Sustainable Pest Management Series S98-01

Integrated Pest Management in Food Processing:

Working Without Methyl Bromide

This document was produced by:

Methyl Bromide Industry Government Working Group:Subcommittee on Alternatives for the Food Processing Sector:

Patrick Bétournay Borden Foods CanadaLiv Clarke Quaker Oats Company of Canada LtdDiane Lohnes Griffith Laboratories Ltd.Gordon Harrison Canadian National Millers AssociationBernie McCarthy PCO Services Inc.Brian Menard Abell Pest ControlKaren Furgiuele Gardex Chemicals Ltd.Michel Maheu Maheu & Maheu inc.Michelle Marcotte Marcotte ConsultingDennis Weadon ADM MillingPaul Fields Agriculture and Agri-Food CanadaSheila Jones Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada Robert Trottier Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada Josée Portugais Environment CanadaLinda Dunn Industry CanadaJohn Smith Pest Management Regulatory Agency, Health Canada (chair)

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Foreword

The Methyl Bromide Industry Government Working Group was set up as a consultative forum toprovide direction on effective implementation of Canada’s program for the control and phaseout of methyl bromide under the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer.A Subcommittee on Alternatives for the Food Processing Sector was established to addressalternatives to methyl bromide fumigation for pest management in the food processing sector.

There is unlikely to be a single product to replace methyl bromide for all facilities. An integratedpest management approach that combines all available prevention and treatment strategies istherefore the preferred approach. This document outlines the steps required to adopt integratedpest management for food processing facilities.

The Pest Management Regulatory Agency is committed to promoting sustainable pestmanagement, and is pleased to have acted as Chair and Secretariat for the Subcommittee and topublish this document on their behalf.

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Executive Summary

Methyl bromide is identified under the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the OzoneLayer as an ozone-depleting substance. Schedules have been established for its reduction andphase out. A large portion of Canada’s methyl bromide use has been in large space fumigation,for example, in flour and oat mills, and in food processing operations.

The Canadian Methyl Bromide Industry Government Working Group established a subcommitteeto examine alternatives to methyl bromide fumigation for the food processing sector. A numberof pest management products and techniques exist or are under development for use in foodprocessing facilities. It is clear, however, that there will not be a single treatment or practicethat will suffice to replace methyl bromide.

A combination of preventative and treatment practices will be necessary, therefore, for effectivepest management. The Subcommittee has developed a guideline of practices to facilitate use ofan integrated pest management (IPM) approach in food processing facilities. The steps involvedin an IPM strategy are as follows:

C assessment;C development of pest management plan;C plan implementation;C evaluation of plan; andC adjustments.

The pest management plan should encompass the following elements:

C building and materials design and retrofitting;C exclusion practices;C good sanitation practices;C building maintenance;C inspections and monitoring;C pest identification; andC physical and chemical controls.

Key points to implementation of an IPM approach for food processing are:

C an operational IPM strategy and pest management plan will need to be developed andtailored for specific locations and needs;

C the key to success is a commitment by senior company management to proactivelydevelop and implement an IPM strategy in a facility, and allocate expertise to lead,manage and fine tune an effective IPM program; and

C consistent and effective sanitation is the most important component of an IPM plan.

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I. INTRODUCTION

Methyl bromide has been an effective andimportant tool for controlling pests in foodprocessing facilities. However, methylbromide has been identified as an ozone-depleting substance under the MontrealProtocol, and targets have been set forreduction and phase out of most uses ofmethyl bromide. Phase out dates and interimreduction targets are outlined in Appendix 1.

The Methyl Bromide Industry GovernmentWorking Group is a consultative forum toprovide direction on effectiveimplementation of Canada’s program for thecontrol of methyl bromide. Progress has beenmade through the efforts of industry andgovernment using demonstration projects,research trials, and joint initiatives with othercountries. In early 1997, a subcommittee wasestablished to pursue alternatives to methylbromide fumigation for the food processingsector, using a broad integrated pestmanagement (IPM) perspective. The workwould not focus solely on identifyingreplacement treatment products, but wouldlook at such products within an inclusivemanagement strategy.

This document provides a guideline ofpractices to facilitate use of IPM in foodprocessing facilities. The steps involved in anIPM strategy are as follows:

C assessment;C development of pest management plan; C plan implementation;C evaluation of plan; andC adjustments.

An operational IPM strategy and pestmanagement plan will need to be developedand tailored for specific locations and needs,using this document as a template. A list of

references that may be useful in preparingspecific plans is provided in Appendix 2. Inaddition, development, documentation andimplementation of a sanitation and pestcontrol program is one of the prerequisiteprograms under the Food Safety andEnhancement Program (FSEP) of theCanadian Food Inspection Agency. FSEP isa program to encourage the development,implementation and maintenance of HazardAnalysis Critical Control Points-basedprograms in federally registered foodprocessing establishments.

At present, there are areas where alternativetreatments to methyl bromide are notavailable. Procedures and criteria are beingdeveloped in Canada and under the MontrealProtocol for emergency and critical useexemptions. One of the criteria for suchexemptions is a demonstration that there areno technically and economically feasiblealternatives and that there is a concertedeffort to develop and gain approval foralternatives and substitutes. Developmentand adoption of this integrated managementstrategy may be a key part in meeting thesecriteria. In cases where a critical use ofmethyl bromide may be allowed, it shouldcontinue to be one part of the overallintegrated management approach.

The aims and anticipated benefits of thisdocument are as follows:

C promote the use of IPM and guidedevelopment or improvement of IPMstrategies in the food processing sector;

C provide a common basis ofunderstanding among those dealing withfood processors, including ingredientsuppliers, pest control product

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manufacturers and suppliers, andgovernment agencies;

C provide a basis for determining needs fornew tools, both treatment alternativesand broader management tools, andfacilitate the research needed to identifyproducts and to develop data bases forregulatory approvals; and

C reduce the number of circumstancesunder which methyl bromide use may beconsidered necessary and, wherenecessary, provide a basis for seekingemergency and critical use exemptions.

Adoption of an IPM program may notnecessarily eliminate the need for methylbromide in any particular facility. It is clearthat there will not be a single treatment orpractice that will suffice to replace methylbromide. Regardless of the preventative ortreatment options available, therefore, acombination of the practices described in thisdocument will be necessary. A commitmentto IPM by management of food processingfacilities will be especially important,building on the key leadership role thatCanadian industry has played and continuesto play in adapting to the phase out of methylbromide.

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II. INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT FOR FOOD PROCESSING

Integrated pest management (IPM) is adynamic combination of varied controlpractices designed and implemented to meetthe need of maintaining controls of pestsusing a variety of techniques. There arenumerous definitions of IPM, following asimilar theme. The Expert Committee onIPM (of the Canadian Agri-Food ResearchCouncil) describes IPM as “a decision-making process that uses all necessarytechniques to suppress pests effectively,economically and in an environmentallysound manner”. By using a variety ofmethods, pests can be managed without totalreliance upon pesticides.

IPM provides a systems approach to thereplacement of methyl bromide. It isgenerally acknowledged that there will notbe a single pest control product that willserve to replace methyl bromide in all its usesin the food processing sector. Therefore, avariety of management methods, adapted tolocal situations, will be needed. At leastsome of the elements of IPM are alreadyused in many food processing facilities.

The steps outlined in this section arenecessary for implementing an ongoing IPMstrategy in a food processing facility. Thesame basic steps can equally be used toaddress an unanticipated specific pestproblem that arises, such as the introductionof a new pest in a shipment. When designingand building a new facility or renovating anexisting facility, it is essential that the IPMstrategy be incorporated at the earlieststages.

1. Assessment

The first step of the IPM strategy is anassessment of the actual or potential pest

problem. In developing a new facility,identification of potential pest problems canbe based on past experience, knowledge ofsimilar facilities, and knowledge of particularpests in the region in which the plant islocated. Some useful references are listed inAppendix 2.

For existing plants, a similar assessment canbe performed. In addition, there should be aspecific assessment of the pest situation inthe plant.

C Inspections are used to identify the typeand variety of pests that are or may bepresent. Detailed inspection is requiredof both the interior and exterior of afacility on a continual basis. Incomingcommodities may vary at different timesof the year, and pests associated withthose commodities may also vary. Inaddition, different pests will seekharbourage during different times of theyear, and therefore inspections need tobe undertaken at frequent intervals.

C Monitoring, by trapping, for example, isused to determine the intensity of a pestproblem and to determine the distributionof pests in and around a facility. Themonitoring program should includeschedules for placing and checking trapsor other techniques.

C Observations in and around the facilitycan be used to confirm the results ofinspection and monitoring.

2. Development of Pest ManagementPlan

The next stage is to develop a pestmanagement plan for implementation, basedon the assessment findings.

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C Information gathering is required afteran assessment is made of the actual orpotential pest problems in a plant.Information is needed on the biology ofthe pest organisms and theirmanagement. References and sources ofinformation include:

P pest control companies;P pest management publications: trade

magazines, journals;P reference texts; andP Internet sites.

Some useful references are listed inAppendix 2.

C Elements that should be included in thepest management plan1 for effective IPMinclude:

P building and materials design andretrofitting;

P exclusion practices;P good sanitation practices;P building maintenance;P inspections and monitoring;P pest identification; andP physical and chemical controls.

3. Plan Implementation

Implementation of the pest management planstarts with a facility’s management anddecision makers. They must have anawareness of what needs to be accomplishedand a commitment to making successful pestmanagement an ongoing activity. Theleadership shown by the management of afacility and a company, indeed by the

industry as a whole, may be the mostimportant step in adoption of IPM.

C Education: Employees must be trainedwith an awareness of the IPM programand its elements, particularly sanitation.They should learn to recognize pests,pest habitats, and pest conditions, andways to deal with them.

In some cases, facilities have madesanitation and other aspects of pestmanagement a responsibility of allworking units, not solely the sanitationdepartment. However, the specificresponsibilities will depend on thedivision of responsibilities within specificplants.

Employees can be involved in training, indesign of programs, facilities andequipment, in validation, and intreatments, subject to the licensingrequirements for application ofpesticides. Contract companies are oftenhired for pest control, but they can alsoprovide knowledge and training to afacility’s staff. Food and pest controlindustry associations, consultants andtraining organizations are also valuablesources of knowledge and training.

C Communication: Written proceduresshould be available for all aspects of anIPM program, including cleaning,monitoring, identifying and correcting ofproblems, and treatments. A writtenprocedure will set out a proper andstandardized way of conducting anoperation, and incorporate a process ofverification that the operation wasconducted. Attention to detail is requiredboth in setting out and following thewritten procedure.1The elements of the pest management plan

are described in more detail in Section III.

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There are numerous sources ofinformation that can help determine whatwritten procedures are needed, guide thedevelopment of a written procedure, orprovide a specific written procedure; afew are listed in Appendix 2.

CC Monitoring Activities must be aimedboth at the target pest populations and atthe implementation of the pestmanagement plan itself. Pest monitoringis one of the elements of the plan, andmonitoring the implementation of theplan requires accurate record keeping.

C Record Keeping: The report system thatis incorporated in the pest managementplan must be user friendly to facilitate theprocedures being used. The writtenprocedures should be followed as a dayto day, ongoing activity, not a periodicexercise.

4. Evaluation of Plan

The overall effectiveness of the pestmanagement plan must be reviewed based onmonitoring of pests and inspection reports.The evaluation should answer the followingquestions:

- Was the anticipated or required level ofcontrol achieved?

- If not, why not?

5. Adjustments

Changes to the pest management plan aredesigned and implemented based on theanalysis of the plan’s effectiveness. Changescan be made to achieve the desired level ofcontrol; to adjust to new situations, such asnew equipment, new products, and newpests; or to incorporate new pestmanagement techniques. The adjustments

begin a renewed round of assessment,planning, implementation and evaluation.

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III. ELEMENTS OF THE PEST MANAGEMENT PLAN

Effective integrated pest management (IPM)should include the following elements:

Building and Materials Design andRetrofitting

The food processing facility and itsequipment should be designed and purchasedwith consideration of the IPM program. Thefacility and its equipment should not promotepest populations, and should be amenable tocontrol and treatment methods. Detailedinformation on plant and equipment designcan be found in Engineering for Food Safetyand Sanitation: A Guide to the SanitaryDesign of Food Plants and Food PlantEquipment, by Thomas J. Imholte (1984).Highlights and examples of designconsideration are given in Box 1.

The design considerations for a new facilityapply equally to retrofitting an existingfacility. Review of an existing facility againstthese design considerations can also beuseful in determining where retrofitting maybe beneficial, or where increased efforts inother areas of the pest management plan maybe needed, for example, concerning a changein use of a building or area from its originalfunction.

Exclusion Practices

Reducing or eliminating infestations inincoming food and ingredients is a keycomponent of an IPM strategy.

Control of materials entering the plant beginswith careful supplier selection and strictpurchase specifications. Supplier contractsshould specify delivery of material that is freefrom pests to an acceptable level, with strictspecifications. Audits of suppliers, even if

they are parts of the same company, can beused to ensure that practices are beingfollowed that will lead to delivery ofacceptable material. Such specifications andaudits are especially important if treatment ofincoming materials is not practical.

Raw material should be received in abuilding that is separate from the mainprocessing facility, or in an isolated area ofthe facility. In that way, a contaminatedshipment can be identified and managedwithout contaminating the main facility. Theincoming material should be inspected beforeunloading. If necessary, materials should betreated before entering the main processflow. Another approach is to refuseshipments that are contaminated; this can bespecified in supplier contracts.

A variety of techniques are in use or underdevelopment for treatment of stored grainand other products. These would haveimportance in reducing the number of pestscoming into a food processing facility. Thetechniques include use of phosphine gas,irradiation, malathion, diatomaceous earth,carbon dioxide and high energy non-ionizingmicrowave and millimetre-wave radiation.

Phosphine is the most frequently usedalternative to methyl bromide for durablecommodities. It is widely used to kill pests incereals, legumes, dried fruits, nuts and othercommodities. Its effectiveness against pestsis well understood and accepted. Phosphinerequires a long exposure period (5 to 15days) and usually temperatures of over 15°Cfor effective action, but it can be used intransit in some situations. The temperaturerequirements for release of phosphine fromits usual tablet form can make its useunacceptable in colder climates.

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Materials, construction and layout of the building and equipment should avoid creatingsurfaces and cavities where dust, food material, insects and rodents can collect. Flat surfacesthat can collect dust should be avoided, especially in locations that are hard to reach. Cracks,crevices and cavities in floors, walls, ceilings and equipment should be avoided. Open ends ofconduits should be sealed. Seams on duct work should be sealed, especially in areas withgrain-based products. Insulation must be sealed off to prevent insects from colonizing there.Cavities should either be completely sealed or made completely accessible.

Many of the steps to avoid accumulation of dust are also important in ensuring that all partsof the plant and equipment are accessible for easy cleaning. Tight spaces not only collect dustand provide harbourage for insects, but they are also difficult to clean. There must beadequate space around, under and over equipment, supports and beams for cleaning. Servicelines should be laid out so as not to block access to equipment or create difficult cleaningproblems. Equipment and duct work must have access ports to remote areas for cleaning andinspection, particularly on long horizontal sections. Equipment must also be elevated from thefloor for effective cleaning. Dust collection systems should be easy to clean.

Floors, walls, ceilings and equipment surfaces must be made from a material that isappropriate to the use of the area and is easy to clean. The equipment should be compatiblewith treatment methods such as gas or heat, and the plant should be structurally sound toaccommodate and retain controlled atmospheres, gases and heat. Any equipment that is notcompatible with treatments should be mobile or easily isolated.

Design considerations also apply to the exterior of the plant to avoid attracting andsupporting insects and rodents, and to control entry to the facility. The building andsurrounding grounds should be free of harbourage sites for rodents. Trees and shrubs shouldnot be grown next to the building and those known to attract insects should be avoided.Exterior lighting with sodium vapour lights can reduce the number of insects attracted, andlights can be shielded above to avoid attracting high flying insects.

Doors and windows need to be closed or screened with proper seals to keep out pests andnight lights should not be directly over doors. Entry ways for trucks and railcars need specialattention. Ventilation intakes should be designed to keep out birds and insects. Particularattention is needed to seasonal insect problems. Where there may be release or spill ofmaterial from exhaust vents, the surrounding area must be amenable to clean up.

1 Considerations for plant and equipment design (based on Imholte, 1984)

Irradiation is a technically effectivealternative to fumigation for many storedproducts, and could be used to disinfectpackaged or bulk products entering into orproduced in the plant. In several countries,irradiation is already used for this purpose.

Regulatory approval for the use ofirradiation to control pests or bacterialcontamination of food products sold inCanada has been obtained for only a fewfoods, such as wheat and wheat flour, spices,herbs and vegetable seasonings. Work is

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ongoing to broaden the potential use of thistechnology as a disinfestation technique forother foods. Determining labellingrequirements and addressing consumerperception and acceptance of the technologywould be important prerequisites toincluding irradiation as part of an IPMprogram.

High-speed centrifugal impact machines(Entoleters) are useful to destroy any insectsthat may be in flour. This procedure is lessuseful for semolina, however, as it tends tobreak up the larger particles.

In addition to incoming food and ingredients,personnel can be a route for introducingpests. A separate area should be provided forpersonal items such as coats, shoes andlunches that are brought into the plant.

Exclusion of pests also depends on properdesign of doors, windows, ventilation,intakes and other entry ways, as well asexterior areas.

Good Sanitation Practices

The facility should be operated to minimizethe opportunity for pests to becomeestablished. Cleaning and sanitation,therefore, requires utmost priority. Cleaningmust be conducted thoroughly, regularly andfrequently, with written proceduresidentifying cleaning methods. The length orfrequency of the cleaning cycle should beadapted to specific buildings and equipment,however, it should be appropriate tomaintain a high level of control. Knowntrouble spots should be inspected andcleaned more frequently, and the cleaningcycle shortened if necessary.

Cleaning tools must be effective, designedfor the task, and must themselves be kept

clean. Air hoses should generally not be usedfor cleaning, unless areas are not accessiblefor vacuum cleaners.

In addition to cleaning, the generation andaccumulation of dust should be prevented.Leaks in pipes should be avoided, and whenthey occur quickly identified and repaired.Dust collectors and seals on equipmentshould be cleaned and maintained in goodworking order. In particular, it is importantto keep dust, flour, insects or other materialfrom reaching areas that are inaccessible forcleaning, treating and inspecting.

Opportunities for pests to becomeestablished should be minimized by removingfood sources and pest harbourages. Productshould be kept away from walls and in pest-proof packaging. Maintaining reducedinventory and faster rotation of stock canalso reduce establishment of pests. Sanitationis also needed outside the plant to reducefood sources.

The importance of cleaning and sanitationmust be emphasized to all staff. In particular,cooperation among cleaning crews, qualitycontrol officials, and a pest control servicewill be beneficial.

Building Maintenance

Regular and preventative maintenance isimportant. Holes and cracks in floors, walls,ceilings, roofs, doors and windows allowaccess for vermin and allow dust to collect,and therefore must be fixed. Roof drainsmust be in good shape and debris removal isoften required on top of buildings to preventvegetation growth, accumulation of waterthat can attract birds, and collection ofdecaying organic matter. Interior attractors,such as food and harbourage sites, must beeliminated using techniques such as storing

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idle equipment on racks off the floor andcovering food and waste containers.

Inspections and Monitoring

A monitoring program for pest infestation isnecessary to guide treatment schedules andto monitor the effectiveness of the overallmanagement strategy.

The monitoring program should includeestablishment of targets and action levels,and schedules for placing and checking trapsor other techniques. Methods of trapping caninclude pheromone traps, glue boards andlight traps for flying insects. In addition, amonitoring program can include productsampling and physical inspection of the plantand process equipment. Zone mapping canbe used to establish different inspections,pest thresholds and control procedures fordifferent parts of the facility, related to thelevel of risk for the product.

Effective traps are available for many of theinsects that infest food processing facilities.Pheromones, volatile chemicals that attractspecific insects, are available for the Indianmeal moth, red flour beetle, confused flourbeetle, cigarette beetle, and cockroaches, andcan be used with traps to increase thenumber of insects captured. Traps can bearranged in a grid pattern throughout thefacility following manufacturers’ guidelinesfor placement and spacing. Generally, mothtraps attract insects from a wider area andfewer may be needed than for beetle trapsthat do not attract insects from as large anarea. When the traps are in place, theyshould be checked on a regular basis and thenumbers and species of insects carefullyrecorded. Traps should also be replaced on aregular interval.

The number of insects caught is determinedby several factors; trap placement,temperature, duration of sampling andcondition of pheromone lure, that can beunrelated to the number of insects in thebuilding. The interpretation of trap data isdifficult because it is a relative, not anabsolute measure of insect populations. Thebest approach is to look for trends in trapcatches. Low or no trap catch followed by asudden increase in numbers is an indicationof a developing infestation. If this happens,traps can be concentrated in the areas wheretraps catch the most insects. As the searcharea is reduced, it is often possible topinpoint infestations and to deal with themwithout treating the entire facility.

Light traps must be strategically located, sothey do not attract flying insects fromoutside. The light traps need to be cleanedregularly to prevent secondary infestationfrom occurring.

Mechanical traps or adhesive boards incovered stations should be used along theinterior walls for rodent control. The trapsshould be checked weekly and the datalogged in a siting manual for futurereference. Portable black light or ultravioletlight can be used to detect evidence ofrodent activity.

The use of monitors or traps will helpminimize the amount of pesticides applied byfocusing treatments in specific harbourageswith active signs of infestation.

Pest Identification

Accurate identification of pests is necessaryto select the most appropriate controlmethods. Some reference sources of pestidentification are listed in Appendix 2, and

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identification is also available through pestcontrol companies.

Physical and Chemical Controls

A variety of control actions can be targetedat pests. These include physical andmechanical treatments, controlledatmospheres, and pesticide applications.

Methyl bromide is currently available andused for fumigations. Procedures for its useare well established. However, its use isscheduled to be phased out under theMontreal Protocol on Substances thatDeplete the Ozone Layer. Use of methylbromide, in the period preceding phase outor after phase out under defined exemptioncriteria, should be conducted within anoverall IPM strategy.

A number of other techniques or productsare in use or under development; variouscombinations of these techniques may be themost promising approach. There is not likelyto be a single treatment that will replacemethyl bromide for food processing plants. Acombination of methods, used together or atdifferent times, might be required, along withthe other components of an IPM strategy.

Any pesticide treatment should be used asone component of an overall integratedmanagement strategy. The choice oftreatment will be situation specific to dealwith specific problems, and can range fromspot treatments to full site treatments asnecessary. Pest control professionals shouldbe consulted to determine the range ofavailable products. Prior to any application,it is imperative to read the label to ensurethat the product can be applied in a foodprocessing facility and determine whetherthere are any restrictions, conditions orsafety equipment required for its use. All

pesticides must be stored, handled, and usedaccording to label instructions.

Baiting and Trapping: Two types of baitsmay play a part in an IPM program. Insectbaits are available for cockroaches and ants.This should be the principal type of materialto be used inside a structure when pesticideuse is justified.

Pheromone traps have also been used in afew places to reduce insect populations ofcigarette beetles, Indian meal moth andMediterranean flour moth in warehouses andflour mills. Use of pheromone traps forcontrol has involved traps at densities10 times greater than those used formonitoring, modified trap design to preventoverloading the trap with insects, or use ofcards covered with a fast acting insecticide,cypermethrin, combined with pheromones.One limitation of this approach is that itwould not control the red flour beetle or theconfused flour beetle, common pests ofwarehouses and food processing facilities.Also, initial populations must be low, andmonths can pass before population reductionoccurs.

Rodent baits should only be used outdoorsand placed in tamper proof bait stations.These should be secured to the exterior ofthe building and their position indicated on alocation map. It should be noted thatsanitation is critical when employing baits forrodents and insects.

Natural and synthetic pyrethrins andorganophosphates are the main groups ofinsecticides for structural use. Formulationsare available in various concentrations for avariety of applications. A frequent andparticularly useful method is to apply theinsecticide as small particles in an airsuspension, a method referred to as Ultra

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Low Volume (ULV) or Ultra Low Dosage(ULD).

ULV/ULD equipment breaks an insecticideinto small particles with mechanical actionand high speed air. The optimum size foreffective insect control is one to 30 microns.Above 30 microns, the particles ofinsecticide fall rapidly and do not penetratecracks and crevices above floor level. Inaddition, larger volumes of insecticide areused. Particles below one micron produce atypical thermal fog. Thermal fogs suspendwell but do not impinge on the insects aswell as particles above one micron. Specifictraining is required for ULV applications.

ULVs have a role in an IPM Program. Theyare very effective for a rapid knockdown offlying insects, such as Indian meal moths,tobacco moths, and flies. ULVs will notsolve a problem, however. The source ofinfestation must be discovered and corrected.

Crack and Crevice Treatment usuallyrefers to the use of a liquid or aerosolformulation of insecticide. The material isapplied in small amounts to likely harbourageareas or areas where infestation has beennoted. The insecticides applied may haveeither a residual or non-residual activity.

Exterior Treatments involve applications ofresidual insecticides to thresholds, thefoundations and soil adjacent to thefoundation. This method is useful incontrolling some outdoor insects, which canoccasionally become a nuisance or invade ifthe population builds up. Products usedcould be synthetic pyrethroids, chlorpyrifosin liquid or granular form, or diazinon inliquid or granular form.

Heat has been successfully used in a numberof locations to treat a facility. A treatment

generally requires achieving a temperature of51 to 57EC for a period of 24 hours. Heattreatments are most feasible where existingin-plant heat sources can be used, butportable heating units have been used to treattruck trailers and buildings. Uniform aircirculation to distribute heat through thefacility is critical.

The frequency of heat treatments will dependon the facility. Estimated costs of four to sixheat treatments per year are similar to twofumigations with methyl bromide beyondinitial equipment expenditures.

During a heat treatment, equipment orproducts susceptible to heat damage must beremoved, stored in air conditioned rooms, orinsulated. Contact insecticides are used onthresholds to stop escaping insects.

Low temperatures can be used to reducethe development rate, feeding, and fecundityof insects, and to reduce their survival. Thistechnique is used primarily for bulk storage,either through refrigeration or exposure toambient air in colder climates. The techniquehas also been used to control insects in foodprocessing facilities, for example in the useof winter freeze outs in flour mills.

To conduct a freeze out, a building isthoroughly cleaned and stock removed asmuch as possible. Water lines are emptied,filled with antifreeze, or protected from thecold, and sensitive equipment removed orinsulated. Fans are used to bring in the coldair and to rapidly bring down buildingtemperatures. In general, temperaturesneeded to control insects are approximately-20°C for one minute, -10°C for one toseven days, or 0°C for one week to onemonth, depending on the type of pest and therate of cold penetration of all areas of thefacility. Use of cold or freeze outs would be

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restricted to winter months and may bepossible in only a few facilities. Nevertheless,as emphasized earlier, integratedmanagement of insects without methylbromide will require the use of a variety oftechniques that need to be adapted to localneeds. Use of cold may therefore be valuablein certain cases.

Cold may also be used for more specifictreatments. Small cold air tubes can beinstalled inside equipment, for example, tolower the air temperature to a level thatslows or eliminates insect reproduction. Thisis especially useful for equipment thatpresents particular infestation or cleaningproblems.

Phosphine gas is generated by the reactionof metallic phosphide with atmosphericmoisture. Aluminum phosphide granules andtablets are registered for use in Canada.Magnesium phosphide technical is registered,and magnesium phosphide end use productsare expected to be available in the nearfuture. A variety of additional deliverymechanisms have been developed orproposed, including the use of compressedgas cylinders mixed with carbon dioxide, orby reacting phosphide granules with waterand carbon dioxide (Horn Generator). Usedon its own, relatively high concentrations andlong exposure times are required, forexample, initial dosages of 900 to 1200 ppmand final concentrations of 200 to 400 ppmfor 36 to 48 hours.

One concern that has been raised is thepotential for corrosion of certain metalsduring phosphine treatments. Anecdotalevidence has suggested that this can be quiteserious for computer controls and telephonesystems, and some information suggests thatcopper and copper-containing compoundsare most susceptible. In addition, there is

concern that repeated fumigations canincrease the risk of corrosion. Recent studiesinitiated by the Canada-U.S. Methyl BromideIndustry Government Working Group areproviding insights into parameters that mayaffect corrosion. These and subsequentstudies should provide results that will enablefumigators to select the best operatingparameters to reduce the risk of corrosion(Box 2).

One technique that can be used is to seal offsensitive areas such as electric panel roomsand flood them with carbon dioxide atpositive pressure. In addition, use ofphosphine in combination with othertreatments may reduce the corrosion risk.

Resistance of pests to phosphine has beenknown to develop, particularly underconditions of frequent use with poor sealing

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In 1997, the Canada-U.S. Methyl Bromide Industry Government Working Group initiated astudy on the effect of the phosphine, carbon dioxide and heat combination treatment onpossible corrosion of electronic equipment.

The study generated data on corrosion of copper, brass, silver and solder under carefullycontrolled steady-state exposure conditions covering a range of temperatures, relativehumidities, carbon dioxide concentrations and phosphine concentrations. Two distinctlydifferent processes were found to occur. First, surface films were formed consisting of oxidesof phosphorus, producing a weight gain, and second, a dissolution or corrosion occurred ofthe underlying metal. Although it is not clear which process is associated with failure ofelectronic components, the one failed component examined in this study ceased to functiondue to the build up of surface deposits.

The effects of some parameters measured in the study reflected experience in the field thatlower temperatures and lower phosphine concentrations reduce the risk of corrosion effects.Carbon dioxide concentration had no effect. High humidity, however, resulted in less weightgain on copper than low humidity. How can this result be rationalized with anecdotal evidencethat suggested that high humidity should be avoided?

When generating phosphine from metallic phosphides under conditions of high temperatureand high humidity, there would tend to be a rapid decomposition of the phosphides, resultingin much higher than targeted initial phosphine concentrations. Higher initial concentrationsmay explain why high relative humidities have been found to be damaging. If so, carefulcontrol of phosphine concentration throughout the application may be the key to managingcorrosion.

Studies of the optimum relative humidity and phosphine concentrations for minimizingcorrosion are scheduled as a second phase of the study. Phase Two will also be examining theeffects of repeated exposures.

While known examples of corrosion damage on electronic components is cause for concern,phosphine has also been used routinely for some fumigations with no significant effects.Further studies that will quantify the kinetics of the processes and determine the morphologyof the corrosion products with sophisticated analytical tools should provide results that willenable fumigators to select the best operating parameters to reduce the risk of corrosion.

The study was conducted by Dr. Bob Brigham of Natural Resources Canada, and a report ofthe study has been published by Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada (Corrosive Effects ofPhosphine, Carbon Dioxide, Heat, and Humidity on Electronic Equipment).

2 Studies on Phosphine Corrosion

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of structures before treatments. It isimportant to carefully follow the most recentlabel instructions for dosages and conditionsof use in order to ensure continued efficacyof the product. Anyone involved inphosphine treatments should consult theCanadian applicator’s manual, that isdistributed with the product. This manualwas recently developed under a labelimprovement initiative involving registrants,the industry and regulatory bodies. Whenusing phosphine, the adoption of an overallIPM program can contribute to moretargeted use of the product and therefore areduction in potential for development ofresistance.

Diatomaceous earth (DE) is mined from ageological deposit formed from the fossilizedskeletons of diatoms. The fossilized diatomsare amorphous silicon dioxide. DE works asan insecticide by adsorbing to the waxcoatings on insect bodies, leading to death bydrying. DE is registered for a number ofconsumer and commercial insecticidalapplications, including use on grain, in grainstorage and transport containers, and in foodprocessing plants and flour mills. It isprimarily used in specific areas as a spottreatment or surface treatment of containers.It can also be applied inside electrical andcontrol panels and in dead spaces behindwalls before they are closed up. Applicationmethods include hand or power dusters or ina slurry. One issue in the use of DE is that itseffectiveness is reduced at high relativehumidity. Recent studies have examined theuse of DE in conjunction with heat forfacility treatments.

A combination of heat and DE has beenused in experiments in the laboratory and ona pilot scale in a commercial plant. The useof DE provided effective treatment at alower temperature than normally used for

heat treatment of the facility. While the testresults may not be representative of a fullplant treatment, the synergistic effect of heatand DE may reduce the time and heat neededto conduct an effective plant treatment.

There is also experience with use of acombination of heat and phosphine andcarbon dioxide. Both heat and carbondioxide increase respiration in insects,allowing reduced concentration of phosphineto effect control. Lower levels of phosphinereduce the potential for corrosion. A typicalcombination treatment would involve heatingthe facility to 30 to 38EC, adding carbondioxide to a concentration of three to sevenpercent, and phosphine gas to an initialdosage of 150 to 500 ppm. Control can beachieved in 24 to 36 hours. These valuescompare to temperatures over 50EC for aheat treatment alone, or an initial dosage ofphosphine of 900 ppm or more when used onits own. This combination treatment requirescareful monitoring and control of heat andgases. In addition, large amounts of carbondioxide are necessary. However, successfulfumigations of this type have been performedin the U.S. and on a trial basis in Canada.

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IV. SUCCESS STORIES

The development and use of integrated pestmanagement (IPM) strategies and otheralternatives is already in place in the foodprocessing industry. The following examplesillustrate the kinds of activities that are underway:

Griffith Laboratories

Griffith Laboratories in Scarborough,Ontario manufactures a wide variety of foodingredients for most sectors of the foodindustry. Over the past two decades, GriffithLaboratories has moved from total structuralfumigation on a semi-annual basis tocomplete phase out of methyl bromide. AnIPM approach has been put in place with anemphasis on sanitation, monitoring andtrapping, and careful supplier selection.

Their strict sanitation program is designedaccording to Food Safety and EnhancementProgram and Hazard Analysis CriticalControl Points guidelines and InternationalStandards Organization format. The programincorporates written procedures and workinstructions for all aspects impacting on foodsafety, including equipment and utensils,overhead structures, floors, walls, ceilings,drains, lighting devices, and refrigerationunits. A key adjustment has been to shortenthe cleaning cycle from 90 days, whenmethyl bromide was used, to 30 days. Dustcontrols have been increased and eachdepartment is responsible along with thesanitation department for managing spills anddust residues. Careful selection criteria areapplied to suppliers, outside warehouses, andtransport vehicles to help ensure pests arenot introduced into incoming product. Rawmaterials are received in separate buildings.Trucks are inspected before unloading anduntreated spices are treated with ethylene

oxide. Heat treatments will be used insteadof methyl bromide for vault treatment of oatsand flour containing insects. The pest controlprogram is carried out in cooperation with apest control contractor, and uses frequentmonitoring and spot treatments whennecessary.

IPM is viewed as an ongoing processrequiring continuous improvement. The plantis constantly being monitored and inspectedfor areas that need to be repaired orupgraded to control damaging pests.

For more Information:Diane Lohnes (416) 288-3343, orTerry Ramalho (416) 288-3354,Griffith Laboratories

Quaker Oats

The Quaker Oats Company of Canadaoperates a cereal milling and processingfacility in Peterborough, Ontario. Parts of thefacility are almost 100 years old, and aremade with timber posts, wooden floors andstone walls. The IPM system at Quaker isanchored firmly on its sanitation program,and heat treatments of the facility.

Important components of Quaker’s IPMsystem are knowledge, training, cleaning,standards, monitoring, plant design andretrofitting, and equipment purchase.Sanitation has been made the responsibilityof each manufacturing unit, and employeeshave been trained to have a high level ofawareness and concern for sanitation.Suppliers must be approved and meet strictsanitation standards for incoming products;infested shipments are rejected. Significantinvestments have been made to minimizechemical interventions and make the plant

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compatible with heat treatments. The use ofmethyl bromide has been significantlyminimized by the IPM system, and it is usedonly on occasion in response to a knownneed, and where heat treatments cannot bemade.

In addition, Quaker Oats has been activelyinvolved in research trials of new treatments,specifically combinations of heat anddiatomaceous earth (DE), and heat,phosphine and carbon dioxide.

For more information: Jim Rosborough,Quaker Oats Company of Canada Ltd.,(705) 743-6330

Rogers Foods

Rogers Foods Ltd. is a flour mill inArmstrong in the Okanagan Valley of BritishColumbia. It mills 200 tonnes of wheat aday, and its most important products arebakery flour, grocery flour and granola.

Careful and thorough sanitation is a keycomponent of pest management at RogersFoods, along with careful control ofincoming grain.

The policy at Rogers Foods has always beento turn away trucks that have live graininsects in the wheat. The use of DE inincoming wheat and in empty wheat bins hasbeen encouraged, and local farmers havebeen following these practices for 15 years.DE has also been used by suppliers to treatinfested shipments that might subsequentlybe accepted. In addition, DE is dusted lightlyinto dead spaces in the mill before they aresealed to provide lasting control inunreachable locations.

When treatments are necessary, phosphinehas been used with good results. The

Okanagan Valley is a virtual desert duringthe summer, and the low humidity hasresulted in little problem with electricaldamage from corrosion. Trials have alsobeen done and are continuing with heattreatments and combination treatmentsincluding heat/phosphine/carbon dioxide, andheat/diatomaceous earth.

For more information: Rudy Bergen,Rogers Foods, (250) 546-8744,extension 241

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V. FUTURE CHALLENGES

As noted above, the key to implementing anintegrated pest management approach (IPM)in a food processing facility will be asustained commitment from companymanagement. Collecting information todevelop a pest management plan will bechallenging, however, information sourcesand pest management expertise are available.

A variety of tools are available for use inIPM. Further work on optimum use of thesetools, or development of additional toolscould enhance adoption of IPM. Some of theidentified needs are as follows:

C greater variety of approved monitoringand trapping devices, including effectivepheromone traps for certain varieties ofinsects;

C viable registered fumigants, especially foruse as a preventative and in emergencysituations;

C greater variety of residual insecticides;

C information on managing the phosphinecorrosion problem, particularly in highrelative humidities such as for pastadryers. A study is currently under wayunder the Canada/U.S. Methyl BromideWorking Group to study corrosionassociated with phosphine use;

C facilitation of heat treatment, requiringadequate sources of heat, capital outlayto adapt facilities, and ability to removeor protect sensitive equipment andmaterial;

C for combination treatment, proceduresfor close monitoring and control oftemperature, and concentration of

phosphine and carbon dioxide duringcombination treatment; and

C commercial scale trials of effectiveness ofheat and diatomaceous earth on residentinsect population.

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Appendix 1 - Phase-out Dates and Interim Reduction Targets for MethylBromide

The Montreal Protocol is an international agreement aimed at reversing the damage done to thestratospheric ozone layer, the earth’s natural protective shield from the sun’s rays. When theMontreal Protocol was amended in Copenhagen in 1992, methyl bromide was added to the list ofozone-depleting substances subject to control and a freeze in consumption and production wasestablished for 1995.

After signing the Montreal Protocol in 1987, Canada developed a control program to meet itsinternational requirements. At a minimum, the program has to achieve the controls and timetableprovided for in the Montreal Protocol. Canada’s Ozone Layer Protection Program was revised in1995, and the following measures were adopted for methyl bromide (Table 1):

Table 1: Canadian Reduction Schedule for Methyl Bromide

1995 Freeze production and consumption*

1998 25% reduction*

2001 100% elimination**

* Excluding quantities used for quarantine and pre-shipment applications.

** Excluding quantities used for quarantine and pre-shipment applications and quantities usedfor emergency and critical uses.

For further information contact:

Josée PortugaisEnvironment CanadaCommercial Chemicals Evaluation Branch14th Floor, Place Vincent MasseyHull, Québec K1A 0H3Telephone: (819) 997-7935Facsimile: (819) 953-4936E-mail: josee.portugais@ec.gc.ca

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Appendix 2 - Selected References

The following references provide useful information for various aspects of integrated pestmanagement (IPM), including identification and biology of pests, sanitation, and treatment andcontrol. A few of these books are out of print, but should be available through libraries. Aselection of Internet sites is also given.

The list is not intended to be complete or authoritative and many other useful publications andinformation sources exist. Pest control operators and associations, food industry associations,food safety consultants and specific training organizations are valuable sources of information.Many of these groups can be found on the World Wide Web.

A Flour Mill Sanitation Manual, by Robert Mills and John Pederson. (1990). Eagan Press.- equipment inspection and cleaning, IPM, regulatory considerations, factors responsible for

product contamination, heat sterilization, insecticides- available from Eagan Press, 3340 Pilot Knob Road, St. Paul, Minnesota 55121-2097 U.S.A.

(612) 454-7250

AIB Consolidated Standards for Food Safety. Third edition, rev. (1990). American Institute ofBaking.

- inspection and sanitation rating system for food processing facilities- available from American Institute of Baking, 1213 Bakers Way, P.O. Box 3999 Manhattan,

Kansas 66505-3999 U.S.A. (913) 537-4750

Basic Food Plant Sanitation Manual. Third edition, rev. (1979). American Institute of Baking.- sanitation and pest issues for food facilities- available from American Institute of Baking, 1213 Bakers Way, P.O. Box 3999 Manhattan,

Kansas 66505-3999 U.S.A. (913) 537-4750

Ecology and Management of Food Industry Pests. Food and Drug Administration technicalbulletin No. 4, by J. Richard Gorham (editor). (1991). Association of Official AnalyticalChemists.

- ecology prevention, inspections and regulations within food facilities- available from AOAC International, Signet Bank Lockbox, PO Box 75198 Baltimore, MD

21275-5198 U.S.A. (301) 924-7077

Engineering for Food Safety & Sanitation, by Thomas J. Imholte. (1984). Technical Instituteof Food Safety.

- sanitation and IPM through design- currently out of print

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Food Safety Enhancement Program Implementation Manual [kit]. Ottawa: AgricultureCanada, 1993. Four volumes and one videocassette.

- The Food Safety Enhancement Program Manual has been prepared as an aid toimplementation and inspection teams of the Canadian Food Inspection Agency, and toindustry's management and employees. Its use is intended during the implementation phases ofHazard Analysis Critical Control Points (HACCP). Under HACCP, critical stages inproduction of a food product are identified and monitored. HACCP plans are unique for eachestablishment and specific food product.

Guidelines for Food Processing Plants. ASI Food Safety Consultants. - inspection, audit and sanitation; rating system for food processing facilities- available from ASI Food Safety Consultants, 7625 Page Boulevard, St. Louis, Missouri

63133 U.S.A. (314) 725-2555

Handbook of Pest Control: The Behavior, Life History, and Control of Household Pests.Eighth edition, by Arnold Mallis, edited by Dan Moreland. (1997). Franzak & Foster.

- pest control manual- available from Franzak & Foster, 4012 Bridge Avenue, Cleveland, Ohio 44113 U.S.A.

(800) 456-0707

Insect Management for Food Storage and Processing, by Fred J. Baur (editor). (1984). TheAmerican Association of Cereal Chemists.

- insect identification, inspection techniques, control measures for food facilities- out of print

Insect Pests of Flour Mills, Grain Elevator and Feed Mills and their Control. ResearchBranch, Agriculture Canada Publication 1776E, by R.N. Sinha and F.L. Watters. (1985).Canadian Government Publication Centre.

- pest identification and control within the grain industry- out of print

NPCA Field Guide to Structural Pests, by Eric H. Smith and Richard C. Whitman. (1992).National Pest Control Association.

- pest identification and control measures- available from the National Pest Control Association, 8100 Oak Street, Dunn Loring, Virginia

22027 U.S.A. (703) 573-8330

Pest Control. (periodical). - available from Advanstar Communications, 7500 Old Oak Boulevard, Cleveland, Ohio 44130

U.S.A. (440) 243-8100

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Pest Control Becomes a Team Effort, by Dean Stanbridge. (1998). Pest Control, May 1998:50-52.

- an account of the successful integration of pest management into a food plant’s goodmanufacturing practices, resulting in eliminating methyl bromide treatments, nearly eliminatingthe use of contact and residual insecticides, and saving the company money

Pest of Stored Products and Their Control, by D.S. Hall. (1990). Belhaven Press.- insects, rodents, and bird pests described as well as their chemical physical and biological

control, and IPM- available from Belhaven Press, 25 Floral Street, London, England, WC2E 9DS

Stored Product Protection... A Period of Transition, by David K. Mueller. (1998). Insects Limited Inc.

- alternatives, options and strategies for pest management in stored food products- available from Fumigation Service & Supply, 10540 Jessup Boulevard, Indianapolis, Indiana

46280-1451 U.S.A.

Truman’s Scientific Guide to Pest Control Operations. Fifth edition, by Gary W. Bennett,John M. Owens, Robert M. Corrigan. (1997). Purdue University.

- pest identification and control measures- available from Advanstar Communication, 7500 Old Oak Boulevard, Cleveland, Ohio 44130

U.S.A. (440) 243-8100

UNEP 1994 Report of the Methyl Bromide Technical Options Committee. (1994).- addresses the technical availability of chemical and non-chemical alternatives for methyl

bromide- includes alternatives still under research or development- assessment is being updated during 1998- available from SMI (Distribution Services) Ltd., P.O. Box 119, Stevenage, Hertfordshire,

England, SGI 4TP

Urban Entomology, by Walter Ebeling. (1975). University of California, Division of AgriculturalSciences.

- pest control and pest identification reference- out of print, but posted on the World Wide Web with the proviso that "many chemical control

procedures recommended are NOT current and/or currently recommended. Regulatorychanges have made the application of some of the control procedures no longer legal oradvisable. However, species information is still of great value."Location: http://entmuseum9.ucr.edu/ENT133/ebeling/ebeling.html

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Internet Resources

Government and University Links: Research and General Information

Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada:Cereal Research Station has information on good storage practices, and stored product insects

A http://res.agr.ca/winn/home.htmlReport on the use of heat and diatomaceous earth as a replacement for methyl bromide

A http://res.agr.ca/winn/Heat-DE.htm

Canadian Food Inspection Agency:Reference Listing of Accepted Materials, Packaging Materials and Non-Food, ChemicalProducts

A http://www.cfia-acia.agr.ca/reference/conteng.htmlFood Safety Enhancement Program

A http://www.cfia-acia.agr.ca/english/food/haccp/haccp.html

CISRO, Australian Stored Grain Research Laboratory A http://www.ento.csiro.au/research/storprod/storprod.html

EXTOXNET is a collaborative effort between several U.S. universities to offer information onpesticides written for the lay personA http://ace.ace.orst.edu/info/extoxnet/

Health Canada’s Pest Management Regulatory Agency offers an overview of the agency, recentreports and a telephone directoryA http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/pmra

Purdue University, projects ongoing within the university and extensive links to other World WideWeb sitesA http://pasture.ecn.purdue.edu/~grainlab

USDA-ARS, Grain Marketing and Production Research, the main U.S. Department ofAgriculture working on storage of cerealsA http://bru.usgmrl.ksu.edu/index.html

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Government and University Links: Methyl Bromide

Environment Canada’s page on methyl bromide A http://www.ec.gc.ca/ozone/mbrfact.htm

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agriculture Research Service methyl bromide pageA http://www.ars.usda.gov/is/mb/mebrweb.htm

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency’s site on the phase-out of methyl bromide A http://www.epa.gov/docs/ozone/mbr/mbrqa.html

United Nations Environment Program:Methyl Bromide Technical Options Committee

A http://www.teap.org/html/methyl_bromide.htmlOzone Secretariat, including publications

A http://www.unep.org/unep/secretar/ozone/home.htm

Industry Links

There are numerous sites on the World Wide Web with information from the pest control andfood processing industries, including national organizations and local suppliers. Searches will yieldnumerous resources. Suggested key words include:

- food plant pest control- food safety and hygiene- food processing sanitation- pest control + food processing- pest control industry