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INTEGRATION OF HYDRAULIC MODEL (HEC-RAS) AND GEOGRAPHICAL
INFORMATION SYSTEM (GIS) IN DEVELOPING FLOOD EVACUATION
CENTER ALONG SEMBRONG RIVER AREA
NOR AZIMAH BINTI MARIMIN
A thesis submitted in fulfillment of the requirement for the award of the
Master’s Degree of Civil Engineering with Honors.
Faculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering
Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia
FEBRUARY 2019
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DEDICATION
To my beloved
Dad Marimin bin Sahar,
Mother A’inah binti Abu,
Sisters Norliza, Normala and Halimah,
Fiance Hairi,
Supervisor Dr Adib and Co-Supervisor Dr Mustaffa,
Lecturers, family members and friends,
Thanks for all the supports,
May Allah bless you all.
-Sincerely, Nor Azimah binti Marimin-
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
First and foremost, I would like to take this opportunity to deeply praise Almighty
Allah S.W.T for His blessing that I can pass all of this moment and successfully
accomplished this thesis in time and presentably. In preparing this thesis, I was in
contact with many people, academician, and practitioners. They have contributed
towards my understanding and thoughts. I wish to express my highest gratitude to
PM Dr Mohd Adib bin Mohammad Razi and PM Sr. Dr. Mustaffa bin Anjang
Ahmad as my Supervisor and Co-Supervisor for encouragement, guidance, critics
and friendship.
Besides that I am also very thankful to staff from Department of Drainage
and Irrigation, Batu Pahat, Department of Educational Batu Pahat and Civil Defence
Agency (UTHM) for their cooperation, guidance and recommendations on
completing this thesis. Without their continued support and interest, this thesis would
not complete on time and would not have been the same as presented here. I am also
indebted to Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia (UTHM) for providing the
facilities for my research work. My appreciation also goes to the panel‟s participant
(En Saifullizan, Dr Salleh, Dr Anuar and Dr Hidayat) during the presentation of this
study.
My sincere appreciation also extends to my parents, family members, friends
(Hairiah, Jannah, Nadia, Putri and Shahiran Liyana) and those that involved directly
or indirectly for giving their full support and had provided assistance at various
occasions. Their views and advices were very useful indeed. I will never forget this
memorable time to be at UTHM all this while.
Thank you.
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ABSTRACT
Flood is a short-lived event, causes by the continuous rain that leads to overflow of
river water to river bank. The issues regarding flood event specially involving the
emergency response solution that can be viewed from the aspects of the evacuation
center and its access route. Flood evacuation center and its access route could be
managed through HEC-RAS and GIS software as both are useful instruments for
mapping and analyzing the situation. The objectives of this study are to determine
flood prone area of Sembrong River in two-dimensional (2D) view by using HEC-
RAS, to evaluate the suitability of current location of evacuation centers and to
develop a new evacuation center and its access route by using GIS. HEC-RAS was
utilized to produce an output of two-dimensional (2D) flood prone map of Sembrong
River. The area coverage for 3 meter flood and below was 104.114 km2 areas out of
1872.56 km2
of Batu Pahat area. Whereas, by using GIS technology, 3 existing flood
evacuation centers named SK Seri Bandan, SK Bukit Kuari and SK Kota Dalam
were evaluated regarding their location‟s suitability. 14 new locations of flood
evacuation center with suitable criteria such as the capacity to accommodate numbers
of people, high ground and access route were proposed for intent of rescuing and
evacuating flood victims to safer locations. Flood and evacuation center‟s location
data were then compared with the data from Malaysia Civil Defence Force. Those
results obtained were very useful tool for future flood mitigation measures and flood
evacuation planning.
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ABSTRAK
Banjir adalah peristiwa jangka pendek yang berlaku disebabkan oleh hujan yang
berterusan dan mengakibatkan limpahan air sungai ke tebing sungai. Isu-isu banjir
yang utama adalah yang melibatkan aspek pusat pemindahan dan rangkaian jalan.
Analisis pusat pemindahan banjir dan rangkaian jalannya dapat dijalankan dengan
berkesan dengan menggunakan instrumen HEC-RAS dan GIS kerana kedua-duanya
merupakan instrumen yang berguna untuk pemetaan dan analisis. Objektif kajian ini
adalah untuk menentukan kawasan limpahan banjir Sungai Sembrong dalam
pandangan dua dimensi (2D) dengan menggunakan HEC-RAS, untuk menilai
kesesuaian lokasi pusat pemindahan yang sudah tersedia dan untuk membangunkan
pusat pemindahan baru bersama rangkaian jalannya dengan menggunakan GIS.
HEC-RAS digunakan untuk menghasilkan peta banjir dua dimensi (2D) pada sungai
Sembrong. Liputan kawasan banjir sedalam 3 meter dan ke bawah ialah 104.114 km2
dari 1872.56 km2
kawasan Batu Pahat. Sementara itu, dengan menggunakan
teknologi GIS, 3 pusat pemindahan banjir seperti SK Seri Bandan, SK Bukit Kuari
dan SK Kota Dalam telah dinilai mengenai kesesuaian lokasinya. 14 lokasi baru
untuk pusat pemindahan banjir dengan kriteria yang sesuai seperti kapasiti yang
mencukupi untuk menampung bilangan penduduk, kawasan yang tinggi dan
ketersediaan rangkaian jalan dicadangkan untuk tujuan menyelamat dan
memindahkan mangsa banjir ke lokasi yang lebih selamat. Kesemua data lokasi
banjir dan pusat pemindahan dibandingkan dengan data dari Angkatan Pertahanan
Awam Malaysia. Hasil kajian ini sangat berguna untuk langkah-langkah
pengurangan banjir dan perencanaan pemindahan mangsa banjir pada masa hadapan.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
TITLE
DECLARATION
DEDICATION
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
ABSTRACT
TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF TABLE
LIST OF FIGURE
LIST OF SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS
LIST OF APPENDICES
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CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of study
1.2 Problem background
1.3 Objectives of study
1.4 Scope of study
1.5 Organization of dissertation
CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Flood as natural disaster
2.2.1 Causes of floods
2.2.2 Damages due to flood
2.2.3 Malaysia‟s 2014 flood event
2.3 Evacuation centre
2.4 Hydrological Engineering Center‟s River
Analysis System (HEC-RAS)
2.4.1 Relationship between HEC-RAS and GIS
2.5 Geographical Information System (GIS)
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2.5.1 GIS analysis data
2.5.2 The importance of GIS
2.5.3 GIS in flood management
2.6 Map projection
2.7 Network analyst
2.8 Summary
CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGY
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Methodology flow chart
3.3 Overall research plan
3.4 Preliminary study
3.5 Literature review
3.6 Data collection
3.7 Data collection of HEC-RAS flood modelling
3.7.1 HEC-RAS parameter
3.7.2 Water surface profile computation
3.8 HEC-RAS 2D flood modelling operation
3.8.1 2D flow area
3.8.2 Sembrong River‟s cross section data
3.8.3 Unsteady flow analysis
3.9 Data collection of GIS analysis
3.9.1 Coordinate and elevation tracking
3.10 GIS work flow
3.11 Data analysis
3.11.1 DEM and contour line data of Batu Pahat
3.11.2 Land use map of Batu Pahat
3.11.3 Population data
3.11.4 Flooded area data from HEC-RAS
3.11.5 Flood level determination
3.11.6 Data digitizing
3.11.7 Data conversion
3.11.8 Flood evacuation center location
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3.11.9 Route mapping
3.12 Summary
CHAPTER 4 RESULT AND DATA ANALYSIS
4.1 Introduction
4.2 HEC-RAS data analysis
4.2.1 Analysis results of cross section data
4.2.2 2D flow map
4.3 Coordinate‟s accuracy analysis
4.4 Flood map analysis
4.5 Analysis of evacuation center
4.5.1 Suitability of existing evacuation center
4.5.2 Propose of new evacuation center
4.6 Access route
4.6.1 Zone 1
4.6.2 Zone 2
4.6.3 Zone 3
4.6.4 Zone 4
4.7 Summary
CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Conclusion on the research findings
5.3 Research limitations
5.4 Recommendation for future research
REFFERENCES
APPENDICES
PUBLICATION
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LIST OF TABLES
2.1 Regions affected by massive flood in 2014
2.2 Total of evacuees in states affected by 2014 flood
2.3 Cost of damages according to states
3.1 Overall research plan
3.2 Standard Manning value
3.3 Study area‟s population data
4.1 Water overflow in Sembrong River‟s station
4.2 On site and on map elevation value
4.3 Condition of existing evacuation center
4.4 Details of proposed evacuation center
4.5 List of residential area in each zone
4.6 Route distance in Zone 1 area
4.7 Route distance in Zone 2 area
4.8 Route distance in Zone 3 area
4.9 Route distance in Zone 4 area
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LIST OF FIGURES
1.1 Floods in Johor, December 2006 and January 2007
1.2 Flood prone areas in Malaysia
1.3 Flooded house in Parit Londang, Parit Raja during flood
event in November 2015
1.4 Disconnected of road during flood event in Batu Pahat
1.5 Map of study area along Sembrong River
2.1 Seven causes of flooding
2.2 Four effects of flooding
2.3 Flood caused damages to road and bridge
2.4 Flood caused damages to home
2.5 Cross sections of river shown in HEC-RAS
2.6 Schematic representation of the used computer device
2.7 Map projection in ArcGIS
2.8 Methodology for finding optimum route
3.1 Methodology flow chart
3.2 Sembrong River and its cross sectional location
3.3 Creating 2D flow area of Sembrong River
3.4 2D computational mesh for Sembrong area
3.5 HEC-RAS cross-section coordinates
3.6 Adding river station data
3.7 HEC-RAS finished computation
3.8 Coordinate tracking at Sekolah Kebangsaan Seri Sabak
Uni by using Google Earth
3.9 Leveling equipment
3.10 Leveling work to determine elevation value of choosen
point along study area
3.11 Flow chart of data collection for network analysis
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3.12 Contour line data extracted from DEM of Batu Pahat
3.13 Batu Pahat land use map
3.14 Exporting layer from RAS Mapper
3.15 Spatial analysis of DEM data
3.16 Displaying flood level
3.17 Creating path in Google Earth‟s
3.18 Access route is develop
3.19 Spatial data from Google Earth
3.20 Converting KML format into layer format
3.21 Converting layer format into Shapefile format
3.22 Adding XY coordinates data
3.23 Example location of existing evacuation center
3.24 Result of road digitizing in Google Earth
3.25 Attribute data of Batu Pahat‟s road
3.26 Validating map through topology
3.27 Rule for route featuring class
3.28 Creating new route network dataset
3.29 Selecting new route to evacuation center
3.30 Solving network analysis
3.31 Summarization of methodology
4.1 Water surface profile along Sembrong River
4.2 HEC-RAS cross-section plot
4.3 2D model flow of Sembrong River
4.4 Flood prone area of Sembrong River
4.5 Location of flood evacuation center in the flood map
4.6 Interview session with Education Officer of Batu Pahat
4.7 School visit to the proposed evacuation center
4.8 Location of proposed flood evacuation center
4.9 Potential access route to evacuation center
4.10 Access route in Zone 1
4.11 Access route in Zone 2
4.12 Access route in Zone 3
4.13 Access route in Zone
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LIST OF SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS
H
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GIS
DEM
HEC-RAS
DID
ADAS
JKR
UTHM
- Energy head
- Channel bed elevation above datum
- Pressure head/water depth
- Velocity weighting coefficient
- Flow rate/discharge
- Average velocity
- Area at cross section
- Hydraulic radius
- Manning roughness coefficient
- Conveyance
- Friction head loss
- Distance between adjacent cross section
- Contraction or expansion head loss
- Contraction or expansion coefficient
- Geographical Information System
- Digital Elevation Model
- Hydrological Engineering Center-River
Analysis System
- Department of Irrigation and Drainage
- Australian Diver Accreditation Society
- Jabatan Kerja Raya
- Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia
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LIST OF APPENDICES
A
B
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D
Schematic graph of Sembrong River station
Flood location data in Batu Pahat 2004-2010
Flood location and its scenario in Batu Pahat
Registered flood evacuation center in Batu Pahat
Example of proposed evacuation center
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CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of study
Number of flood events has increased significantly all around the world recently.
Number of fatalities per flood event exhibited an almost constant trend during the
1980s and 1990s, but it has markedly decreased since the year 2000 despite the
significant increase in the number of floods (Parker et al., 2007). Climate changes,
changes in land use and other anthropogenic interventions are the main causes of
changes in flood risk.
Flood is the most significant natural hazard in Malaysia in terms of the affects
towards the population, frequency of the occurrences, damaged areas, the flood
duration itself and its social and economic damage. A conservative figure of RM100
million has been estimated as the average loss by flood damage per year (Mustafa,
2007; Siwar et al., 2009).
While, in Johor itself, the worst flood event happened in late 2006 and early
2007 (Gasim et al., 2010). Figure 1.1 shows floods in Johor in December 2006 and
January 2007 that had caused road, residential and agricultural areas being
submerged. Okezie & Amir (2012) confirmed that flood during that time had
displaced 110,000 people with an estimated damaged Ringgit Malaysia (RM) 0.35
billion worth of infrastructures and had caused RM2.4 billion in economic losses.
Major towns and cities suffering from the floods included Batu Pahat, Johor Bahru,
Kluang, Kota Tinggi, Mersing, Muar, Pontian and Segamat (DID, 2009). That
tragedy happened due to the heavy rainfall within a long period of time that occurred
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in the low land area. Flood event that occurred due to heavy rainfall and the impact
of large amount of surface runoff will led to the large amount of suspended solid
flow onto the river bed (Ahmad et al., 2010). That suspended solid will then become
sedimentation on the river bed which led to the changes of water level depth and
causing the river overflown and flooding.
Figure 1.1: Floods in Johor, December 2006 and January 2007 (DID, 2009)
During flood disaster response, assistance measures may include planning
routes for people to evacuate and the location of temporary facilities (Joao, 2012).
This study was conducted to develop flood evacuation center and access routes from
residential area of flood victims to the evacuation center and vice versa. Thus, by
using Geographical Information System (GIS) technology, developing of flood
evacuation center and their access routes can easily be made because GIS helps in
manipulating data in the computer, simulating alternatives and taking the most
effective decision (Ashtashil & Isha, 2011).
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1.2 Problem background
Nowadays, natural disaster such as flood has become a recurring phenomenal in most
parts of Malaysia and the world in general. Focussing on the issue of flood in
Malaysia, one of the floods prone areas are in the state of Johor as shown in Figure
1.2. Flood in January 2007 had caused 8 districts in Johor being submerged by the
flood and the worst affected areas were Batu Pahat and Kluang (DID, 2009). Flood
victims at that time were facing problems with the unavailable of treated water and
electricity supplies for many days.
Figure 1.2: Flood prone areas in Malaysia (DID, 2009)
Batu Pahat as stated as one of the affected districts in Johor has been selected
for this study. Flood events in Batu Pahat in the year of 2006 had caused many
people been evacuated to the nearest evacuation centres, damages of residential,
public infrastructure and agriculture area, and submerges of access routes in certain
area (Economic Planning Unit Johor, 2016). One of the examples was flood event in
2012, where number of flood victims rescued in Batu Pahat District increased to
International Border
State Border
Flooded Area
River
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1,629 people as at 6 pm, from 754 people with 15 evacuation centers were opened
during that time (Sinar Harian, 2012). While, Figure 1.3 shows a flooded house, in
one of villages in Parit Raja, Batu Pahat during flood event in 2015. According to
that case, three schools became evacuation center to accommodate 356 peoples
involving 100 families in that area (Berita Harian, 2015). Problems encountered
when those school buildings were not registered by Department of Social Welfare as
evacuation center and were opened without considering any criteria of suitability and
in terms of safety itself. Thus, the opening of unregistered building as evacuation
center without knowing their number of capacity will cause problems in the process
of evacuating flood victims and transferring helps such foods and other daily needs
(Aizel, M.M., Education Officer, March 27, 2018).
Figure 1.3: Flooded house in Parit Londang, Parit Raja during flood event in
November 2015 (Berita Harian, 2015)
A few decades ago, opening of evacuation center was determined according
to the construction of schools in the neighbourhood. There were some of the school
being constructed without following the standard height of land that was suitable to
deal with evacuation issues during flood period (Farhan, 2014). Other than height of
land factor, availability of access route also becomes a necessary in evacuating the
flood victims to a safer place. Australian Red Cross (2012) mentioned that the
adaptability of space for flood victim‟s elements such as walkways, altitude areas,
safety and ease of communication was an essential point of emphasis.
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The availability of safe access route is important element to be highlighted in
this study for the process of transferring flood victim to the nearest evacuation
center. Figure 1.4 shows disconnected of Batu Pahat‟s road during flood event that
has led to problems in the process of saving the flood victims and supplying them
with enough facilities. Thus, the purpose of this study instead of evaluating the
suitability of existing evacuation center‟s location, was to develop new locations of
evacuation center and their access routes with the help of HEC-RAS and GIS
software.
Figure 1.4: Disconnected of road during flood event in Batu Pahat
(Sinar Harian, 2012)
1.3 Objectives of study
The aim of the study is to develop flood evacuation centers and access routes by
using Geographical Information System (GIS) along Sembrong River area.
Therefore, the objectives are:
(i) To determine floodprone areas of Sembrong River in two-dimensional (2D)
by using HEC-RAS.
(ii) To evaluate the suitability of the existing flood evacuation center by using
GIS.
(iii) To develop new flood evacuation centers and their access route by using GIS.
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1.4 Scope of study
Study has been conducted along Sembrong River that flows through South-Eastern
part of Johor and afterward flows into Bekok River and Simpang Kanan River in
Batu Pahat. Figure 1.5 illustrates the map of studied area. Sembrong River‟s dam
provides downstream flood protection up to 100-years return period with a maximum
release of 42 cumecs. It has a drainage length of 22.3 km that covers an area of 273
km2 with elevation of 10 meters above mean sea level. The land usage activities
along this river inclusive of industrial areas, residential areas and agriculture
activities, such as palm oil mill and paddy fields (Marina et al., 2014).
Sembrong River covers some parts of Batu Pahat area. The total coverage of
Batu Pahat is 1,872.56 km2 and has a population of 383,391 inhabitants (Department
of Statistic Johor, 2017). Batu Pahat has received an average rainfall of 2 millimetres
per day group and had often experienced the tidal and water level rise phenomena
around January to February as stated by Malaysia Meteorological Department.
Figure 1.5: Map of study area along Sembrong River
(Google Earth)
In this study, data collection was divided into two sections that were data for
HEC-RAS hydraulic model and data for GIS analysis that were necessary for
floodprone area data and evacuation process respectively. Geometry and flow data
were needed to determine the floodprone area. For GIS analysis, spatial, attribute and
empirical data were the three main elements in accurately generating all the outputs.
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Spatial data such as DEM, land use map and route map of Batu Pahat were
used in identifying the geographic location of features and boundaries on Earth.
Spatial data are often accessed, manipulated or analysed through GIS. Next, attribute
data are data that have quality characteristics that meet geographic features such as
descriptive, quantitative and qualitative. For this research, attribute data for GIS
analysis included road name, road length and population. On the other hand,
empirical data such as route and topology were used as supportive data to spatial and
attribute data in analysing the data systematically.
1.5 Organization of dissertation
This report consisted of five chapters. The first chapter was about the introduction of
this study. It included the background of study, problem background, objectives of
study, scope of study and the organization of dissertation. In addition, this chapter
provided the overview about this study. The second chapter focused on the literature
review. Literature review is the researches that have already been published from
previous researchers. The topics that had been discussed were about flood as a
natural disaster in Malaysia, factors of floods and its losses, evacuation centres,
Digital Elevation Model (DEM), Global Positioning System (GPS), Coordinate
System, HEC-RAS flood analysis, Geographical Information System (GIS) and
summary of the literature review chapter.
Next, chapter three explained the methodologies used in conducting this
study. This chapter included methodology in the analysis of Sembrong River‟s
floodprone area by using HEC-RAS and analysis of evacuation process using GIS.
Then, chapter four was a presentation of the findings and the analysis of the studies
that have been done. This chapter described the data analysis based on the methods
described in chapter three. The suitability of flood evacuation centre was determined
by using several criteria.
Chapter five as the last part of this report conclude the finding according to
objectives that have been determined in chapter one. Other than that, some
recommendations were also included in this chapter for better improvement in the
future research.
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CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction
This chapter was about reviews on all research scopes including flood as natural
disaster, causes of flooding and its losses, evacuation center, Hydrological
Engineering Center River Analysis System (HEC-RAS), Geographical Information
System (GIS), Map Projection and Network Analyst. These reviews were based on
reading sources such as books, journals, articles, trusted internet sources and
previous projects that related with this research.
2.2 Flood as natural disaster
Nowadays, the main cause of irrecoverable damages of worldwide is natural disaster
(Vorogushyn et al., 2012). Natural disaster is said to be a hazardous threat that occurs
naturally and gives negative effect on human life or properties (Stephen, 2018). One
of the most common natural disasters that happen all around the world is flood.
Flood is a natural phenomenon where the land is covered by water that overflows by
the inland water bodies. Pradhan & Youssef (2011) cited that flood has caused
considerable damages to high-ways, settlement, agriculture and livelihood. There are
several definitions of floods that we can take into accounts so that it can help us to
see the overall picture of how flood occurs. Other theoretical explanation states that
flood is usually caused either by the continuous rain that causes a greater quantity of
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water than normal, or overflows of river water to the river bank, or both happening at
once (Balkema et al., 1993).
Flood is usually a local short-lived event that can happen suddenly and
sometimes with little or no warning. It is usually caused by intense storms that
produce more runoff for an area to store or a stream to sustain within its normal
channel. Changes in global climate and land use have increased the severity and
frequency of floods all around the world (Akinci & Erdogan, 2014). While, rivers
can also cause flood on its surroundings when the dams failed, when ice or a
landslide temporarily block the course of the river channel, or when snow melts
rapidly (Shakeel, 2018). In the year of 2014, there was a rapid case of flood that
occurred from the Northeast monsoon which hit certain countries such as Indonesia,
West Malaysia, Southern Thailand and later Sri Lanka in South Asia (Zainal &
Sunitha, 2015). Table 2.1 shows the affected regions due to the massive flood in
2014, with its estimated total of evacuees.
Table 2.1: Regions affected by massive flood in 2014
(Zainal & Sunitha, 2015)
Country Facilities Evacuees
Indonesia
0
120,000
Malaysia 21 237,037
Thailand 15 10,000
Sri Lanka 39 50,832
Total 75 417,869
With focused on the Malaysia case, the massive flood hit the country from
15th of December 2014 to 3rd of January 2015. During the flood event, more than
200,000 Malaysians were affected and 21 people were killed (Asia One, 2015). The
flood also had caused the flood victims a great devastation, especially when it comes
to loss of homes and other infrastructures.
2.2.1 Causes of floods
Flood occurs in many situations that making the information involving the flood
prediction as always considered arbitrary. This is due to dynamicity of flood itself
that affected by the environmental changes and even the internal and external factors
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of its occurrence. The most common factors that lead to the occurrence of flood in
Malaysia are urbanization and lose of water catchment (Chia, 2005). A research
carried out by Kong et al., (2010) on urban flooding as shown in Figure 2.1 verified
that 28% of people believed that flood was due to improper drainage system, 20%
thought the cause was pollution, 18% said it was the management or urbanization
and environment factor at 16%, 11% of respondents agreed that weather was the
causative agent and 7% chose dam break as a reason.
Figure 2.1: Seven causes of flooding
(Kong et al., 2010)
One of the issues regarding the environment is forest destruction or
deforestation activity. Van Kooten & Bulte (2000) said that deforestation was the
conversion of forest to an alternative permanent non-forested land use such as
agriculture, grazing or urban development. Upon the occurrence of an unplanned
deforestation, the activity will sometimes cause a forest ecosystem being
inconsistent. This can cause floods even in forested areas due to incapability of
sustaining excess water which cannot be absorbed by the tree roots. Thus,
deforestation makes the soil becomes weaker and exposed to soil erosion. Soil
erosion is defined as the wearing of topsoil and since it is the top layer of soil, it is
the most fertile and contains the most organic, nutrient-rich materials. It indirectly
can cause the catchment area to be unable of withstand certain amount water volume
and this will potentially cause flooding to occur in the catchment area.
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2.2.2 Damages due to flood
Flood losses in terms of loss of life and damage to properties are substantial
as a result of seasonal floods occurring almost annually in one part of the country or
another. Vinet (2008) stated that damages of home, shops and industries were the
effects of flooding. The research concluded that flood victims have problem with the
cost of repair and some small shops did not reopen after the disaster.
Research by Kong et al., (2010) stated that more than 33% of people during
their research agreed that water damages to house, structures and appliances were
some of the effects of floods. Loss of income due to closing of business was another
effect of floods. Figure 2.2 shows that about 25% of people agree with this fact and
17% believe that transport disruption is another effect of flood (Kong et al., 2010).
Figure 2.2: Four effects of flooding
(Kong et al., 2010)
Other than all the consequences of flood that can be seen which involve
property damage, social chaos and death, there are also negative effects of flood as
follows:
(i) Destruction of agricultural crops
Agricultural crops will be destroyed by floods that hit the area. It results in
huge losses to farmers as well as directly to consumers due to the effects of
food shortages. Estimates of the areas and crops affected area were made
from draft flood extent outline maps and other estimates from the
Environment Agency (EA) and by statistical analysis at 1 kilometre scale
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