement. Sheila Y. of public relations
stated, “Advertising is more when you’re selling an idea, a brand, a concept and that usually you
have some…call to action. You want them to buy your product; you want them to call a phone
number.”
The collective definition coincided with Richards and Curran’s (2002) definition of
advertising as a field that seeks to influence consumers’ thoughts or actions through purchased,
moderated messages whose source and intent are recognized. A few employers also mentioned
that advertising means selling products creatively.
A number of participants mentioned the following words and phrases when defining
public relations: free or unpaid, many media outlets, audience, community, visibility, managing
images, uncontrolled, not guaranteed, and brand or brand promise. Collectively, the employers
52
believe that public relations is distributing unpaid, uncontrolled, non-guaranteed messages to
specific audiences through a variety of media outlets in order to bring visibility and manage the
brand image or exhibit brand promise; public relations also involves community relations.
Community relations, according to Jim D., refers to gaining and giving sponsorships and
donations to community organizations. Jim D. said his company strives to have each branch of
his organization “link back to their individual community”. Clint M. thinks of community
relations as being members of various organizations that can support one’s business. Clint M.
said, “You’re putting people at the front of different groups to create mind share among those
audiences to develop an overall brand…or some type of legislative cause so that you have
integrated communications that all are working toward the same goal.”
This collective definition only relates to a portion of Pardun and McKee’s’ (1999)
definition, which states that public relations develops and maintains relationships with publics
through media and communication. The following phrases were mentioned once each in the
employers’ definitions: changing audience’s thinking/opinion, developing messages to compel
the media, collaborative processes, not one-way communication, earned media, can involve paid
advertising, internal and external communication, selling factually, and media relations. Public
relations department managers Jim D., Kelly G., and Maggie C. also commented that public
relations is broader than advertising. Maggie C. believes that public relations reaches target
audiences like advertising does, yet many media outlets, such as news media, paid advertising,
and collateral, are utilized. “It’s really managing the image of the company publicly,” Maggie
said.
Employers overwhelmingly believe that both advertising and public relations relate to
brand awareness and promotion. Whether the promotional technique is creative or editorial, the
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main goal is to make publics or audiences aware of a brand. In some respects, this public
relations definition relates to Lane and Russell’s (2001) definition of advertising, which claims
that advertising is about brand image and profit building. In addition to two participants
mentioning community relations, only one employer (Lana F.) mentioned communicating with
internal and external publics in her description of public relations, which are tenets noted in
works by Botan and Soto (1998) and Hendrix (2004).
These responses allude to the graying of the tenets related to each field. In this case, the
main goal of both fields is to get a message out to promote brands or organizational images
through several media outlets. Clint M. stated that advertising and public relations work toward
the same results; the difference between the fields is that advertising is facilitated through paid
media. Jim D. stated, “Advertising…is any paid media. If you’re paying for an advertorial…that
kind of crosses the line; that’s not called advertising.” John H. believed that advertising and
public relations both intend to sell products or services, but “advertising generally has more of a
creative soul, and PR is typically less creative and more factually based.” Mark N. stated,
“Advertising is communication your pay for; public relations is communication you pray for.”
Other facets of public relations such as two-way communication, crisis management, or issues
management were never mentioned. Although a few employers mentioned community outreach
and that public relations was broader than advertising, the focus centered on message delivery,
brand visibility and image.
Definitions of Integrated Marketing Communication
Most employers were familiar with the term Integrated Marketing Communication (IMC)
before their interviews. Some participants (one corporation manager, one advertising manager,
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and two non-profit managers) knew the concept of IMC, but had referred to it using other titles
(strategic marketing, integrated communication).
In defining IMC, the employers generally submitted a similar definition. Collectively,
their responses revealed that IMC means combining all types of communications fields—
advertising, public relations, marketing, traditional media, online—to collaboratively work to
create common messages, develop a common strategy or work toward a common end. This
confirms the study’s proposed definition of IMC—a collaborative effort among advertising,
public relations and marketing used to streamline communications processes and provide all-
inclusive communication concepts and strategies for clients and brands.
The participants also mentioned other phrases as part of their individual IMC definitions.
Carl C. stated that agencies are spending less money on traditional media, so IMC helps them
find cheaper, yet creative ways to carry out communication tasks. This point coincides with
Caywood’s (1997) argument that IMC helps businesses simplify their practices and save money
in the process.
Mark N. stated, “I’ve been in the business 30 years, and it’s something that everybody’s
worked on for that whole period of time. So, [IMC is] nothing new—just dressed up in new
clothes.” His statement corresponds with studies by Schultz and Kitchen (1997) and Reber et al.
(2003) that IMC has been utilized since before the 1970s and 1980s. Mark also commented that
IMC is great in theory, but it is hard to implement tactically. This argument relates to
Cornelissen and Lock’s (2000) rationale that IMC lacks theory, procedures and research
techniques as well as Kitchen’s (2005) argument that IMC, like other communication forms,
cannot be measured accurately, so measuring effectiveness is difficult.
55
John H. said, “It’s the recognition that the disciplines have begun to overlap as opposed
to in the past [when] the disciplines seldom has any relevance to each other, even though they
might be on the same account or client. This point correlates with Kitchen (2005) and Pasadeos
(2000) that IMC brings the best of both communication worlds together and with the studies of
Cook (1997) which states that IMC offers more comprehensive communications options.
IMC Implementation
All participants who worked for distinct advertising or public relations departments were
asked if their organization housed a separate department for the opposite field. Less than half of
the organizations had no opposite communications departments, three of those being public
relations firms. Kelly G. stated that her firm did not believe in merging advertising and public
relations. Alice H. said that her firm would probably work with an advertising agency if the need
arose; however, her staff would not perform advertising duties in-house.
Because all three public relations firm managers stated that they have no advertising
functions, this reflects previous research that public relations firms are more opposed to the
union of the two fields than advertising firms as proposed by Griffin and Pasadeos (1998),
Kitchen (2005) and Reber et al. (2003). Many professors believe that IMC focuses more on the
marketing and advertising side of the business rather than the wide range of management
functions that public relations addresses. Public relations incorporates many relationship building
functions with various internal and external publics while advertising and marketing deal mostly
externally (Botan & Soto, 1998).
Nevertheless, when asked if each company utilized IMC, most employers replied “yes”.
Of these employers, two were from public relations firms, one was an advertising employer, and
56
one was a boutique manager. These respondents previously stated that they did not have separate
advertising functions in their companies. This suggests that separated firms are using IMC in
their communications efforts, even if they do not have additional divisions for the opposite field.
Alice H., said, “In some experiences, we have done that, but…the accounts that I simply work
on, the budget’s limited, and we haven’t done a lot of that.” Kelly G. replied that her firm does
not believe in mixing the two fields. Sheila Y. had never heard of IMC before the study. These
three responses also show public relations practitioners’ opposition to IMC.
The participants who replied “yes” believed that IMC is a strategic source for clients, it
helps clients work toward larger business goals, and it keeps consistent messages across media
outlets. IMC also keeps each discipline informed of what the other is doing, helps clients who
understand advertising as a concept but not necessarily public relations, and supports paid media
with free media and vice versa.
Most of the employers interviewed used IMC at least half of the time in communications
ventures. On average, boutiques, regional businesses and corporations utilized IMC in their
workplaces the most. Public relations and advertising firms used it the least, possibly because of
the struggle to keep each discipline separate and the difficulty in implementation as stated in
previous responses.
Clint M. wants his firm to offer each client all possible communications means to attain
their larger business goals, and IMC has become a strategic resource for his company. He said:
We view our role as very much a strategic resource for our clients.
When we begin a relationship with a client, we want to have as
much access to the executive team as possible, understand the
business objectives, [and] understand the desired results. Typically
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if somebody comes in and they’re a public relations inside person
or a marketing inside person, we want a media relations program,
we want to put some press releases out, [but] that is not what we
typically like to do. There are shops out there that do pure
publicity, that just deal with those marketing reps and write press
releases and pump them out trying to get coverage in local papers.
But we really do view our role as more of an integrated
component, wanting to work towards the larger business issues at
hand.
John H. stated that his firm uses IMC only when it is needed; there are some instances
when his firm is not hired to utilize all facets of IMC, so it is implemented as the client warrants
it. Mark N. desires to use IMC 100 percent of the time; however, he feels he must assess the need
for IMC for each client, which allows him to use IMC less than he would like. Shimp (2000)
supports Mark N.’s comments, stating that IMC should be used on a case by case basis
depending upon clients’ needs.
In addition, mixed departments use IMC 79 percent of the time, a great deal more than
public relations firms and advertising agencies. The mixed departments are probably more likely
to use IMC possibly because they already use the fields collectively more so than advertising
agencies or public relations firms. Non-profits use IMC 68 percent of the time, stating that
budget concerns and the need to keep their media relations and reputations positive as their
rationale.
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Table 5. Percent of IMC Utilized Name Company
/Department type Number of Employees Total
Percent of IMC Utilized
Average (Company Type )
Clint M. PR firm/PR 10 100% Kelly G. PR firm/PR 10 Does not use IMC Alice H. PR firm/PR 170 20%
60%
Jim D. Corporation/PR 30,000 75% Maggie C. Corporation/
Advertising 9,000 70%
73%
Carl C. Ad Agency/ Advertising
1 15%
Karen B. Ad Agency/ Advertising
18 100%
Mark N. Ad Agency/ Mixed
29 50%
John H. Ad Agency/ Advertising
12-15 50-60% (55% used in average)
55%
Marie B. Non-profit/PR 83 100% Sheila Y. Non-profit/PR 20 Does not use IMC Leslie C.
Non-profit/PR 150 30-40% (35% used in average)
68%
Lana F. Regional Business/ Mixed
425 75%
Rhonda D.
Regional Business/ Mixed
50 90%
83%
Earl L. Boutique/ Mixed 3 100% 100% AVERAGE FOR ALL 13 PARTICIPANTS
68%
Categorized by Department Types Advertising
Responses Public Relations Responses
Mixed Department Responses
Average 60% 66% 79% Minimum 15% 20% 50% Maximum 100% 100% 100% Note. Alice H. is included in this question because her firm has used IMC in some instances.
The percentage levels for public relations and advertising is relatively aligned with
Schultz and Kitchen’s (1997) study, which showed that most agencies use IMC to some extent
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regardless of size and that one quarter of their sample used it 75 percent of the time. Moreover
Schultz and Kitchen (1997) found that companies of smaller size use IMC more than larger ones.
The participants who worked for companies with less than 100 employees used IMC between 50
to 100 percent. In fact, almost half of them used IMC at least 90 percent. Conversely, the
participants with more than 100 employees used IMC between 20 and 75 percent, with more than
half of them using it more than 70 percent. These findings show that IMC is utilized by both
small and large businesses and that most of them are using it for at least half of their
communications efforts.
Improvements and Hindrances of IMC
Of the 13 participants who use IMC, almost all of them believe that IMC has bettered
their communications. Most of these employers feel that IMC has improved their company’s
communications efforts. Jim D. mentioned that IMC provides the same message and talking
points for each communication field and other departments. He also noted that IMC addresses a
number of business objectives outside the message strategy, which Reber et al. (2003) confirm.
Jim D. stated, “Managers need to [talk] about the same stuff that corporate is talking about and
that senior management is talking about or you aren’t going to hit your goals of the company. If
that communications plan is not linked, then I don’t think you can go where you want your
company to go.”
Karen B. said that her clients recognize the benefits of communicating from a single
source or coordinated communications efforts, even if they are not aware of the actual term. “If
the PR person is next door or just down the hall, and so is the media person, if I’ve found an
opportunity, it’s very easy for me to go and suggest it to the public relations people and they do
60
the same. So, it enables us to uncover new opportunities for our clients that neither one of us
would have found on our own,” Karen said. These two rationales coincide with Caywood’s
(1997) push for IMC’s ability to bring communications together as one unit to issue messages.
Low (2000) also defined IMC as bringing uniformity to communication attempts. Karen B. also
felt that IMC gives smaller agencies a leg up over the services that larger agencies provide,
which is confirmed by Schultz and Kitchen (1997) who believe that smaller agencies benefit
more from IMC because they can cut costs and combine their services.
Lana F. noted that IMC cuts down on overhead and hiring extra workers, which was
confirmed by Griffin and Pasadeos (1998) who state that IMC brings about better returns on
investment and helps communications departments save money. Lana F. also said, “[IMC] has
also made us more efficient…with productivity…that if someone calls here and I’m not here,
either of [my employees] can step in and assist them. We all have the capability of crossing over
and helping each other out with the skills we have in the department.” Kitchen (2005) echoed
this rationale, claiming that IMC brings the strongest parts of each communication field together
to support weak areas of the other field. These two reasons also hark back to the Kitchen’s
(2005) idea that IMC provides combined communication efforts. Hiring workers with combined
skills in advertising and public relations and the two disciplines dovetailing their strengths and
weaknesses is also part of the coordinated communications objective of IMC (Kitchen, 2005).
Some employers felt IMC’s greatest benefit was its ability to capture the same message
across disciplines. This means that advertisements as well as public relations collateral and
promotional efforts all put forth the same message without duplicating methods. Marie B. of
public relations stated, “Because your message is the same no matter what your tool is …your
advertising message better be coordinated with your public relations message or you’re going to
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end up with a fractured message out there, which undermines the whole purpose of
communicating.” In addition, clients can see and appreciate the extra benefits of IMC for their
communication efforts.
Some participants felt neutral about IMC’s effects. Leslie C. felt that IMC can be
beneficial because it allows workers in each field to know what the other is saying, but she still
felt ambivalent about its effects. Carl C. felt that communication is in evolution and that
measuring the success of IMC is difficult at this stage in its development. Cornelissen and Lock
(2000) also believe that IMC lacks theory, foundations and measurability, yet Kitchen (2005)
states that most communications effects cannot be measured. Also, Gould (2000) states that IMC
is inductive and qualitative and cannot be measured numerically, like most facets of
communication.
A few participants showed ambivalence toward IMC improving their business. Clint M.
felt that today’s public relations is more than media relations (as it was traditionally), and now
that it incorporates more client options, IMC is not needed in all-inclusive public relations firms.
“Twenty years ago, if you had asked people in the industry what public relations was about,
you’d probably get a lot more of the word about media relations,” Clint M. said. “Now it’s really
more about helping to push an overall business’ strategy and meet its basic business objectives.”
Leslie C. felt that in certain instances, public relations should maintain its credibility with the
media. Combining sales and advertising in with public relations can hurt media-based
reputations. However, in some cases, when working with promotional tools and events,
advertising and public relations can merge to create an effective strategy. These arguments
follow public relations proponents’ views that public relations involves more than sales and that
IMC takes away from building vital relationships, specifically with the media. Mark N. said that
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IMC sounds great conceptually, but for some businesses (especially larger entities), it can be
hard to coordinate. This notion is refuted by Ries and Ries (2002) who show the benefits of IMC
for large conglomerates. Larger businesses are looking for ways to introduce their products
uniquely, and IMC can provide that solution.
Two participants shared that IMC hinders their communication strategy. Carl C. stated
the IMC has hurt his business because his clients and staff do not always understand new ideas
such as IMC, so he would rather not use it in their communications strategies. Most clients and
consumers do not know the difference between advertising and public relations (Low, 2000). So
combining the fields would be unknown to them. However, Shimp (2000) believes that
practitioners of IMC should consider clients’ wants and needs before its implementation. Alice
H. believed that her more established clientele expected top-shelf media relations and interaction
with the media. She said, “We actually have a lot of clients that have been with us 30 years or
more, and when they think of us, they think about public relations.” Alice H. stated that IMC
may work for some businesses, but for her company’s role in public relations, IMC is a
hindrance.
The two employers who did not incorporate IMC into their business had two different
opinions about the concept. Kelly G. stated that she does not use IMC because it hurts her
reputation as a factual content provider to media outlets, as in Alice H.’s opinion. Kelly G.
stated:
Our reputation with media relations in the industry is predicated on
having good news stories and having that good content that we
pitch to radio stations, and we find that if we did advertising, that
would dilute the effectiveness of our media relations efforts. I
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don’t see in our particular circumstance that it would do anything
positive for our clients, but it would actually harm our clients in
that it would damage our reputation with the media as a content
provider. So we’ve stayed as far away from that as possible.
On the other hand, Sheila Y. believed that although her company is not presently using
IMC, they are now considering it. She stated that staff members are looking into the concept to
see if it will work well with their budget, their clients and their media goals; she believes IMC
can only be a benefit to their business, not a hindrance. Sheila’s feelings work well with Shimp’s
(2000) recommendations to assess clients’ needs before implementing IMC. Sheila Y. stated:
In the changing world, how you sell your message is changing.
People are bombarded with stuff daily whether it’s a popup on
their computer, whether it’s something left on their voicemail,
whether it’s a commercial they’re seeing on TV…, we’re just
bombarded with information all the time, and I think people have
to use different strategies to get their message out. And I think this
is probably a smart way to do it, by bringing all three of those
things together and working to get the highest results that you can.
So I think it makes sense.
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The Future of IMC
When asked if more employers in the future would implement IMC in their
communications efforts, only one employer felt that they should not.
Public relations manager Kelly G. stated that IMC dilutes each communications field, and
no one person can specialize in one area with it in place. She felt that public relations,
advertising and marketing education were separated for a reason—the skills and objectives are
inherently different in each field. Kelly also said that IMC is a detriment to communications
workers’ reputations, especially to those in public relations. She offered to following example to
illustrate her point:
If, for instance, you have a story that you are pitching to the media
on an [event] that’s taking place locally, and at the same time you
have a marketing campaign that’s going on and an advertising
campaign that’s going on. You are individually pitching the story
to a radio station to try to get in their community calendar, but at
the same time, you have someone on your staff that’s trying to
pitch them on the sales side. You will hear from the radio station,
“If you’re willing to pay for this, why should I run the public
service announcement for free?” So I think that’s why we’ve made
sort of a clear line in the sand where we say we’re going to have
good content, and we’re going to focus on earned media for our
clients. We’re going to leave sales, marketing and other things to
people that do that in a separate kind of fashion than we do.
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Kelly G.’s views coincide with Griffin and Pasadeos’ (1998) theory that more public
relations educators are averse to IMC than advertising managers. They feel that IMC is geared
more toward advertising, which focuses mostly on selling products for profit. This mode of
thinking cuts out the other important aspects of public relations—exclusive media relations,
relationship building, and more.
A few employers were undecided about IMC’s future. Alice H. believed that the use of
IMC should be dependent upon the type of account her firm is working on and what kind of
message the client wants to render as in Shimp’s (2000) recommendation. She stated, “If there’s
really a hot issue, you may not have to spend the money to do the advertising and marketing
because it’s already generating PR, and you can build upon that.” Along those same lines, Leslie
C. believed that for-profit companies would benefit from IMC, while non-profits that have
relationships with the media would harm those connections with IMC. “Our media partners that
we work with on a regular basis [should] understand that I’m giving them news and not just
trying to flat out market the institution,” Leslie C. said. Karen B. stated that IMC is hard to
implement, especially for large companies; however, IMC is a break for smaller companies who
want to capture more of their client’s budget and who can offer niche communication as
proposed by Schultz and Kitchen (1997) and Griffin and Pasadeos (1998).
For the several participants who believed IMC is the way of the communications future,
the most common rationale was that IMC coordinates messages across the fields as in Richards
and Curran (2002) and Wilcox et al.’s (2003) analyses. Marie B. stated:
66
I think that people used to believe that advertising and public
relations were two totally separate activities, and they’re not.
Essentially, the product is the same—if your message is the
product—and you’re trying to get it out there. It doesn’t matter if
you’re shipping it on a train or carrying it on an airplane. It ought
to be the same product and that train and that airplane ought to be
working toward the same goal.
Clint M. also said:
I think that it’s a foregone conclusion that smart business people
recognized the value of an integrated approach. The same is true
for external audiences as it is for internal audiences, for their
shareholders, for their customers, for their business partners. To
create a transparency in their environment so all the audiences are
hearing the same story and understand the direction the company is
taking is invaluable.
The participants also cited that with emerging technology and the advent of the Internet,
the media are already headed toward integrated approaches across technical lines as reported by
Cornelissen and Lock (2000) and Schultz and Kitchen (1997). Carl C. noted that changes in
media outlets, especially in cable television and satellite radio, continue to evolve, making the
concepts of traditional advertising and public relations obsolete. In this same vein, clients are
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more apt to want the latest nuance in communications, believing that they can compete with
more companies with less traditional strategies. In addition, IMC helps companies communicate
more efficiently not only with their external clients, but also with internal ones.
Most participants agree that IMC will be an asset to the future of communications. By
allowing all communicators to craft and/or be aware of a common message strategy, IMC
bridges the gap between different messages that may come from both fields. Although IMC may
not focus specifically on media, it can mix pure media content and promotional content into one
campaign strategy for a greater impact on any targeted audience or public.
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CHAPTER 5: DISCUSSION
Communications Skills and Technology
This applied research study revealed that strong knowledge and skills of oral and written
communications are needed in the communication workplace. These attributes are used in both
advertising and public relations and were cited frequently by the participants from all business
and department types. Richards and Curran (2002) as well as Wilcox et al. (2003) stressed that
one of the main goals of advertising and public relations is to construct and deliver messages to
targeted audiences and publics. Benigni and Cameron (1999) state that public relations
campaigns classes implement the real-world experience of message and media strategies.
Slayden et al. (1998) state that employers are looking for workers who can conceptualize
advertising ideas as well as build business relationships. In addition, Duncan et al. (1993)
proposed an IMC lesson plan that focuses on verbal and written communication for any
integrated program. These job skills align with the need for superior written and oral
communications skills among new graduates and employees.
Also, knowledge of technology was cited as an emerging skill that communications
employees should possess and that spans both fields. Participants felt that employees should stay
abreast of new media outlets, graphic design programs, blogs and chat rooms to improve the
communications efforts in their offices. Gower and Reber (2003) stated that writing and graphic
design were two important aspects of converged communication education, even before the
1980s. They also stated that the 1999 Commission on Public Relations Education proposed that
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students learn written and oral communications as well as technological skills (Gower & Reber,
2003). IMC helps communicators transition from using traditional media outlets to more high-
tech ones (Cornelissen & Lock, 2000). John H. alluded to the advent of Website design and new
media in the communications workplace. He stated that older forms of advertising such as print
are being replaced by the “digital delivery of advertising and PR”. Electronic dissemination
efforts help communication workers distribute their messages faster than before, especially when
used with IMC (Schultz & Kitchen, 1997).
This signals to new graduates looking for their first communications jobs that they should
be well versed in communicating in both written and verbal forms as well as have some
knowledge of technology. Moreover, students should also improve their organizational skills,
event planning skills, self motivational skills, inquisitive nature, and their ability to multitask.
Griffin and Pasadeos (1998) stated that advertising and public relations can be learned on the job
and not necessarily in a classroom setting, supporting the need for previous work experience to
hone all communications skills. Ahles and Bosworth (2004) stated that new grads need to learn
other non-tactical skills—timeliness, team building, how to interact with others—in real world
situations. These characteristics were mentioned among employers of various business types,
showing that these skills are universal and can be used among any of the six business types in
this study.
The aforementioned skills were mentioned several times among most of the participants.
These results show that the most needed job skills for communications students to have in
today’s communications work place are strong writing skills and oral communications skills, as
well as an in-depth knowledge of technological nuances. In addition, general work characteristics
that new employees should possess include organizational skills, event planning skills, self
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motivational skills, inquisitive nature, and the ability to multitask. These skills and
characteristics will adequately prepare job candidates for employment in communications fields,
whether it is in public relations, advertising or in mixed departments.
In addition, students and communications employees must continually educate and
refresh their communications training to keep up with trends and changes in their respective
fields, especially those in advertising who need to stay abreast of new graphics programs and
design nuances. Many participants in the study valued employees who participated in continuing
education and additional training while working for their company. By keeping one’s job skills
refreshed and current, an applicant can enhance his or her chances of being hired in addition to
performing well on the job.
Overall, employees have to have the basic oral and written communications skills, which
are shared across fields. Because these are the most sought after skills by both advertising and
public relations employers, this supports the need for converged communications in the
workplace. These two qualifications represent the similarities of advertising and public relations
and the skills employees must have to be successful in both areas. Griffin and Pasadeos (1998)
support Clint M.’s responses, stating that students should be involved in a variety of
communications classes as well as several liberal arts and humanities courses. In addition, Reber
et al. (2003) also believe that students should take a combination of communications courses for
a more varied education. Although some advertising participants in this study noted that they
value creative thinking and attention to detail in employees, many mixed departments stated that
oral and written communications were important to their work. These answers suggest that oral
and written communications are the backbone of any successful communication task, especially
in message development, which is one of the main tenets that IMC promotes. By honing these
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two skills, along with real-world experience through internships, campus groups, or jobs,
employees can be successful in a converged workplace.
This study contributes to a normative theory of IMC education. Applying this theory, a
proposed curriculum for IMC in education should include a strong focus on written and oral
communication skills as well as an incorporation of technological changes in communication
(Heath & Bryant, 2000). Educators should provide their students with more opportunities to
master graphic design skills and to learn more about how to use the Internet effectively in
communication. In addition, by allowing students to study more than one communications realm,
educators will prepare them for possible work in an integrated workplace.
Work Experience and Education
Previous work experience was one of the most noted qualifications mentioned by
participants. The employers felt that in fast-paced work environments, they did not have time to
train new workers. Also, participants noted that they needed new employees to begin working as
soon as possible on their assigned duties, so having previous experiences in their new jobs would
allow them to start working sooner than employees who needed training.
Participants noted that employees who have college degrees, even if those degrees are in
communications, are only footing half the bill. Participants were deadlocked over whether
employees needed communication educations or if they could possess other majors. Most
participants stated that they would hire employees from other fields, believing that broader
scopes of knowledge and varied experiences benefit communications employees. Just more than
half of the participants believed that a students’ educational training helps them keep up with
trends and changes in their fields, especially trends in theory, creative concepts or graphic
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design. However, in almost all the responses to questions concerning educational requirements,
most employers reiterated the need for comparable experience as an extension of education. An
employee’s major is not as important to communications employers as previous communications
experiences.
Of the three department types, public relations managers mentioned having previous job
experience the most in their responses; advertising departments responded the least. These
results show that advertising participants value certain skill sets (creative abilities, conceptual
abilities) more than previous experience. Nevertheless, participants in mixed departments that
use both advertising and public relations mentioned that previous experience was an important
factor in hiring. This finding shows that practical experience in communications is a great
advantage for job candidates, whether they work in advertising, public relations or mixed
departments. In addition, since previous experience is important to mixed departments, job
candidates who have experience in either advertising or public relations can possibly crossover
into the opposite field or mixed departments because they have communications experience.
Having previous job experience in communications is one of the best ways for entry-level
employees to prepare for communications positions, whether they are working in converged or
separated fields. Benigni and Cameron (1999) state that campaigns classes give students real-
world experience in public relations. In addition, Slayden et al. (1998) believe that advertising
students should fill their portfolios with work from actual advertising jobs, not just pieces created
as a part of coursework. Bylines and stories, portfolios of creative concepts, and other
communications pieces from real-world job experiences help employers see that a new employee
has taken his or her classroom knowledge and applied it to a real situation. These real-world
experiences can come from internships, campus publications or news stations, or campus
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organizations. While honing skills specific to each field is important, as long as employees have
real-world training, they will have advantages over other candidates who have only classroom
training.
IMC’s Effects in the Workplace
Most of the participants stated that their employees do not carry out tasks that are
unrelated to communications. However, many participants agreed that their employees’ duties
cross into other communications fields. Those participants, including four advertising employers,
noted that their employees’ duties cross into other fields because some employees have superior
skills in other fields that can be utilized across department lines. Also, employees who work in
smaller companies have to work in several capacities. Caywood (1997) argues that smaller
companies frequently have to combine services and departments to save money and to decrease
manpower. In addition, employees from one department can give new perspectives to issues in
other divisions, and similar departments have some similar roles that can be filled by workers
outside of their function. Kitchen (2005) asserts that IMC allows employees to share their
strongest assets across departments to create well-built communication strategies that would be
weaker if the departments acted alone.
The public relations firm employers stated that their employees’ duties did not span other
communications fields, yet participants from various public relations departments did perform
tasks that were not associated with public relations. As predicted by Griffin and Pasadeos (1998),
Kitchen (2005), Reber et al. (2003), and Pasadeos (2000), more public relations professionals are
opposed to IMC than advertising professionals.
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In addition, most participants allow their employees to give feedback or make
recommendations when delegating job assignments. Although most advertising departments do
not allow feedback, mixed departments welcomed it from their employees, showing that some
input is being given on advertising tasks. In addition, the public relations managers welcomed
suggestions from their employees, utilizing two-way communication even in the workplace. This
supports Pardun and McKee’s (1999) statement that public relations utilizes two-way
communications practices, even among colleagues.
These results show that among most of the communications departments in this study,
most of them are working in converged environments. Although the public relations firms are
not sharing or receiving help from outside departments, public relations departments and other
department types are welcoming skills from other communications fields. These findings support
the need for convergence in the workplace because IMC allows employees to make the most of
their skills—whether they are communications-oriented or otherwise—and use them to the
benefit of their organization. This is especially important for employees who may work in rote
positions but have underlying talents that can be showcased in other fields.
Kitchen (2005) stated that IMC can strengthen weak areas of one discipline with the
strong areas of the other. Also, Low (2000) stated that there are several similarities in
communications forms. Pasadeos (2000) claimed that IMC can maximize the influence that a
message or strategy has over the public. Employers recognized the benefits of collaborative
efforts in advertising and public relations, citing many of the reasons proposed by scholars. The
crossover of duties also benefits the company because it allows employees to know what is
happening in several departments and not be confined to the knowledge of his or her home base.
Although most of the public relations participants in this study reported that their employees only
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perform public relations duties, many of them reported that they use IMC in some capacity.
Therefore, future public relations employees should be prepared with a variety of skills and
backgrounds for converged communications within the public relations field.
Most participants were willing to let their employees function in other departments or in
outside roles. Furthermore, allowing feedback from employees shows that converged workplaces
are favorable. By allowing employees to suggest assignments or job duties, employees who have
intiative can suggest methods or practices from other communications fields for their daily tasks.
In addition to crossover duties in advertising and public relations, most participants had
used IMC in their communications work. Although less than half of the participants said that
they did not have separated advertising and public relations functions; however, most
participants stated that they used IMC. In fact, most participants used IMC at least half of the
time in their departments or businesses. These results show that most public relations or
advertising firms implemented IMC into their business practices and supported converged
workplaces in some or most cases. Regardless of business or department type, the convergence
of advertising and public relations was evident in many businesses in this study.
Moreover, the collective definitions for advertising and public relations were very
similar, exhibiting the focus on brand imaging and promotion in both fields. These similar
definitions show that the two fields are already converging. The convergence is evident in Leslie
C.’s comment about promotional events that straddle the line between advertising and public
relations and Jim D.’s comment that defines advertorials as a possible converged media strategy.
In addition, the definitions also show the need for convergence in the future because both fields
are focusing on brand images and brand promise. This supports the idea that IMC is more
focused on branding and profits than relationship building aspects of public relations. Although
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public relations should still focus on those relationship building factors, a trend toward stronger
brand building and image building is evident. Therefore, public relations managers should take
advantage of converged workplaces.
Also, the participants rendered similar responses for their individual definitions of IMC.
Their collective definition was akin to the one created for this study, in that both noted the
collaborative methods among media outlets and departments for common message strategy and
goals. These thoughts show that most participants had a similar notion of what IMC meant and
how it can be implemented in a communications workplace.
Most participants believed that IMC bettered their businesses, and many believed that it
improved their communication. The participants felt that IMC helps them send a common
message through various departments and media outlets and that it offers clients more ways to
communicate than through traditional media or one communication field alone. Recent
technological advancements give communications employees more options of how to
disseminate their messages. IMC helps make that transition easier because it incorporates a
variety of media outlets and strategies (Cornelissen & Lock, 2000). Also, because the recent
wave of niche consumer markets and the snubbing of blatant mass media promotions, IMC
offers several communications options that focus on niche consumers who also may be avoiding
obvious advertising approaches (Caywood, 1997).
IMC also helps businesses reach long-term business goals as well as gives smaller
businesses advantages over larger ones because they can offer more services. In addition,
converged workplaces help businesses capture more of one client’s communications budget as
well as hire fewer communications workers. Furthermore, IMC allows the strengths of one
department to make up for the weaknesses in another, improving communications in all facets. It
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also allows businesses, regardless of size, to find creative avenues to launch their brands or
promote their images.
Despite these advantages, IMC can have some disadvantages if not used properly.
Because of the desire for some communications fields to maintain their credibility with the
media, converged communications could possibly work better for in-house departments. Kelly
G. proposed a valid point by saying that IMC can provide overlaps in dueling messages being
sent to competing media outlets. If the in-house departments consider each client’s needs on a
case-by-case basis, the need for media credibility can be determined. However, a public relations
firm would have to differentiate its media pitches from promotional techniques to maintain their
credibility.
The best way for employers to implement IMC or converged communication for a
positive effect on a company is to ensure that all communication departments have input and that
they are aware of the final strategy to reduce overlapping messages. Also, IMC should not be
implemented unless a client requests certain services or unless a thorough analysis of each
client’s needs is assessed. IMC has many advantages but may not work in all situations.
Nevertheless, its effects on the communications workplace are mainly positive and profitable,
making it a communication trend that will enhance communications ventures for years to come.
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CHAPTER 6: CONCLUSION
Implications
This applied research study holds several implications for several groups.
Communication students and new graduates should hone their oral and written skills as well as
their knowledge of the Internet and graphic design concepts. In fact, sharpening these skills
through practical communications work is possibly the best way to enhance one’s skills as well
as gain the valuable job experience that many communications employers want. In addition,
students should take a variety of communications classes that allow them to learn both
advertising and public relations. Whether or not both skill sets are used in their future careers,
they will always have knowledge of how the other field operates and can draw bits and pieces
from it.
Communications educators should prepare to teach both skills from both fields in their
classrooms. The distinction between the fields’ aspects should be defined, nevertheless, showing
how the fields collaborate will provide their students valuable insight on future uses of their
discipline. Moreover, educators should also teach strong written and verbal communications
skills, which will be utilized in either field.
From this study, employers of advertising and public relations departments should now
be aware of the present use of converged communications as well as a shift to a greater use of
IMC in the future. The use of diverse media outlets and technological advances is arising each
day, which offers communications workers opportunities to target audiences and publics in
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unique ways. Because organizations of various sizes and industries are using IMC, employers
should make sure that IMC can benefit their business goals and clients’ needs. Once the fit for
IMC is determined, communications employers will be able to simplify all their efforts to form
common messages and work toward common goals for their clientele.
This study offers a new perception of IMC to academicians. Because IMC is a fairly new
concept, this study could possibly help solidify the fragile foundation on which some scholars
say IMC is built. Possible means of implementing IMC in the workplace as well as how to
design classroom courses for this field can be lifted from this study. In addition, scholars who
specialize in IMC research can learn communications employers’ perspectives about how IMC
can be used most effectively since most IMC research examines the concept in education.
Limitations and Future Research
In future research, studies similar to this one can implement a greater number of
employer interviews, especially employers that consider their departments advertising entities. In
addition, each employer could have been asked to give examples of situations when IMC worked
or failed. The study could also be improved by uncovering how the employers learned about
IMC and when they were first introduced to it. Also, because this is a qualitative and exploratory
study, the results are not generalizable to the entire population of advertising and public relations
employers.
For future studies, more questions can be asked about marketing and the business side of
IMC. Also, a related study should be developed to address the concerns of advertising and public
relations educators to determine whether they feel IMC or converged education is needed for
80
new graduates and communication workers. In addition, this study serves as the foundation for
future studies that analyze employers’ opinions and usage of IMC.
Conclusion
This study provides valuable insight about the use of IMC by communications employers
as well as the preparation needed by communications job candidates. Candidates that have strong
writing and verbal communications skills as well as knowledge of technology will have a greater
advantage in succeeding in the communications workplace. However, Griffin and Pasadeos
(1998) believe that in addition to education, students should also be equipped to use their
classroom knowledge in future employment. Coupled with relevant job experience, these skills
can give applicants the lead over job candidates who just have classroom training.
Furthermore, communications students should seriously consider educating themselves in
both public relations and advertising, and if possible, IMC, as it is a widely-used concept by the
employers in this study. Whether the department specializes in one field, the use of IMC is
prevalent among all business and department types. IMC has bettered communication for these
employers who attest to its ability to streamline messages, to reach long-term goals, to work for
businesses of any size, and to provide creative ways to disseminate messages. Although, IMC
may seem hurtful to some businesses who value pure media content, IMC definitely has its
advantages if implemented among all of an organization’s communicators.
81
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APPENDICES
Appendix A:
In-depth Interview Guideline
1. Personal Background Information
a. Job Title
b. Company type (non-profit, large corporation, small business)
c. Educational Background (major, specific advertising or PR courses, other related courses,
internships, research interests)
d. Job Experience (previous positions, number of years, duties)
e. First job after college (title, duties, number of years)
f. Number of employees you currently supervise and their positions
2. Hiring Processes (*Based on studies from Walmsley; Johnson and Ross)
a. What are some of the basic skills needed to be hired in your department?
b. Are there any extraordinary skills that candidates can possess that enhance their chances
of being hired?*
c. When interviewing applicants, what educational background(s) do you look for qualified
candidates?*
d. When interviewing applicants, what previous job experiences do you look for qualified
candidates?*
e. What are some of the most desired skills needed in communication fields today?*
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f. What are some of the new skills that job candidates are bringing in on their resumes that
were not considered five years ago?*
g. For advertising managers only: When hiring for advertising positions, would you strictly
hire someone trained in advertising or someone who is trained in another area? Please
explain why or why not.
h. For public relations managers only: When hiring for public relations positions, would you
strictly hire someone trained in public relations or someone who is trained in another
area? Please explain why or why not.
i. Does having a college degree matter in hiring for communications positions? Please
explain.
i. If yes, does having a degree in communications matter in the hiring process?
ii. If no, please explain.
j. How important is job training in a specific field related to what fields employees are
placed to work in?
k. (Based on studies from Benigni and Cameron; Slayden, Broyles and Kendrick; Duncan,
Caywood and Newsom; and Pasadeos) From the recent job candidates you have
interviewed, has the job training that they have received kept up with trends and changes
in your field?
l. (Based on a study by Gower and Reber) How important do you think each of the
following job skills are to public relations? Please rate each item on a scale from 1 to 10,
with 10 meaning “very important” and 1 meaning “least important”.
i. Oral communication skills
ii. Written communication skills
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iii. Planning and organizing
iv. Problem solving and decision making
v. Financial and budgeting skills
vi. Media relations
vii. Community relations
viii. Employee relations
ix. Public relations research design and techniques
x. Setting goals and objectives
xi. Contingency/crisis/disaster planning
xii. Delivering printed communication to publics
xiii. Delivering electronic (audiovisual, multimedia) communication to publics
xiv. Publication design and layout
xv. Message strategy
xvi. Relationship building principles
xvii. Understanding social responsibility/ethics
m. How important do you think each of the following job skills are to advertising? Please
rate each item on a scale from 1 to 10, with 10 meaning “very important” and 1 meaning
“least important”. (Based on a study by Griffin and Pasadeos)
i. Oral communication skills
ii. Written communication skills
iii. Planning and organizing
iv. Problem solving and decision making
v. Financial and budgeting skills
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vi. Conceptual and creative thinking
vii. Knowledge about media outlets/placement options
viii. Media costs
ix. Popular culture
x. Classic culture
xi. Art history
xii. Consumer psychology/purchase decisions
xiii. Publication design and layout
xiv. Message strategy
xv. Understanding social responsibility/ethics
3. Job Duties
a. What are the main job responsibilities of the communication professionals in your
department?
b. What duties, if any, do your employees take on outside of their normal job descriptions?
c. Do your employees’ job duties ever cross over into other fields other than the field they
were hired in (i.e., do advertising duties cross into public relations work)? Please explain
why or why not.
d. How much control does each employee have over his job duties or assignments? Are they
able to choose preferred tasks or are all assignments delegated from management?
4. Integrated Marketing Communication or Strategic Communication (*Based on studies from
Griffin and Pasadeos, Ries and Ries)
a. (Based on definitions from Pardun and McKee; Richards and Curran) Please define each
of the following terms in your own words.
89
i. Advertising
ii. Public Relations
b. (Based on studies by Low; Griffin and Pasadeos; Phelps and Johnson; Cornelissen and
Lock) Have you ever heard of Integrated Marketing Communication or Strategic
Communication?
i. If so, please define each term to the extent of your knowledge.
c. Does your company have any separate advertising and public relations functions?
d. Does your company incorporate IMC or Strategic Communication?
i. If yes, please rate from 0 to 100 percent how often you think it is utilized.*
ii. If yes, do you feel your company is better off because it uses IMC or strategic
communications? Please explain why or why not.
iii. If yes, how has IMC improved or hindered your communication efforts?
iv. If no, has your company ever considered using IMC or Strategic Communication?
Please explain why or why not.
v. If not, do you feel that it is needed for your company? Please explain why or why
not.
e. Do you feel that in the future more companies will begin incorporating IMC or strategic
communication? Please explain why or why not.*
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Appendix B. Basic Skills in Advertising, Public Relations and General Communications Skill Total
Number of Responses
Advertising Responses
Public Relations Responses
Mixed Department Responses
Writing skills 10 2 6 2 Oral communication skills 9 1 4 4 Job/Real-world experience in communications/journalism
5 3 2
Computer/graphic design skills 2 1 1 Sales skills 2 1 1 Communication education 2 1 1 Initiative 2 2 Presenting oneself well 2 1 1 Organizational skills 2 2 TOTAL 36 5 20 11 Note. Other basic skills that received one response each included database management, customer interactions, web surfing skills, event planning, creative thinking, common sense, attention to detail, basic math skills, self motivation, inquisitive nature, ability to work in teams, persuasive skills with the media, relationship building skills, ability to change technical terms to lay terms, and ability to multitask. Appendix C. Extraordinary Skills in Advertising, Public Relations and General Communications Skill Total
Number of Responses
Advertising Responses
Public Relations Responses
Mixed Department Responses
Job/Real-world experience in communications
6 1 3 2
Positive personality/attitude 2 1 1 Graphic design skills 2 1 1 TOTAL 10 1 5 4 Note. Other extraordinary skills that received one response each included possessing a variety of skills, presenting oneself well, interviewing well (job interview), creative thinking, research and analysis skills, ability to work with a variety of media outlets, strong work ethic, interest in the subject matter specific to the job, commitment to supporting organizational mission, writing skills, oral communication skills, leadership skills/experience, ambition, Internet/Web savvy, industry-specific knowledge, media relations, and portfolio/examples of work.
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Appendix D. Most Desired Skills in Advertising, Public Relations and General Communications Skill Total
Number of Responses
Advertising Responses
Public Relations Responses
Mixed Department Responses
Writing skills 6 1 2 3 Oral communications skills 5 1 2 2 Ability to multitask 2 2 Ability to work with a variety of media outlets
2 1 1
Computer software knowledge 2 2 TOTAL 17 2 7 8 Note. Other desired skills that received one response each included, knowledge of technology, ability to work independently, strategic thinking, good people skills, strong work ethic, attention to detail, self motivation, conceptual/creative thinking, organizational skills, sales experience, legislative/government knowledge or experience, job/real-world experience in communications, Internet experience, event planning skills, media planning skills, inquisitive nature, and work with different levels of the organization.
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Appendix E.
Important Skills in Advertising, Public Relations and General Communications PR Firms Corpo-
rations Advertising Agencies Non-profits Regional
Busi-nesses
Bout-ique
Aver-age
Respon-dent’s initials
CM
KG
AH
JD MC
CC
KB
MN JH MB SY LC LF RD EL
Oral communi-cation skills
7 10 10 8 7 9/6*
10 10 7 8 10 10 10 8 10 8.83
Written communi-cation skills
7 10 9 10 6 8 8 10 7 10 10 10 10 9 10 8.93
Planning and organizing
6 8 8 8 8 10 10 10 7 10 9 8 7 10 7 8.40
Problem solving and decision making
8 9 8 7 8 10+
8 10 8 8 10 9 8 7 8 8.40
Financial and budgeting skills
5 3 7 8 5 3 4 10 5/6 8 6/7 4 5 7 8 5.93
Media relations
6 10 9 6 5* 10 8 10 9 7 4 7.63
Community relations
4 8 9 6 4/5 8 8 7* 9 7 1 6.59
Employee relations
6 8 10 8 4/5 10 8 7 8 7 1 7.05
Public relations research design and techniques
5 7 7 4 4/5* 7 9 7 6* 5 3 5.86
Setting goals and objectives
7 8 8 10 10 8 9 8 9 9 8 8.54
4 8 9 8* 4/5* 7 10 8 10 5 2 6.86
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Contingency/crisis/ disaster planning Delivering printed communica-tion to publics
7 * 10 8 4 6* 10 9 8 8 6 7.60
Delivering electronic (audiovisual, multimedia) communi-cation to publics
8 8 10 5* 4 10*
10 9 7 8 7 7.81
Publication design and layout
6 5 8 6 5 9 4 3-10*
7 6 8 7 8 7-8 5 6.55
Message strategy
7 8 9 10 8 10 8 10-10
9 10 9 7 10 6 7 8.63
Relationship building principles
7 8 8 9 10 10 8 9 7 8 3 7.90
Understan-ding social responsibi-lity/ Ethics
8 10 10 10 7 2 6 10-8 8 10 8 9 9 7/8 2 7.78
Conceptual and creative thinking
7 10 6 10 8 10 6 10 8.38
Knowledge about media outlets/placement options
5 4 6* 5 4 10 7 5 5.84
Media costs
4 1 2 2* 4 8 7 4.00
Popular culture
5 7 4 8* 4 6 8 1 5.38
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Classic culture
5 2 4 5* 4 6 7 3 4.50
Art history
2 2 4 3* 3 6 4 4 3.50
Consumer psychology/ purchase decisions
6 9 6 8* 6 9 7 6 7.13
Note. A slash (/) signifies that a respondent gave a range of answers or seemed unsure of one answer (i.e., replied “4 or 5”). These scores were averaged together before completing a final average across the board (i.e., average = 4.5). Note. A dash (-) signifies that a respondent replied to the question in two parts (i.e., for a response reading 9-4, respondent may have said, “For the creative side of advertising, I’d say a nine, for the other departments, maybe a four.”). Each of these answers were added into the average separately, thereby adding an extra number of responses than number of respondents. Appendix F. New Skills in Advertising, Public Relations and General Communications Skill Total
Number of Responses
Advertising Responses
Public Relations Responses
Mixed Department Responses
Understanding the Internet 4 1 2 1 Using blogs and chat rooms 3 3 Web design and writing Web code 2 1 1 Understanding new technologies/technologically advanced
3 3
Email knowledge 1 1 Accessing trusted information from the Internet
1 1
Digital delivery of media 1 1 Computer skills 1 1 New media experience 1 1 Diversity/multilingual 1 1 Integrated approach to marketing 1 1 Recognizing new media outlets 1 1 TOTAL 20 3 14 3 Note. Italicized responses relate to technological skills.
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Appendix G. Previous Job Experiences Needed Experiences Total
Number of Responses
Advertising Responses
Public Relations Responses
Mixed Department Responses
Journalism experience 5 1 4 Industry-specific knowledge 4 1 1 2 Public relations experience 2 2 Knowing how to work/strong work ethic 2 1 1 TOTAL 13 3 8 2 Note. Journalism, public relations, advertising, communications, marketing and experience that proves success in communications are all considered previous job experience in communications. Note. Other previous job experiences that received one response each included advertising experience, Internet marketing or public relations, communications experience, internships, keeping knowledge/skills current; continuing education, dealing with people, marketing experience, proven success in a specific job industry, experience needed depends on position, experience that proves success in communications, and no experience needed. Appendix H. Importance of Having a College Degree Response Total
Number of Responses
Advertising Responses
Public Relations Responses
Mixed Department Responses
Having a college degree is important
11 4 6 1
Having a college degree is somewhat important
3 3
Having a college degree is not important
1 1
TOTAL 15 4 7 4
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Appendix I. Importance of Having a Communications Degree Response Total
Number of Responses
Advertising Responses
Public Relations Responses
Mixed Department Responses
Having a communications degree is important
8 4 3 1
Having a communications degree is not important
6 3 3
TOTAL 14 4 6 4 Appendix J. Educational Backgrounds Needed Education Total
Number of Responses
Advertising Responses
Public Relations Responses
Mixed Department Responses
Communications education (advertising, journalism, public relations, telecommunications, marketing)
6 2 3 1
Communications education and work experience
3 1 2
Best match for the job/organization
4 2 2
Solid college education
2 1 1
TOTAL 15 4 7 4
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Appendix K. Hiring Practices Across fields Response Total
Number of Responses
Advertising Responses
Public Relations Responses
Mixed Department Responses
Would hire from another field
9 1 5 3
Would hire in advertising only
2 2
Would hire in public relations only
2 2
Would hire in either advertising or public relations
2 1 1
TOTAL 15 4 7 4
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Appendix L. Main Job Responsibilities of Present Employees Duties Total
Number ofResponses
Advertising Responses
Public Relations Responses
Mixed Department Responses
Media strategies/placement 9 4 4 1 Media relations 8 5 3 Pitching stories to media/persuasion 5 5 Research 4 2 1 1 Promotion 4 3 1 Graphic design 4 2 1 1 Producing collateral (i.e., brochures, postcards)
3 2 1
Message development/strategy 3 2 1 Creating presentations 2 2 Crisis management 2 2 Community relations 2 2 Website design/programming 2 2 Internal relations 2 1 1 Liaison with other communications organizations (i.e., ad agencies, printers)
2 1 1
Writing 2 1 1 TOTAL 54 9 29 16 Note. Other job responsibilities that received one response each included proposal development, new business activities, media tours, budgeting, external communications, intern duties, conceptual development, identifying audiences/publics, responding to media inquiries, building relationships with publics/colleagues, database management, photography, annual reports, and event planning. Appendix M. Duties Taken on Outside of Normal Job Duties Duties Total
Number of Responses
Advertising Responses
Public Relations Responses
Mixed Department Responses
None 4 1 2 1 Administrative duties 4 2 1 1 Designing collaterals 3 1 2 Developing strategy 2 1 1 TOTAL 13 4 4 5 Note. Other basic skills that received one response each included special projects, product testing, event planning, collaborations between departments, media relations, community relations, computer/IT duties, and marketing.
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Appendix N. Frequency of Job Duties Crossing into Other Fields (Categorized by Department Type) Response Total
Number of Responses
Advertising Responses
Public Relations Responses
Mixed Department Responses
Job duties cross over into other fields sometimes
9 4 3 2
Job duties never cross over into other fields
6 4 2
TOTAL 15 4 7 4
Appendix O. Frequency of Job Duties Crossing into Other Fields (Categorized by Organization/Business Type) Response PR Firms Large
Corp. Ad Agencies
Non-profits
Regional Businesses
Boutiques
Job duties cross over into other fields sometimes (9 total responses)
2 3 2 1 1
Job duties never cross over into other fields (6 total responses)
3 1 1 1
TOTAL 3 2 4 3 2 1
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Appendix P. Phrases Mentioned in Advertising Definitions Responses Total
Number of Responses
Advertising Responses
Public Relations Responses
Mixed Department Responses
Paid 11 3 6 2 Brand/brand promise 3 1 1 1 Message to target audience/market 3 2 1 Control over content, placement, etc. 2 1 1 Guaranteed placement 2 2 TOTAL 21 6 10 5 Note. Other phrases mentioned in advertising definitions that received one response each included awareness/visibility, selling creatively, change audience’s thinking/opinion, many media outlets, creator determines content, more honest than public relations, has a call to action, and market communication. Appendix Q. Phrases Mentioned in Public Relations Definitions Responses Total
Number of Responses
Advertising Responses
Public Relations Responses
Mixed Department Responses
Unpaid/free 5 2 2 1 Many media outlets can be used 4 1 2 1 Message to target audience/market 3 2 1 Community relations 3 2 1 Visibility 2 1 1 Managing the image of a company 2 2 Uncontrolled 2 1 1 Placement not guaranteed 2 1 1 Brand/brand promise/image 2 1 1 TOTAL 35 10 17 8 Note. Other phrases mentioned in public relations definitions that received one response each included editorial information or news coverage, change audience’s thinking/opinion, developing messages to compel media, collaborative process, not one-way communications, earned media, sometimes involves paid advertising, selling factually, internal and external communication, and media relations.
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Appendix R. Familiarity with the Term Integrated Marketing Communication Response Total
Number of Responses
Advertising Responses
Public Relations Responses
Mixed Department Responses
Familiar with the term IMC
13 4 6 3
Not Familiar with the term IMC
2 1 1
TOTAL 15 4 7 4
Appendix S. Phrases Mentioned in IMC Definitions Responses Total
Number of Responses
Advertising Responses
Public Relations Responses
Mixed Department Responses
Different communications fields working together
6 2 1 3
Different communications strategies/tactics blending together
3 1 2
All communications fields produce same message(s)
3 2 1
Offers more creative ways to disseminate messages over traditional media
2 1 1
Working towards goals 2 2 TOTAL 16 6 7 3 Note. Other phrases mentioned in IMC definitions that received one response each included offering clients various specialties/services, middle road of advertising and public relations, new name for an old concept, hard to implement well, combining communications fields to provide better results, combining different communications skills, combining electronic/new media with traditional media.
102
Appendix T. Organizations with Distinct Advertising or Public Relations Functions/Departments Response Total
Number of Responses
Advertising Responses
Public Relations Responses
Mixed Department Responses
Has two distinct departments
9 3 3 3
Only has one advertising or public relations department
6 1 4 1
TOTAL 15 4 7 4
Appendix U. Utilization of IMC Response Total
Number of Responses
Advertising Responses
Public Relations Responses
Mixed Department Responses
Organization utilizes IMC
12 4 4 3
Organization does not utilize IMC
3 3
TOTAL 15 4 7 3 Appendix V. Predictions for IMC Usage in the Future Response Total
Number of Responses
Advertising Responses
Public Relations Responses
Mixed Department Responses
Organizations should use IMC more in future communications efforts
11 3 4 4
Maybe organizations should use IMC more in future communications efforts
3 1 2
Organizations should not use IMC more in future communications efforts
1 1
TOTAL 15 4 7 4