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MKW@BB@NWPDB U_JU@_W], _@KW-

^@@HMKI DKG @KW_@U_@K@P_^AMU MK

WA@ CP^MN MKGP^W_M@^

FJAK YMBBMDC^JK

D ta`sms suocmtt`g mk pdrtmdb lublmbc`kt jl ta`r`qumr`c`kts ljr ta` g`ir`` jl Gjntjr jl

Uambjsjpay

TP@@K CD_ID_@W PKM\@_^MW]

?545

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2/289

Dostrdnt

Wa` ibjodb cusmn mkgustrm`s adv` o``k ukg`rijmki d p`rmjg jl suostdktmdb

strunturdb, lmkdknmdb dkg jridkmsdtmjkdb nadki` ds d r`subt jl `njkjcmn,

t`nakjbjimndb dkg sjnmj-pjbmtmndb ldntjrs.

Wams ta`sms o`imks oy g`v`bjpmki dkg prjvmgmki d nrmtmqu` jl `xmstmki

dpprjdna`s tj ta` stugy jl ta`s` mkgustrm`s ds w`bb ds jll`rmki d nb`dr`r

g`lmkmtmjk jl wadt ta`y njcprms` mk ta` tw`kty-lmrst n`ktury. Wams kjt`s ta`

bmcmtdtmjks jl ta` pjbmtmndb `njkjcy dkg nubturdb mkgustrm`s dpprjdna`s wamna

adv` gjcmkdt`g stugm`s jl ta` mkgustrm`s tj gdt`, driumki tadt ta`y jkby jll`r

d pdrtmdb `xpbdkdtmjk jl ta`mr wjrhmkis, dkg tadt r`n`kt nadki`s mk ta`

mkgustrm`s dr` p`radps o`st g`snrmo`g mk cjr` cukgdk` `njkjcmn t`rcs.

Advmki g`v`bjp`g dpprjdna`s tj dkg g`lmkmtmjks jl ta` cusmn mkgustrm`s, ta`

s`njkg pdrt jl ta` ta`sms `xpbdmks ta` njkt`cpjrdry nadki`s wmtamk ta`c

usmki, ds d stdrtmki pjmkt, nds` stugm`s jl twj jl ta` cjst smikmlmndkt k`w

lmrcs tj adv` `c`ri`g wmtamk ta` mkgustrm`s mk r`n`kt y`drs (^dkntudry Cusmn

Irjup dkg Bmv` Kdtmjk @kt`rtdmkc`kt). Oy `xdcmkmki ajw ta`y dr` jridkms`g

dkg struntur`g, mt dbbjws ljr ta` g`v`bjpc`kt jl d cjr` wmg` r`dnamkita`jrmsdtmjk jl ajw lmrcs mk ta` njkt`cpjrdry cusmn mkgustrm`s wjrh.

Wa` nds` stugm`s amiabmiat ta` mknr`dsmki jridkmsdtmjkdb lb`xmombmty jl suna

lmrcs ds ta`y dggr`ss ojta `njkjcmn dkg t`nakjbjimndb nadki`s ds w`bb ds

sadr`ajbg`r g`cdkgs. Mt driu`s tadt ta` cjst mcpjrtdkt, dkg

ukg`rg`v`bjp`g ldntjrs mk ta` njkt`cpjrdry cusmn mkgustrm`s dr` ta`

`xpbjmtdtmjk jl mkt`bb`ntudb prjp`rty rmiats, r`kt-s``hmki dkg ta` typ` jlnjrpjrdt` `ktr`pr`k`ursamp dkg bjooymki wamna st`c lrjc ta` k``g tj

dnnucubdt` MU dkg `xtrdnt dkg prjt`nt r`kt lrjc mt.

Mt njknbug`s tadt ta` njkt`cpjrdry cusmn mkgustrm`s dr` strunturdbby lb`xmob`,

dkg adv` tj njktmkudbby r`struntur` tj survmv`. Ajw`v`r, tams prjn`ss ads

o``k nadrdnt`rms`g oy d cuna ir`dt`r r`bmdkn` jk lmkdkn` lrjc jutsmg` ta`

mm

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`kt`rtdmkc`kt dkg c`gmd mkgustrm`s, cdhmki ta`c cjr` nbjs`by tm`g tj

nadki`s mk ta` wmg`r `njkjcy, ds w`bb ds `knjurdimki rdpmg irjwta mk

turkjv`r dt ta` `xp`ks` jl prjlmtdombmty.

H`ywjrgs6 cusmn mkgustrm`s, nubturdb mkgustrm`s, mkt`bb`ntudb prjp`rty, r`kt -

s``hmki, ktr`pr`k`ursamp

mmm

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Dnhkjwb`gi`c`kts

Wa` prjtrdnt`g kdtur` jl tams stugy c`dks tadt ta`r` d kuco`r jl p`jpb` tj

tadkh ljr `mta`r a`bpmki jr sull`rmki dbjki wmta c` ds ta` prjn`ss g`v`bjp`g.

^p`nmdb tadkhs tj ^usdk Adks`k ljr sadrmki dkg a`bpmki gurmki ta` cdky bjw

pjmkts jl tams b`kitay prjn`ss. F`r`cy \db`ktmk` ljr sup`rvmsmki

sycpdta`tmndbby dkg nadbb`kimki c` tj mcprjv`. Cdrtmk Nbjjkdk dkg ^mcjk

Lrmta ljr suppjrt dkg jppjrtukmtm`s tarjuiajut dkg `v`ryjk` mk ta` ^najjb jl

^jnmdb ^nm`kn`s, C`gmd dkg Njccukmndtmjk dt Tu``k Cdridr`t Pkmv`rsmty

waj ads a`bp`g dbjki ta` wdy - `sp`nmdbby Cdrh U`rnmvdb dkg Gdvmg

Lmkh`bst`mk.

Wadkhs dbsj tj cy pdr`kts ljr suppjrt tarjuiajut dkg tj cy ljrc`r

njbb`diu`s dt ta` Pkmv`rsmty jl Udmsb`y dkg jta`rs waj a`bp`g jr `knjurdi`g

ta` wjrh, `sp`nmdbby Kmnajbd Gjosjk, ^mdk Odyk`, ^mcjk` Hurtzh`, \mnhy

Odbb, Cdtt Or`kkdk, Hdt` CnOdmk, I`rry Cmbk`, Cmrmdc \dk G` Hdcp dkg

@dccjk Ljrg`. Dkg tj tajs` lrjc lurta`r dlm`bg tadt M c`t dt vdrmjus

njkl`r`kn`s (MD^UC, Nubturdb Mkgustrm`s K`twjrh) waj w`r` mkt`r`st`g mk ta`

pdp`rs jr tams wjrh.

Dkg lmkdbby. . tadkhs tj ta` c`co`rs jl O`bb` dkg ^`odstmdk ljr o`mki lb`xmob`

dkg ukg`rstdkgmki cpbjy`rs.

mv

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Njkt`kts

Dostrdnt mm

Dnhkjwb`gi`c`kts mv

Njkt`kts v

Bmst jl Door`vmdtmjks Ps`g xm

Bmst jl Wdob`s xmv

Nadpt`r 46 MKW_JGPNWMJK 4

_`s`drna Tu`stmjks 4

Njkt`xt ljr _`s`drna ?

Dpprjdna`s tj Ujpubdr Cusmn tugm`s >

Wa`sms struntur` 0

Nadpt`r ?6 BMW@_DWP_@ _@\M@Y 45

Mktrjguntmjk 45

(m) Wa` Nubturdb Mkgustrm`s dkg Njkt`cpjrdry Ndpmtdbmsc 44

(mm) G`fflkmtmjks dkg Cjg`bs jl ta` Nubturdb Mkgustrm`s 47

G`fflkmki ta` nubturdb mkgustrm`s 40

Wa` Mkgustrmdbmsdtmjk jl Cusmn >0

Ajbmstmn dkg @takjirdpamn Dnnjukts >=

v

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Cmnrj-b`v`b ^tugm`s 75

K`w Dpprjdna`s 74

Njknbusmjks, Jcmssmjks dkg Urjob`cs 7>

(m) Wa` r`njrgmki mkgustry ms kjt ta` cusmn mkgustry 7>

(mm) Ujbmtmndb @njkjcy ms kjt ta` jkby wdy 77

Nadpt`r >6 C@WAJGJBJI] 70

Ujmkts jl G`pdrtur` dkg Dpprjdna ?>0

Lmkgmkis6 Dk Jv`rvm`w ?>9

D Ndutmjkdry Kjt` dkg jc` _jut`s ljr Lurta`r _`s`drna ?7>

DUU@KGMN@^ ?79

Dpp`kgmx 46 Cjg`bs jl ta` Nubturdb Mkgustrm`s ?71

Dpp`kgmx ?6 Ibjodb _`njrg db`s (4=== - pr`s`kt) ?05

mx

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Dpp`kgmx >6 Cdfjr njcpjk`kts jl ^dkntudrys >

Dpp`kgmx 06 Cusmn Mkgustrm`s Jridkmsdtmjks dkg Bjooymki mk

ta` PH

?07

Dpp`kgmx

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Bmst jl Door`vmdtmjks Ps`g

DDMUW Dbbmdkn` Didmkst Mkt`bb`ntudb Urjp`rty Wa`lt

D&_ Drtmsts dkg _`p`rtjmr`

DGD Dbt`rkdtmv` Gmstrmoutmjk Dbbmdkn`

D@I Dksnautz @kt`rtdmkc`kt Irjup

DA_N Drts dkg Aucdkmtm`s _`s`drna Njuknmb

DMC Dbt`rkdtmv` Mkv`stc`kts Cdrh`t (PH)

DMC Dssjnmdtmjk jl Mkg`p`kg`kt Cusmn

D^NDU Dssjnmdtmjk jl Njcpjs`rs dkg Uuobmsa`rs

ODN^ Ormtmsa Dndg`cy jl Njcpjs`rs dkg jkiwrmt`rs

OON Ormtmsa Orjdgndstmki Njrpjrdtmjk

ONN Ormtmsa Njpyrmiat Njuknmb

OCI O`rtb`scdkk Cusmn Irjup

OCM Orjdgndst Cusmn Mkn

OC_ Ormtmsa Cusmn _miats

OUM Ormtmsa Uajkjirdpamn Mkgustry

NON Ndkdgmdk Orjdgndstmki Njrpjrdtmjk

NN Njcp`tmtmjk Njccmssmjk (PH)

N@J Nam`l @x`nutmv` Jlffln`r

NUD Njkn`rt Urjcjt`rs Dssjnmdtmjk

GNC^ G`pdrtc`kt jl Nubtur`, C`gmd dkg pjrt (PH)

GCND Gmimtdb Cmbb`kkmuc Njpyrmiat Dnt (P^D)

G_C Gmimtdb _miats Cdkdi`c`kt

G\G Gmimtdb \`rsdtmb` Gmsn

@@D @urjp`dk @njkjcmn Dr`d

@LL @b`ntrjkmn Lrjktm`r Ljukgdtmjk

@CM @b`ntrmndb dkg Cusmn Mkgustrm`s Btg

xm

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@P @urjp`dk Pkmjk

LDN L`dtur`g Drtmsts Njdbmtmjk

L_N Lmkdknmdb _`pjrtmki Njuknmb

L^O L`g`rdtmjk jl cdbb Ousmk`ss`s (PH)

IDWW I`k`rdb Dir``c`kt jl Wdrmlls dkg Wrdg`

IGU Irjss Gjc`stmn Urjgunt

IBN Ir`dt`r Bjkgjk Njuknmb

MDN Mkt`r Dntmv` Njrpjrdtmjk

MD^UC Mkt`rkdtmjkdb Dssjnmdtmjk Ljr Wa` tugy jl UjpubdrCusmn

MLUM Mkt`rkdtmjkdb L`g`rdtmjk jl Uajkjirdpamn Mkgustrm`s

MCUDBD Mkg`p`kg`kt Cusmn Uuobmsa`rs dkg Bdo`bsDssjnmdtmjk

MU Mkt`bb`ntudb Urjp`rty

MU_ Mkt`bb`ntudb Urjp`rty _miats

M^U Mkt`rk`t `rvmn` Urjvmg`r

BK@ Bmv` Kdtmjk @kt`rtdmkc`kt

CNU Cmgbdkg Njkn`rt Urjcjt`rs

CNU^ C`nadkmndb Njpyrmiat Urjt`ntmjk jnm`ty (PH)

CCN Cjkjpjbm`s dkg C`ri`rs Njccmssmjk (PH)

CCL Cusmn Cdkdi`rs Ljruc (PH)

CUDD Cjtmjk Umntur` Dssjnmdtmjk jl Dc`rmnd

CUUD Cusmn Uuobmsa`rs Urjt`ntmv` Dssjnmdtmjk

CY@ Cusmn Yjrbg @kt`rtdmkc`kt

KON Kdtmjkdb Orjdgndstmki Njrpjrdtmjk

K@^WD Kdtmjkdb @kgjwc`kt ljr nm`kn`, W nakjbjiy dkgta` Drts (PH)

KCd K`g`rbdkgs` C`g`gmkimkisdutjrmt`mt (K`ta`rbdkgsNjcp`tmtmjk Dutajrmty)

xmm

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KCN Kdtmjkdb Cusmn Njuknmb (PH)

JLW Jlffln` jl Ldmr Wrdgmki (JLW)

J_I Jp`k _miats Irjup

UBN Uuobmn Bmcmt`g Njcpdky

UUB Uajkjirdpamn U`rljrcdkn` Btg (PH)

U_^ U`rljrcmki _miat jnm`ty (PH)

UYN Urmn` Ydt`rajus` Njjp`r

_MDD _`njrg Mkgustry Dssjnmdtmjk jl Dc`rmnd

__^ _`b`ds` _miats jnm`ty

^DODC ^jnmt gDut`urs O`bi`-O`bimsna` Dut`urs

Cddtsnadppmf

^DN@C ^jnmt gDut`urs O`bi`-O`bimsna` Dut`ursCddtsnadppmf

^@N ^`nurmtm`s dkg @xnadki` Njccmssmjk

^@^DN ^jnm`ty jl @urjp`dk tdi` Dutajrs dkgNjcpjs`rs

^C@ ^cdbb dkg C`gmuc @kt`rprms`s

^CI ^jky Cusmn Irjup

W_MU^ Wrdg` _`bdt`g Dsp`nts jl Mkt`bb`ntudb Urjp`rty

PO^ Pkmjk Odkh wmtz`rbdkg

PH Pkmt`g Hmkigjc

PCI Pkmv`rsdb Cusmn Irjup

PK@^NJ Pkmt`g Kdtmjks @gundtmjkdb, nm`ktmffln dkg NubturdbJridkmsdtmjk

PM^ PK@^NJ Mkstmtut` jl tdtmstmns

P^D Pkmt`g tdt`s jl Dc`rmnd

YMK Yjrbg Mkg`p`kg`kts K`twjrh

YMUJ Yjrbg Mkt`bb`ntudb Urjp`rty Jridkmsdtmjk

YCI Ydrk`r Cusmn Irjup

xmmm

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Bmst jl Wdob`s

?.4 Warjsoys Njkn`ktrmn Nmrnb`s Cjg`b jl ta` Nubturdb Mkgustrm`s

0.4 ^dkntudry Cusmn Irjup6 A`dgbmk` Lmkdknmdb Lmiur`s

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NADUW@_ 46 MKW_JGPNWMJK

Wams ta`sms `xdcmk`s njkt`cpjrdry nadki`s mk ta` ibjodb cusmn mkgustrm`s4,

`xdcmkmki ta` suostdktmdb strunturdb dkg jridkmsdtmjkdb trdksljrcdtmjks wamna

adv` tdh`k pbdn` gurmki ta` bdst g`ndg`. Mt us`s d kuco`r jl c`tajgs tj

fflrstby dggr`ss ukg`rbymki qu`stmjks jl g`fflkmtmjk, o`ljr` `xdcmkmki mk g`tdmb

twj smikmfflndkt fflrcs, r`pr`s`ktdtmv` jl ta` k`w typ` jl fflrcs wamna adv`

`c`ri`g wmtamk ta` mkgustrm`s. Lrjc tams, mt dtt`cpts tj prjvmg` g`tdmb`g

dksw`rs tj ta` ljbbjwmki r`s`drna qu`stmjks dkg jll`r sjc` `xpbdkdtmjks ds

tj ajw ta` njkt`cpjrdry cusmn mkgustrm`s wjrh.

_`s`drna Tu`stmjks

Yadt dr` ta` cjst smikmfflndkt sjnmdb, pjbmtmndb, `njkjcmn dkg t`nakjbjimndbnadki`s tj adv` mcpdnt`g jk ta` cusmn mkgustrm`s mk r`n`kt y`drs:

Ajw adv` ta`s` nadki`s o``k r``nt`g mk `xmstmki dnnjukts jl ta` cusmn

mkgustry / cusmn mkgustrm`s:

Ajw ndk ta` kdtur`, nadrdnt`rmstmns dkg `njkjcmn smikmfflndkn` jl ta`s`

mkgustrm`s o` ukg`rstjjg mk d wdy wamna cjr` dnnurdt`by r``nts ta` r`dbmty

jl ta`s` nadki`s:

Ajw adv` ta`s` nadki`s mcpdnt`g jk ojta ta` struntur` jl ta` mkgustrm`sdkg ta` jridkmsdtmjk jl ta` fflrcs wmtamk ta`c:

Ajw - ml dt dbb - ms ta` jp`rdtmjk jl ta`s` k`w typ` jl fflrcs gmll`r`kt lrjc

tajs` mk jta`r (nubturdb) mkgustrm`s:

Ajw adv` mkgmvmgudbs, ta` njcpdkm`s ta`cs`bv`s dkg njbb`ntmv` odridmkmki

jridkmsdtmjks r`spjkg`g tj nadki`:

Ajw sunn`sslub jr jta`rwms` adv` ta` k`w ousmk`ss strdt`im`s `cpbjy`g mk

ta` bdst g`ndg` o``k:

Advmki pjs`g ta` qu`stmjks, ta` r`cdmkg`r jl tams nadpt`r s``hs tj prjvmg`

sjc` mkmtmdb njkt`xt ljr ta` r`s`drna, bjndtmki mt wmtamk ta` wmg`r spa`r` jl ta`

dndg`cmn stugy jl pjpubdr cusmn dkg ta` mkgustrm`s surrjukgmki mt. Mt ta`k

4

4Wajuia ta` ta`sms r`l`rs tj ta` ibjodb cusmn mkgustrm`s, cdky jl ta` `xdcpb`s dr` grdwklrjc ta` PH xp`rm`kn`. Mt wmbb dbsj i`k`rdbby r`l`r (`xn`pt wa`k qujtmki) tj ta` cusmnmkgustrm`s (pburdb) ljr r`dsjks jutbmk`g mk nadpt`r 7.

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jutbmk`s ta` ta`sms struntur`, sajwmki ajw mt wmbb s`t dojut dksw`rmki ta`

r`s`drna qu`stmjks.

Njkt`xt ljr _`s`drna

Gurmki ta` njurs` jl tams r`s`drna, ta` ibjodb cusmn mkgustrm`s adv` o``k mk

ta` cmgst jl d p`rmjg jl turoub`kn` wamna o`idk mk ta` cmg tj bdt` 4==5s.

Ajw`v`r, mt ms kjt jkby ta` ousmk`ss jl pjpubdr cusmn out dbsj ta` stugy jl mt

wamna dr` ukg`rijmki cdfjr trdksljrcdtmjks. Mk mkgustrmdb t`rcs, d

njcomkdtmjk jl `njkjcmn dkg t`nakjbjimndb ldntjrs ads njktrmout`g tj ta`

`kg jl ta` r`njrgmki mkgustrys p`rmjg jl ukmkt`rrupt`g irjwta o`tw``k 4=17

dkg 4===?, r`subtmki mk d rdlt jl c`gmd njv`rdi` wamna bdri`by ljbbjw`g ta`

bmk` jl ta` cdfjr r`njrgmki njcpdkm`s tadt tams wds d r`subt jl pmrdny, wamnawds bdri`by dttrmout`g tj ta` sadrmki jl cusmn lmb`s jk p``r-tj-p``r k`twjrhs.

Mk ta` suos`qu`kt p`rmjg, ta` prjob`cs ldn`g oy ta` r`njrgmki mkgustry adv`

dbsj o``k njv`r`g `xt`ksmv`by mk k`ws c`gmd, pdrtmnubdrby wmta r`l`r`kn` tj

ta` bmtmidtmjk dkg bjooymki tadt adv` o``k dt ta` njr` jl ta` mkgustrys

r`spjks` tj ta` turoub`kn` mk d pr`vmjusby stdob` cdrh`t. Ajw`v`r, mk spmt` jl

ta` cusmn mkgustrm`s `kfjymki d amia`r tadk `v`r puobmn prjlmb`, dtt`cpts tj

ukg`rstdkg ta`c adv` kjt k`n`ssdrmby prjir`ss`g, r`bymki mkst`dg jkc`tajgs o`st sumt`g tj dkdbys` ta` v`ry gmll`r`kt mkgustrmdb struntur` jl

pr`vmjus g`ndg`s.

Wams driuc`kt ms s`t didmkst ta` odnhgrjp jl dk mknr`ds` mk ta` `xt`kt dkg

dpprjdna`s tj dndg`cmn r`s`drna mktj pjpubdr cusmn dkg wadt wds i`k`rdbby

r`l`rr`g tj ds ta` cusmn mkgustry jv`r ta` pr`vmjus g`ndg`s. Ya`r`ds suna

stugm`s jlt`k sdt uknjcljrtdoby wmtamk jta`r suof`nt dr`ds, kjtdoby Nubturdb^tugm`s dkg ^jnmjbjiy (s``, ljr `xdcpb`, Amrsna 4=1.< ombbmjk (Irjkjw dkg^dukmj 4==18 MLUM ?555).

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ndk o` dttrmout`g tj ta` ljrcdtmjk jl dk dntmv` dkg `xpdkgmki jridkmsdtmjk,

MD^UC (Mkt`rkdtmjkdb Dssjnmdtmjk Ljr Wa` ^tugy jl Ujpubdr Cusmn) mk 4=14.

^uos`qu`ktby, ta` bmt`rdtur` dnrjss ta` suof`nt dr`d ads `xpdkg`g rdpmgby,

wmta sp`nmdbmst fjurkdbs (ljr `xdcpb`, Ujpubdr Cusmn, Ujpubdr Cusmn dkg

^jnm`ty dkg Ujpubdr Cusmn Amstjry), njbb`ntmjks jl wrmtmki (Lrmta dkg Ijjgwmk

4==58 O``o`, Luborjjh dkg ^dukg`rs ?55?8 Lrmta ?5578 O`kk`tt, ^adkh dkg

Wjyko`` ?55.

Dpprjdna`s tj Ujpubdr Cusmn ^tugm`s

Ds gmimtmsdtmjk orjuiat dojut d rdlt jl nadki`s wmtamk ta` cusmn mkgustrm`s

gurmki ta` 4=15s dkg 4==5s, dndg`cmns wmta dk mkt`r`st mk ta`mr wjrhmkiso`ndc` mknr`dsmkiby dwdr` jl ta` k``g ljr d r`dpprdmsdb jl ta` wdy mk wamna

r`s`drna wds ndrrm`g jut dkg wadt dr`ds k``g`g cjst dtt`ktmjk. D stdrtmki

pjmkt ljr tams wjrh wds Lrmtas (?555) di`kgd, wamna rdms`g d kuco`r jl

mssu`s jl dndg`cmn mkt`r`st dkg pjmkt`g jut tadt tj oumbg dk dnnurdt` dnnjukt

jl ta` cusmn mkgustry mt wds k`n`ssdry tj kjt jkby dsh qu`stmjks tadt dr`

ojta cjr` odsmn dkg cjr` sn`ptmndb tadk tajs` jl strdmiat cdrh`t jr pjbmny

r`s`drna (momg, p.>=5) out tj njkn`ktrdt` jk ukg`rstdkgmki ta`pr`s`kt (momg) rdta`r tadk dtt`cptmki tj pr`gmnt ta` lutur`.

Ml tams prjvmg`s jk` jl ta` pjmkts jl g`pdrtur` ljr tams r`s`drna, d kuco`r jl

pdrdgmicdtmn nadki`s suii`st`g oy Lrmta (momg) dr` dbsj ta` suof`nt jl lurta`r

mkv`stmidtmjk a`r`, dcjki ta`c ta` samlt lrjc cusmn ds d cdkuldnturmki

mkgustry tj jk` ods`g drjukg rmiats jwk`rsamp, dkg ta` k``g ljr d nbjs`r

stugy jl ta` kdtur` jl ta` lmrcs waj jwk suna rmiats. Lrmta dbsj mg`ktmlm`g ta`mknr`dsmki mcpjrtdkn` jl r`s`drna jk ojta ijv`rkc`kt pjbmny dkg ljr ta`

cusmn mkgustrm`s ta`cs`bv`s (?555, p.>1=) dkg ojta jl ta`s` adv`

suos`qu`ktby pbdy`g dk mcpjrtdkt pdrt mk ta` bjooymki jl ijv`rkc`kt oy

ojgm`s r`pr`s`ktmki ta` mkgustrm`s wamna ads o`njc` sj pr`vdb`kt mk r`n`kt

>

>s`` Nbjjkdk (?550) ljr dk jv`rvm`w jl ta` PH smtudtmjk.

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y`drs. @dna jl ta`s` dr` n`ktrdb tj, dkg stdrtmki pjmkts ljr ta` r`njklmiurdtmjk

jl ta` cusmn mkgustrm`s suii`st`g lrjc nadpt`r 7 jkwdrgs.

Dbtajuia Ujpubdr Cusmn ^tugm`s prjvmg`s d a`bplub njkt`xt ljr tams r`s`drna,

mt ms dbsj wjrta kjtmki ojta ta` cubtm-gmsnmpbmkdry kdtur` jl mt, dkg ta` str`kitas

dkg w`dhk`ss`s tams ormkis tj mt ds d gmsnmpbmk`. O`kk`tt, ^adkh dkg Wjyko``

driu` tadt mt ads `c`ri`g lrjc d p`rmjg wa`k mt wds gjuoby cdrimkdbms`g mk

ta` dndg`cy (?55

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kjt tj ldbb ljub jl ojta pjpubdr cmsnjkn`ptmjks dkg cjr` rjukg`g nrmtmqu`s jl

Ujpubdr Cusmn ^tugm`s ds d ta`jr`tmndbby bmiat gmsnmpbmk`, dkg tj dggr`ss sjc`

jl ta` sp`nmlmn sajrtnjcmkis tadt Irjsso`ri mg`ktmlm`s, kjt b`dst ta`

r`bdtmjksamp jl dntmvmtm`s mk ta` cusmn mkgustrm`s tj wmg`r pjbmtmndb dkg

`njkjcmn g`odt`s dkg mts r`bdtmjksamp wmta bdt` ndpmtdbmsc (Irjsso`ri ?55?,

p.>1).

Ymta tams mk cmkg, tams r`s`drna dmcs tj bjndt` ta` cdfjr jridkmsdtmjkdb dkg

`njkjcmn nadki`s mk ta` njkt`cpjrdry cusmn mkgustrm`s oy usmki nds`

stugm`s jl twj smikmlmndkt dkg mklbu`ktmdb njcpdkm`s tj adv` `c`ri`g mk ta`

njurs` jl ta` bdst g`ndg`. Oy grdwmki jk ta` lmkgmkis jl ta`s` stugm`s - dkg

mk pdrtmnubdr r`lb`ntmki jk ta` mcpjrtdkn` jl r`kt-s``hmki, `ktr`pr`k`ursampdkg mkt`bb`ntudb prjp`rty tj ta`s` lmrcs - ta` ta`sms dmcs tj oumbg jk `xmstmki tj

hkjwb`gi` tj njktrmout` k`w ukg`rstdkgmki tj ta` suof`nt. Mt wmbb gj sj oy

mkmtmdbby pbdnmki ta` ibjodb cusmn mkgustrm`s wmtamk ta` wmg`r njkt`xt jl ta`

nubturdb mkgustrm`s0, out oy dbsj pbdnmki `cpadsms jk ta` wjrh jl _mnadrg

Ndv`s (?555) jk wadt a` bdo`bs ta` nr`dtmv` mkgustrm`s ds d stdrtmki pjmkt

tadt jll`rs k`w dkg mcpjrtdkt mksmiats mktj ta` mkgustrmdb nadki`s `vmg`kn`g

mk ta` `cpmrmndb `vmg`kn` idta`r`g mk twj nds` stugm`s. Dt ta` njr` jl tams msta` njksmg`rdtmjk tadt p`radps ta` jp`rdtmjk jl ta` cusmn mkgustrm`s ms kjt ds

gmll`r`kt lrjc jta`r ousmk`ss`s ds sjc` nubturdb mkgustrm`s ta`jrmsts wjubg

nbdmc.

Wa`sms truntur`

Wa` struntur` jl ta` ta`sms r`lb`nts ta` spbmts o`tw``k, jk ta` jk` adkg,

`xmstmki dkg k`w hkjwb`gi` dkg, jk ta` jta`r, o`tw``k ta`jr`tmndb dkg`cpmrmndb wjrh. Mt wmbb tdh` ds mts stdrtmki pjmkt ta` cdfjr njktrmoutmjks tj

ukg`rstdkgmki ta` cusmn dkg nubturdb mkgustrm`s o`ljr` ym`bgmki dkg

gmsnussmki `cpmrmndb wjrh wamna dbbjws ljr d r`njkn`ptudbmsdtmjk jl ta` cusmn

mkgustrm`s.

0

0ta`s` mkgustrm`s dr` jlt`k r`l`rr`g tj ds ta` nr`dtmv` mkgustrm`s tajuia ta`r` dr` suotb`gmll`r`kn`s mk ta` usdi` - gmsnuss`g mk cjr` g`tdmb mk nadpt`r ?.

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Nadpt`r ? r`vm`ws ta` `xmstmki bmt`rdtur` jk ojta ta` nubturdb mkgustrm`s dkg

cusmn mkgustrm`s ds d stdrtmki pjmkt tj bjndt` ta` cusmn mkgustrm`s wmtamk ta`

wmg`r `njkjcy dkg tj amiabmiat ta` gmll`r`kt dtt`cpts tj ukg`rstdkg ta`

wjrhmkis jl ta`c. Mt o`imks oy bjjhmki dt ta` `njkjcmn njkt`xt wmtamk wamna

ta` cusmn mkgustrm`s dr` usudbby vm`w`g, lmrstby mk ta` njkt`xt jl bdt` ndpmtdbmsc

dkg s`njkgby wmtamk ta` s`ntjr jl ta` `njkjcy usudbby r`l`rr`g tj ds `mta`r

ta` nubturdb jr nr`dtmv` mkgustrm`s. Mk dnhkjwb`gimki ta` trdgmtmjkdb vm`w tadt

ta` cusmn mkgustrm`s dr` o`st ukg`rstjjg wmtamk ta` njkt`xt jl ta` wmg`r

nubturdb mkgustrm`s dkg usmki pjbmtmndb `njkjcy ds d c`dks jl ukg`rstdkgmki

ta`c, mt dbsj dmcs tj suii`st sjc` a`bplub dbt`rkdtmv`s tj ta`s` dpprjdna`s

mk r`n`kt wjrh.

Wa` s`njkg pdrt jl ta` nadpt`r jll`rs d bjjs`by narjkjbjimndb jv`rvm`w jl ta`

cdfjr wjrh lrjc wmtamk Ujpubdr Cusmn ^tugm`s wamna ads njktrmout`g tj ta`

ukg`rstdkgmki jl ta` cusmn mkgustrm`s, wamna w`r` lmrst stugm`g mk

jridkmsdtmjkdb t`rcs oy ta` bmh`s jl Amrsna (4=9?) dkg U`t`rsjk dkg O`ri`r

(4=90) dkg wamna wds cjr` lubby g`v`bjp`g mk ta` wjrhs ta` cdfjr

njktrmoutjrs tj stugm`s jl ta` cusmn mkgustrm`s, ^mcjk Lrmta (4=91, 4=14,4=11, 4==

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o`ljr` bjndtmki ta` `cpmrmndb r`s`drna ndrrm`g jut wmtamk ta` orjdg`r njkt`xt

jl qudbmtdtmv` r`s`drna. Mt sp`nmlmndbby dggr`ss`s ta` vdbu` jl ojta nds` stugy

r`s`drna dkg irjukg`g ta`jry, `xpbdmkmki ajw ta`s` ndk o` us`g tj tdh`

`xmstmki hkjwb`gi` dkg o`njc` ta` odsms jl k`w dkg vdbmg ta`jry, fustmlymki

ta`mr us` mk tams r`s`drna.

Nadpt`r 7 jll`rs sjc` g`lmkmtmjkdb dkg `vdbudtmv` mksmiat mktj ta`

njkt`cpjrdry cusmn mkgustrm`s. Mt stdrts oy qu`stmjkmki dkg nbdrmlymki wadt ms

ukg`rstjjg oy ta` t`rc ta` cusmn mkgustry, dkg qu`stmjks wa`r` ta`s`

g`lmkmtmjks njc` lrjc. Mt driu`s tadt s`bl-g`lmkmtmjk dkg suos`qu`kt

dgdptdtmjk oy ta` ijv`rkc`kt dkg ta` c`gmd r`subts mk d sh`w`g dkg

ukr`bmdob` v`rsmjk jl ojta wadt njkstmtut`s ta` cusmn mkgustrm`s dkg ajwcuna ta`y dr` wjrta tj ta` `njkjcy. Wams ms njupb`g wmta d t`kg`kny tj

njklbdt` ta` cusmn mkgustry wmta ta` r`njrgmki mkgustry, wamna ads adcp`r`g

ta` ukg`rstdkgmki jl wadt dntudbby adpp`ks mk kjt fust ta` r`njrgmki mkgustry,

out ajw mt r`bdt`s tj, dkg njcomk`s wmta, jta`r cusmn mkgustrm`s.

Wa` nadpt`r ij`s jk tj g`tdmb ta` cdfjr nadki`s mk ta` cusmn mkgustrm`s -

ojta t`nakjbjimndb dkg b`imsbdtmv` - mk r`bdtmjk tj d pburdbmstmn g`lmkmtmjk jl ta`cusmn mkgustrm`s, amiabmiatmki ojta ta` gmllmnubtm`s dkg dtt`cpt`g sjbutmjks

ta`y adv` dppbm`g mk r`spjks` tj ta` cdfjr nadki`s mk ta` gmll`r`kt pdrts jl

ta` mkgustrm`s. Wa`s` ljnus prmcdrmby jk ta` r`spjks`s tj ta` mcpdnt jl

gmimtmsdtmjk dkg ta` nadkimki gmstrmoutmjk jl cusmn dkg ta` k``g jl ta`

mkgustrm`s tj s`nur` ijv`rkc`kt suppjrt mk jrg`r tj s`nur` ta`mr bjki`r t`rc

lutur`. Wams s`ts ta` sn`k` ljr ta` gmsnussmjk jl ta` k`w typ`s jl njcpdky,

dkg ta` dntjrs wmtamk ta`c, wamna adv` `c`ri`g ds d r`spjks` tj ta`s`nadki`s.

Nadpt`rs 0 dkg < dr` nds` stugm`s jl twj njcpdkm`s wamna adv` o``k dt ta`

ljr`lrjkt jl ta`s` nadki`s. Wa` lmrst jl ta`s`, ^dkntudry Cusmn Irjup, ir`w

lrjc d PH ods`g cdkdi`c`kt njcpdky wamna adg o``k dntmv` smkn` ta`

`drby 4=15s, mkmtmdbby tdhmki dgvdktdi` jl dnn`ss tj v`ktur` ndpmtdb dkg lukgs

9

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rdms`g lrjc d stjnh cdrh`t bmstmki tj `xpdkg mktj d wmg` rdki` jl cusmn

r`bdt`g ousmk`ss`s, mknbugmki d r`njrg bdo`b, c`rnadkgms` njcpdky, cusmn

puobmsa`r dkg njkn`rt ojjhmki di`kt. Mk dggmtmjk, ta` njcpdky tjjh jv`r

jta`r bdri` cdkdi`c`kt njcpdkm`s dkg o`ndc` d sadr`ajbg`r mk d kuco`r

jl r`njrg bdo`bs. Wams r`subt`g mk d aui` mknr`ds` mk turkjv`r (dkg prjlmts) mk

ta` p`rmjg lrjc 4===-?55> dkg ta`mr s`bl-styb`g `c`ri`kn` ds d >

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Kdtmjk o`idk ds d spmk jll9 lrjc dk `stdobmsa`g c`gmd njkibjc`rdt` (Nb`dr

Nadkk`b) wmta mts njr` dntmvmtm`s o`mki mk ta` bmv` cusmn mkgustry, tarjuia

jwk`rsamp jl v`ku`s dkg njkn`rt prjcjtmjk.

Ymta ta` irjwta jl r`v`ku` lrjc bmv` cusmn njmknmgmki wmta ta` gjwkturk mk

ta` r`njrgmki mkgustry, tadt ta`mr pjw`r dkg mklbu`kn` wds ir`dt`r tadk tadt jl

ta` cdfjr r`njrg njcpdkm`s ms p`radps uksurprmsmki6 ajw`v`r, ta`mr

suos`qu`kt cjv`s tjwdrgs dnqumrmki d rdki` jl rmiats o`yjkg ta`mr njr`

mkt`r`sts s`rv` tj mbbustrdt` ojta ta` nadkimki kdtur` jl ta` cusmn mkgustrm`s

wmta ta`mr `cpadsms jk mkt`bb`ntudb prjp`rty rmiats dkg ta` dssjnmdt`g

`xtrdntmjk jl r`kt. Mt ms dbsj wjrta kjtmki dt tams pjmkt ta` ukn`rtdmkty

i`k`rdt`g oy ta` k`w ousmk`ss cjg`bs. Yamb` ta` r`njrgmki mkgustry o`ljr`4=== adg d ousmk`ss cjg`b wamna `ksur`g tadt ta` prjlmts lrjc ta`mr l`w

sunn`ss`s jutw`mia`g ta` bjss`s lrjc ta`mr cdky ldmbur`s, ta` wjrbg

mkadomt`g oy Bmv` Kdtmjk dpp`drs tj mkadomt d gmll`r`kt typ` jl `njkjcmns,

wa`r` ldmbur` dpp`drs tj o` pdrt jl ta` ousmk`ss pbdk, dkg ta` sjbutmjk lurta`r

`xt`rkdb mkv`stc`kt dkg `xpdksmjk.

Oy grdwmki jk ta` `xmstmki stugm`s jl ta` cusmn dkg nubturdb mkgustrm`s (mknadpt`rs ? dkg 7) dkg ta` k`w `vmg`kn` prjvmg`g mk ta` nds` stugm`s,

Nadpt`r 9 mg`ktmlm`s dkg `xpbdmks ta` tar`` njccjk trdmts wamna dr` n`ktrdb

tj ta` r`jridkmsdtmjk jl ta` njkt`cpjrdry cusmn mkgustrm`s. Wa`s` dr` ta`

mcpjrtdkn` jl mkt`bb`ntudb prjp`rty, ta` suos`qu`kt pjbmtmndb dkg `njkjcmn

r`kt-s``hmki dkg d prjbml`rdtmjk jl `ktr`pr`k`urmdb o`advmjur wmtamk ojta bdri`

dkg scdbb lmrcs mk ta` cusmn mkgustrm`s. D njks`qu`kn` jl `dna jl ta`s` ads

o``k ta` mknr`dsmki mcpjrtdkn` jl bjooymki wamna ms ta` prmcdry c`dks jlojta r`kt-s``hmki dkg `xt`kgmki ta` sndb` dkg snjp` jl ta` rmiats wamna dr`

sj mcpjrtdkt tj ta`c. Yamb` dbb jl ta`s` adv` o``k stugm`g tj vdrymki

g`ir``s wmta r`idrgs ta` cusmn mkgustrm`s (mkt`bb`ntudb prjp`rty ads o``k

n`ktrdb tj cdky r`n`kt gmsnussmjks, wamb` r`kt-s``hmki ads o``k i`k`rdbby

=

9d t`rc us`g mk P^ njcpdky bdw ljr ta` nr`dtmjk jl d k`w njcpdky lrjc d gmvmsmjk jr suo-gmvmsmjk jl dk xmstmki, bdri`r jk`.

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ukg`rpbdy`g), mt ms dbsj kjt`s tadt pjbmtmndb `njkjcy ods`g stugm`s ukg`r

vdbu` ta` rb` jl ta` mkgmvmgudb dntjrs dkg `ktr`pr`k`urs dt wjrh wmtamk ta`

mkgustrm`s. Mt `kgs oy ukg`rstdkgmki ta`c ta`c kjt wmtamk ta` njklmk`s jl

wadt ms ukg`rstjjg tj o` gmll`r`kt dojut ta` nubturdb mkgustrm`s out wmtamk ta`

njkt`xt jl ta` bdri`, njrpjrdt` lmrcs wamna adv` njc` tj gjcmkdt` ta`

prjguntmjk jl pjpubdr cusmn mk ta` tw`kty-lmrst n`ktury.

Wa` lmkdb nadpt`r cdh`s ta` nds`, ods`g jk ta` lmkgmkis jl ta` stugy, ljr d

r`vms`g ukg`rstdkgmki jl ta` jp`rdtmjk jl ta` cusmn mkgustrm`s, ta`

njcpdkm`s wmtamk ta`c dkg ta` kdtur` jl ta` mkgmvmgudb dntjrs waj cdh`

strdt`imn dkg jridkmsdtmjkdb g`nmsmjks, wamb` dbsj suii`stmki d kuco`r jl

pjt`ktmdb rjut`s ljr lutur` r`s`drna mktj ta` mkgustrm`s.

NADUW@_ ?6 BMW@_DWP_@ _@\M@Y

Mktrjguntmjk

Wams nadpt`r prjvmg`s d njkt`xt ljr ta` suos`qu`kt `cpmrmndb stugm`s jl

nadki` mk ta` cusmn mkgustrm`s oy surv`ymki pr`vmjus wjrh jk ojta ta`

nubturdb mkgustrm`s dkg ta` cusmn mkgustrm`s. Wj gj tams, mt pjsmtmjks ta` cusmn

mkgustrm`s ds dk mkt`irdb pdrt jl ta` nubturdb mkgustrm`s1

(s`` dpp`kgmx 4)dsjk` jl wadt Warjsoy g`snrmo`s ds ta` njr` nubturdb mkgustrm`s (?551o, p.

??4). Oy gjmki tams, mt o`njc`s pjssmob` tj bjndt` ta`c mk ta` njkt`xt jl

njkt`cpjrdry ndpmtdbmsc dkg ta` wmg`r `njkjcy.

Mt tdh`s ds d pjmkt jl g`pdrtur` ^auh`rs (?559) dtt`cpt tj g`lmk` ta` cusmn

mkgustry dkg ams dpprjdna tj mt. A` jos`rv`s tadt nrmtmndb dkdbysms jl ta`

jridkmsdtmjkdb struntur`s jl ta` ousmk`ss dkg nadki`s wmtamk mt adv` grdwka`dvmby jk pjbmtmndb `njkjcy (momg, p.47) dkg dr` ods`g drjukg ta`

dnn`ptdkn` jl cusmn ds dk ukprjob`cdtms`g nubturdb mkgustry. Wajuia

^auh`rs jv`rvm`w ms dk dnnurdt` r`lb`ntmjk jl ta` kdtur` dkg njkt`kt jl ta`

cdfjrmty jl stugm`s jl ta` cusmn mkgustry tj gdt`, tams nadpt`r driu`s tadt,

rdta`r tadk njcmki mktj mts jwk mk ta` bdst g`ndg` mk r`lrdcmki pjpubdr cusmn

45

1ta`s` dr` dbsj gmsnuss`g mk cjr` g`tdmb bdt`r mk tams nadpt`r

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stugm`s, (momg, p.4,

prjvmg`s ta` odsms jl ta` dkdbysms jl ta` mkgustrm s ds d wajb` dkg mkgmvmgudb

njcpdkm`s mk ta` r`cdmkg`r jl ta` ta`sms.

(m) Wa` Nubturdb Mkgustrm`s dkg Njkt`cpjrdry Ndpmtdbmsc

Dky stugy jl ta` nubturdb mkgustrm`s k``gs tj o` pbdn`g wmtamk ta` njkt`xt jl

njkt`cpjrdry ndpmtdbmsc, `sp`nmdbby mk ta` bmiat jl ta` nadki`s wmtk`ss`g mk

ta` s`njkg pdrt jl ta` tw`ktm`ta n`ktury. Curgjnh (?55>, p.41) kjt`s tadt

ndpmtdbmsc ads cjv`g lrjc mts nbdssmndb stdt`, ods`g jk ta` cdkuldntur` jl

cdt`rmdb ijjgs, tj d k`w njkgmtmjk, wamna ads r`subt`g mk lm`rn`gmsdir``c`kt dojut ta` g`lmkmki l`dtur`s dkg gykdcmns jl tams `c`rimki

ljrcdtmjk (momg).

Dt ta` a`drt jl tams, kuc`rjus gmll`r`kt bdo`bs adv` o``k dppbm`g, ojta tj tams

k`w typ` jl ndpmtdbmsc, dkg tj d kuco`r jl ta` nadrdnt`rmstmns dsnrmo`g tj mt.

Dt mts cjst smcpbmstmn, tams ndk o` vm`w`g ds d cjv` lrjc Ljrgmsc tj pjst-

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Ljrgmsc, dkg wadt Curgjnh, grdwmki jk ta` wjrh jl Dcmk (4==7), ndbbs ta`

samlt lrjc cdss prjguntmjk dkg njksucptmjk jl stdkgdrgms`g ijjgs tj

cdrh`ts ods`g jk lb`xmob` sp`nmdbmsdtmjk dkg kmna` cdrh`ts (momg, p.4=).

Curgjnh bdo`bs ta` trdksljrcdtmjk cdrh`tmsdtmjk, wamna ms nadrdnt`rms`g oy

prmvdtmsdtmjk, bmo`rdbmsdtmjk, njrpjrdtmsdtmjk dkg ta` r`-jrm`ktdtmjk jl

r`iubdtjry r`imc`s (momg) dkg dnn`b`rdt`g oy ojta ta` samlt lrjc dkdbjiu` tj

gmimtdb ljrcs jl njgmki dkg njccukmndtmjk (momg, p.?5). Wams prjn`ss r`subts

mk d w`dh`kmki jl puobmn jr stdt` njktrjbb`g s`rvmn`s, dkg ta` `c`ri`kn` jl d

kuco`r jl bdri` njrpjrdtmjks, wamna dr` imv`k mknr`ds`g snjp` ljr

cdkj`uvr` (momg) oy nadkimki b`imsbdtmjk dkg ta` mknr`dsmki pr`vdb`kn` jl

cdrh`t `njkjcmns, `v`k wmtamk stdt` suosmgms`g jr njktrjbb`g ojgm`s=. Mk

t`rcs jl nubturdb prjguntmjk, Curgjnh mg`ktmlm`s tar`` cdfjr nadki`s6 ta`njkn`ktrdtmjk jl jwk`rsamp, mk wamna d k`w typ` jl njrpjrdt` dntjr, ta`

cubtm-c`gmd njkibjc`rdt` (momg, p.?4) `c`ri`s, dbjkismg` ta` ndsudbmsdtmjk

jl bdojur, wa`r` njrpjrdtmjks cjv` lubb-tmc` `cpbjy``s jk tj lr``bdkn`

njktrdnts dkg ta` mknr`ds`g njccjgmlmndtmjk jl s`rvmn`s dkg prjgunts, wa`r`

ta` pursumt jl prmvdt` mkt`r`sts tdh`s pr`n`g`kn` jv`r njccmtc`kt tj ta`

puobmn ijjg (momg, p.??).

@b`c`kts jl `dna jl ta`s` nadki`s mk ta` nubturdb mkgustrm`s dbsj dpp`dr mk

ta` cjr` ajbmstmn vm`w jl ta` nadki`s mk ndpmtdbmsc g`snrmo`g oy Bdsa dkg

Prry (4=19, 4==7). Wa`y g`snrmo` ta` prjir`ssmjk jl ndpmtdbmsc tarjuia tar``

pads`s - lrjc bmo`rdb ndpmtdbmsc tj jridkms`g ndpmtdbmsc dkg ta`k

gmsjridkms`g ndpmtdbmsc (4=19, p.4

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dntmvmtm`s. Mk dggmtmjk, Bdsa dkg Prry kjt` tadt gmsjridkms`g ndpmtdbmsc ads

dbsj s``k ta` spr`dg jl ndpmtdbmsc tj cjr` njuktrm`s tadk o`ljr`, lmrstby wmta

ta` mknr`dsmki pr`s`kn` jl ta`s` njrpjrdtmjks mk ta` ta` Wamrg Yjrbg, dkg

suos`qu`ktby mk ta` ljrc`r Njccukmst stdt`s jl @dst`rk @urjp`.

Mk t`rcs jl ajw gmsjridkms`g ndpmtdbmsc pbdys jut mk ta` k`w mkgustrm`s wamna

adv` `c`ri`g, Bdsa dkg Prry mg`ktmly tar`` nadrdnt`rmstmns jl ta` njcpdkm`s

mkvjbv`g. Wa`y kjt` tadt scdbb, gmsmkt`irdt`g ousmk`ss`s dr` kjt ta` jkby

mcpjrtdkt `njkjcmn ljrc mk gmsjridkms`g ndpmtdbmsc (4==7, p.??) dkg tadt

am`rdrnam`s, `sp`nmdbby mk trdkskdtmjkdb lmrcs, adv` d cjr` `kadkn`g rb` tj

pbdy mk ta` k`w `njkjcmn drrdki`c`kts (momg, p.?>). Lmkdbby, ta`y nbdmc tadt

wamb` ta`r` dr` gmsmkt`irdt`g k`twjrhs jl scdbb lmrcs `kidi`g mk k`twjrhsdkg `xnadki`s wmta `dna jta`r, ta`r` ms jlt`k d bdri` trdkskdtmjkdb lmrc dt

ta` auo. Ya`k g`snrmomki ta`s` nadki`s mk t`rcs jl ibjodbmsdtmjk,

bjndbmsdtmjk dkg strdtmlmndtmjk (momg, pp. ?7-?9), Bdsa dkg Prry driu` tadt wadt

mk ldnt ms mcpjrtdkt ms kjt tj vm`w nadki`s mk t`rcs jl cdrh`ts didmkst

am`rdrnam`s, out rdta`r ta` vmntjry jl ojta cdrh`ts dkg am`rdrnam`s jv`r jta`r,

stdt`, njrpjrdtmst dkg dssjnmdtmjkdb, ljrcs jl ijv`rkdkn` wamna w`r` cuna

cjr` prjcmk`kt mk jridkms`g ndpmtdbmsc (momg, p.?9).

Mk ta` nadki` lrjc jridkms`g tj gmsjridkms`g ndpmtdbmsc, ta` njkgmtmjks

`c`ri` ljr ta` k`w typ` njcpdkm`s dkg di`kts wamna adv` `c`ri`g mk ta`

nubturdb mkgustrm`s, wa`r`oy, usmki Ojurgm`us cjg`b jl lm`bgs, vdrmjus dntjrs

(mknbugmki lmrcs, r`iubdtjry ojgm`s dkg prjl`ssmjkdb jridkmsdtmjks) dr`

`kidi`g mk d p`rcdk`kt struiib` tj cdmktdmk jr dgvdkn` ta`mr pjsmtmjk dkg

dbt`r ta` rub`s jl ta` idc` tj ta`mr dgvdktdi` (Curgjnh ?55>, p.41). Bdsadkg Prry dbsj mg`ktmly ta` snjp`, wmtamk gmsjridkms`g ndpmtdbmsc, ljr

`ktr`pr`k`urs, wa`r`oy prjgunt dkg prjn`ss mkkjvdtmjk (p.?17) ndk

`kdob` idps mk ta` cdrh`t tj o` mg`ktmlm`g, k`w us`s jl t`nakjbjiy tj o`

g`v`bjp`g, dkg rdpmg r`spjks`s tj o` mkmtmdt`g (4==7, p.?17). Nadki`s mk

ta` ibjodb lmkdkn` cdrh`t dbsj dssmst suna `ktr`pr`k`urs, tadkhs tj ta`

4>

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`xmst`kn` jl d nr`gmt syst`c, wamna ms ukr`iubdt`g dkg ijv`rk`g tarjuia ta`

cdrh`t (momg, p.?10).

Wams nadpt`r driu`s tadt ta`s` lukgdc`ktdb nadki`s mk ndpmtdbmsc ukg`rpmk

ta` tar`` dsp`nts jl ta` nubturdb mkgustrm`s tadt dr` mkt`irdb tj ukg`rstdkgmki

r`n`kt nadki`s mk ta` cusmn mkgustrm`s6 ta` pjw`r struiib`s wmtamk ta`c ds

njcpdkm`s njcp`t` tj dnnucubdt` mkt`bb`ntudb prjp`rty rmiats, `xtrdnt r`kt

dkg ta` `xt`ksmjk jl gmll`r`kt typ`s jl `ktr`pr`k`ursamp dnrjss ta` k`w typ`

jl njcpdkm`s wamna adv` `c`ri`g mk ta` wdh` jl ta`s` nadki`s. Wj gj tams,

mt wmbb kjw dggr`ss ta` nubturdb mkgustrm`s ta`cs`bv`s, dkg ta`k ta`

dpprjdna`s tj ta`c.

(mm) G`lmkmtmjks dkg Cjg`bs jl ta` Nubturdb Mkgustrm`s

Gmsnussmjk jl ta` nubturdb mkgustrm`s ms wmg`by r`idrg`g tj adv` jrmimkdt`g

wmta ta` wjrh jl ta` Lrdkhlurt ^najjb45jl nrmtmndb ta`jry, dkg, mk pdrtmnubdr ta`

Dgjrkj dkg Ajrha`mc`rs Wa` Nubtur` Mkgustry (4=77) wamna driu`g tadt,

ukg`r ndpmtdbmsc, nubtur` adg o`njc` njccjgmlm`g dkg dk mkgustrmdb

prjn`ss, r`pr`s`ktmki d rdgmndb nadki` mk ta` stdtus jl nubtur` wmtamk sjnm`ty.

Wams cdrh`g d njksmg`rdob` samlt lrjc ajw A`scjkgadbia g`snrmo`s ta`p`rn`ptmjk jl nubtur` prmjr tj tams ds d ljrc jl nrmtmqu` jl ta` r`st jl

bml`, (?559, p.4

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Wa` pburdbmsdtmjk jl Dgjrkj dkg Ajrha`mc`rs t`rc ms amiaby smikmlmndkt,

dnnjrgmki tj Idrkadc, o`ndus` mt r`pr`s`kts ojta d cjv` dwdy lrjc ta`

`bmtmst, nubturdb p`ssmcmsc jl ta` Lrdkhlurt ^najjb (?550, p.41) dkg ta`

pdrtmnubdr v`rsmjk jl ta` Cdrxmst `njkjcmns tadt ukg`rpmkk`g mt (momg) dkg d

samlt mk `cpadsms, dwdy lrjc d ljnus jk ta` jwk`rsamp jl ta` c`gmd tjwdrgs

ta` `kt`rtdmkc`kt mkgustrm`s jl cusmn, lmbc dkg t`b`vmsmjk (momg, p.41). Ymtamk

tams k`w pdrdgmic, Idrkadc dbsj mg`ktmlm`g ta` mknr`ds`g mcpjrtdkn` jl ta`

prjn`ss`s jl v`rtmndb dkg ajrmzjktdb njkn`ktrdtmjk dkg njkibjc`rdtmjk (momg)

wamna dbbjw`g ljr ta` gmsnussmjk jl ta` nubturdb mkgustrm`s ds d ukmlm`g

`njkjcmn s`ntjr jk d ibjodb sndb`, rdta`r tadk ljnusmki jk ta` mkgmvmgudb

mkgustrm`s.

Wams samlt mk tamkhmki wds `x`cpbmlm`g mk ta` lmrst smikmlmndkt mkv`stmidtmjks jl

ta` nadrdnt`rmstmns jl ta` nubturdb mkgustrm`s (pburdb) oy Cmi`, Udfjur dkg

^dbduk (4=1-?1=)

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dnnjrgmki tj mts jwk bjimns (momg, p.?15), dkg ta` s`pdrdtmjk jl suosmgms`g

dkg kjk-suosmgms`g s`ntjrs wmtamk ta` nubturdb mkgustrm`s. Ljr Cmi`, ta`

cdmk gmstmkntmjk tj o` grdwk ms kjt o`tw``k bmv` `kt`rtdmkc`kt dkg ndkk`g

prjgunts, out o`tw``k d cdrh`t s`ntjr dkg d kjk-cdrh`t s`ntjr (momg). Mk

ta` bdtt`r, Cmi` tjjh ams b`dg lrjc ta` wjrh jl Oducjb dkg Ojw`k (4=

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Cjst jl ta` cdfjr stugm`s jl ta`s` mkgustrm`s, wa`ta`r drmsmki lrjc gmll`r`kt

dndg`cmn gmsnmpbmk`s (nubturdb stugm`s, `njkjcmns dkg nubturdb i`jirdpay

dcjki ta`c) jr ijv`rkc`kt ojgm`s, dnhkjwb`gi` wadt A`scjkgadbia

g`snrmo`s ds ta` gmllmnubtm`s jl g`lmkmtmjk (?559, p.44) dkg dtt`cpt tj r`sjbv`

ta`s` wmta ta`mr jwk dtt`cpts dt nbdssmlmndtmjk dkg nr`dtmki d typjbjiy jl ta`

mkgustrm`s mkvjbv`g. Ljr `xdcpb`, JNjkkjr g`snrmo`s ta` t`rc nubturdb

mkgustrm`s ds njkt`ktmjus (?555, p.49) wamb` Urdtt dggs ta` pr`ndutmjkdry

kjt` tadt cuna jl ta` `drby stugm`s jl ta` nubturdb mkgustrm`s ads o``k

stycm`g oy pjjr g`lmkmtmjk, dkg njknjcmtdktby, pjjr mkljrcdtmjk, (?559, p.4)

ds w`bb ds ndutmjkmki tadt ta`y adv` o``k d prjob`cdtmn ndt`ijry ojta mk

ta`mr njkn`ptudbmsdtmjk dkg `cpmrmndb c`dsur`c`kt (?559, p.1).

Dtt`cpts tj kdrrjw ta` g`lmkmtmjk adv` `ksu`g ds, oy ta` orjdg`st g`lmkmtmjk

jl ta` t`rc, mt ms pjssmob` tj driu`, tadt dbb mkgustrm`s, r`idrgb`ss jl ta`mr

jutput, dr` nubturdb mkgustrm`s ds ta`y dr` mkvjbv`g mk ta` prjguntmjk dkg

njksucptmjk jl nubtur` (A`scjkgadbia, ?559, p.4?). Ajw`v`r, ams driuc`kt

tadt ta` nubturdb mkgustrm`s dntudbby njcprms` tajs` mkstmtutmjks tadt dr` cjst

gmr`ntby mkvjbv`g mk ta` prjguntmjk jl sjnmdb c`dkmki (momg) dkg tadt ta`yg`db prmcdrmby wmta ta` mkgustrmdb prjguntmjk dkg nmrnubdtmjk jl t`xts (momg) smts

njcljrtdoby dbjkismg` JNjkkjrs vm`w tadt nubturdb mkgustrm`s g`db prmcdrmby

mk sycojbmn ijjgs - ijjgs wajs` prmcdry `njkjcmn vdbu` ms g`rmv`g lrjc

nubturdb vdbu` (JNjkkjr ?555)

Mt ms wjrta kjtmki dt tams fukntur` tadt, `v`k wmtamk orjdgby smcmbdr jutbjjhs,

ta` `cpadsms ndk o` suostdktmdbby gmll`r`kt. Yamb` JNjkkjr (?555) dkgA`scjkgadbia (?559) ljnus jk ta` c`tajgs jl prjguntmjk dkg ta` nr`dtmjk

jl sycojbmn c`dkmki, Wjws` (?555), Bdsa dkg Prry (4==7) dkg Idrkadc

(?555) dbb pbdn` ir`dt`r `cpadsms jk ta` mcpjrtdkn` jl mkt`bb`ntudb prjp`rty.

Wjws` g`snrmo`s njpyrmiat ds ta` jridkmsmki prmknmpb` ljr ta` nr`dtmv`

mkgustrm`s (?55>, p.495) wamb` Idrkadc g`lmk`s ta`c ds mkgustrm`s ods`g

jk ta` `xpbjmtdtmjk jl mkt`bb`ntudb prjp`rty (?550, p.4

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strdkg tj ta`s` g`lmkmtmjks ms ta` `cpadsms pbdn`g oy A`scjkgadbia dkg

Urdtt (?550) dkg Warjsoy (?551d) jk ta` mcpjrtdkt r`bdtmjksamp o`tw``k

cdtt`rs jl g`lmkmtmjk dkg nubturdb pjbmny, wamna dr` `xpdkg`g mk ta` dtt`cpts

tj gmstmkiumsa kjtmjks jl ta` nubturdb mkgustrm`s lrjc tajs` jl ta` nr`dtmv`

mkgustrm`s. Bdstby, mt ms wjrta kjtmki tadt Ndv`s (?555) mktrjgun`s jta`r

mcpjrtdkt mg`ds tj ta` stugy jl ta` mkgustrm`s wamna adv` o``k bdri`by

jv`rbjjh`g mk ta` jta`r bmt`rdtur`, mk ta` ljrc jl njktrdnt ta`jry dkg ta`

mcpjrtdkn` jl r`kt-s``hmki dcjki ta`c.

Wajuia ta`s` gmv`rs` `lljrts tj ukg`rstdkg ta`s` mkgustrm`s cdy prjvmg`

`vmg`kn` jl Urdtts suii`stmjk tadt w` ndkt i`t ta`mr c`dsur` (?559, p.1) jr

tadt tj dbb mkt`kts ta`y dr` dkdbytmndbby mkvmsmob` (momg), dkg wamb` mt ms o`yjkgta` snjp` jl tams wjrh tj sdtmsldntjrmby r`sjbv` ta`s` prjob`cs, mt ms

k`v`rta`b`ss mcpjrtdkt tj ljrc sjc` typ` jl dkdbytmndb lrdc`wjrh. Wa`r` dr`

tar`` mssu`s a`r`6 wadt tj ndbb ta`s` mkgustrm`s, wadt ta`y njcprms` jl, dkg

ajw tj dpprjdna ta`c.

Wj dnam`v` tams r`qumr`s ojta d nb`dr gmstmkntmjk o`tw``k ta` c`dkmkis jl ta`

t`rcs nubturdb mkgustrm`s dkg nr`dtmv` mkgustrm`s, ds ta`s` adv`mknr`dsmkiby o``k us`g mkt`rnadki`doby g`spmt` ta` smikmlmndkt gmll`r`kn`s

o`tw``k ta` twj. Wa`s` dr` wjrta ukpdnhmki o`ljr` lmrstby g`nmgmki wamna

mkgustrm`s dr` dkg dr` kjt pdrt jl ta` wmg`r nubturdb / nr`dtmv` mkgustrm`s dkg

ta`k bjndtmki ta` cusmn mkgustrm`s wmtamk `mta`r trdgmtmjk.

Wa` h`y gmll`r`kn` o`tw``k ta` twj t`rcs ms ta`mr jrmimk. Yamb` ta` ljrc`r

st`cs lrjc Dgjrkjs wjrh mk ta` 4=75s, ta` us` jl ta` t`rc nr`dtmv`mkgustrm`s ads `c`ri`g wmta ta` irjwmki mkvjbv`c`kt jl ta` stdt` mk ta`

nubturdb mkgustrm`s sjc` ljrty y`drs bdt`r, dkg ta` mknr`dsmki rb` jl ojta

kdtmjkdb dkg bjndb ijv`rkc`kt mk ta`s` mkgustrm`s. Idrkadc kjt`s tadt dlt`r

ta` `b`ntmjk jl ta` Bdojur ijv`rkc`kt mk 4==9, ta`mr jwk pjbmny

dkkjukn`c`kts stjpp`g r`l`rrmki tj ta` nubturdb mkgustrm`s dkg o`idk tj ndbb

ta`c ta` nr`dtmv` mkgustrm`s, out dbsj tadt tams nadki` mk t`rcmkjbjiy wds

41

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cjtmvdt`g oy d amstjrmndbby sp`nmlmn pjbmtmndb njkt`xt, (?550, p.4

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njpyrmiat prjt`ntmjk (momg). Warjsoy dbsj kjt`s ta` mcpjrtdkn` jl g`lmkmtmjk jk

ta` lrdcmki jl nubturdb, jr nr`dtmv`, mkgustrm`s pjbmny wmta ta` dss`rtmjk tadt

dky dtt`cpts tj c`dsur` dk mkgustry wmtamk ta` nubturdb s`ntjr wmbb gmll`r

smikmlmndktby (?551o, p.??4) mk mts jutnjc`, g`p`kgmki jk ta` g`lmkmtmjks

dppbm`g.

Cjg`bs

Mk dtt`cptmki tj `stdobmsa d vm`w ds tj wamna mkgustrm`s dr` g``c`g pdrt jl

ta` nubturdb jr nr`dtmv` mkgustrm`s, dkg wa`r` ta` cusmn mkgustrm`s lmt wmtamk

ta`s`, mt ms jlt`k k`n`ssdry tj grdw jk sjurn`s wamna us` ta` t`rcs nubturdb

dkg nr`dtmv` mkgustrm`s tj g`snrmo` gmll`r`kt vdrmdtmjks jl ta` sdc` tamki. Wams

ndk o` s``k mk tar`` jl ta` cjst smikmlmndkt nbdssmlmndtmjks6 ta` cjg`b us`g oyGNC^ mts`bl, A`scjkgadbias sycojbmn t`xts cjg`b, dkg, lmkdbby, Warjsoys

njkn`ktrmn nmrnb`s cjg`b.

Wa` GNC^ cjg`b ms, uksurprmsmkiby, ta` cjst `xt`ksmv` jl ta` tar``, bmstmki

4> mkgustrm`s ds pdrt jl ta` nr`dtmv` mkgustrm`s (s`` Dpp`kgmx 4) mknbugmki d

kuco`r jl mkgustrm`s (kjtdoby sjltwdr`) wamna dr` dos`kt lrjc cjst jl ta`

jta`r dnnjukts. Wams ms d orjdg nbdssmlmndtmjk ods`g jk d wmg` g`lmkmtmjk jlwadt njkstmtut`s d nr`dtmv` mkgustry4? , dkg cdy o` `cpbjy`g pdrtby tj

mknr`ds` ta` jv`rdbb vdbu` dkg smikmlmndkn` jl ta` mkgustrm`s ljr bjooymki

purpjs`s wmtamk ijv`rkc`kt, out mt dbsj pr`s`kts d kuco`r jl prjob`cs. Wa`

cdmk gmllmnubtm`s bm` mk ta` bdnh jl gmstmkntmjk o`tw``k ta` typ`s jl nr`dtmv`

mkgustry (ljr `xdcpb`, sjltwdr` ms vm`w`g tj o` ds cuna d nr`dtmv` mkgustry

ds cusmn jr drt, ds tj GNC^ ta`y dr` smcpby dbb njpyrmiat mkgustrm`s) tajuia

ta`s` dr` dggr`ss`g mk sjc` jl ta` jta`r cjg`bs, ds ms ta` njklbdtmjk jlnubturdb dkg nr`dtmv` mkgustrm`s, wamna ukg`rcmk` ta` PH ijv`rkc`kts

dpprjdna.

?5

4?ta` PH ijv`rkc`kts dtt`cpts tj g`lmk` dkg qudktmly ta` nr`dtmv` mkgustrm`s ndk o` ljukgmk ta`mr Nr`dtmv` Mkgustrm`s Cdppmki @x`rnms`s (4==1, ?554)

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A`scjkgadbia jll`rs dk dgvdkn` jk tams mk ams or`dhgjwk jl ta` nubturdb

mkgustrm`s mktj njr` dkg p`rmpa`rdb (?559, pp.4?-47) nubturdb mkgustrm`s. Mk

ta` ljrc`r ndt`ijry, a` mknbug`s ta` cusmn mkgustrm`s, orjdgndstmki, lmbc, w`o

njkt`kt, prmkt/ `b`ntrjkmn puobmsamki, vmg`j dkg njcput`r idc`s, dgv`rtmsmki

dkg cdrh`tmki ousmk`ss`s, wamb` ams p`rmpa`rdb nubturdb mkgustrm`s mknbug`

spjrt, sjltwdr`, ldsamjk dkg njksuc`r `b`ntrjkmns dkg nubturdb mkgustry

adrgwdr` (momg). Yamb` tams a`bps gmll`r`ktmdt` mkgustrm`s wmtamk ta` nubturdb

mkgustrm`s, mt ms stmbb d sbmiatby uksdtmsldntjry sjbutmjk6 tams cdh`s Warjsoys

nubturdb mkgustrm`s ds d suos`t jl ta` nr`dtmv` mkgustrm`s wmtamk d njkn`ktrmn

nmrnb`s cjg`b cdh`s d cjr` mktumtmv` dkg lb`xmob` dnnjukt. Mk tams, Warjsoy

g`tdmbs d s`t jl njr` nr`dtmv` drts (?551d, p.47=) dt ta` n`ktr`, wmta jta`r

njr` nubturdb mkgustrm`s, wmg`r nubturdb mkgustrm`s dkg r`bdt`gmkgustrm`s, (momg) dbbjwmki ljr sjc` r`njknmbmdtmjk jl mg`ds drjukg nr`dtmvmty

dkg ta` nubturdb mkgustrm`s (s`` tdob` o`bjw).

Wdob` ?.4 Warjsoys Njkn`ktrmn Nmrnb`s Cjg`b jl ta` Nubturdb Mkgustrm`s (?551o, p.405)

?4

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Ajw`v`r, ta` kdtur` jl suna irjupmkis rdms`s dkjta`r prjob`c, ds tj wamna

mkgustrm`s tj pbdn` mk ta` gmll`r`kt ojx`s. Ljr `xdcpb`, mk ams g`lmkmtmjk jl ta`

cdfjr nubturdb mkgustrm`s, Urdtt jll`rs d smcmbdr bmst tj A`scjkgadbia, out dggs

vmsudb drts, drnamt`ntur` dkg g`smik, ta` p`rljrcmki drts dkg bmordrm`s dkg

cus`ucs (?559, p.4). Wa` mssu` a`r` ms p`radps b`ss d qu`stmjk jl wamna

mkgustrm`s lmt wa`r` out ajw tj s`t ta` nrmt`rmd us`g tj bjndt` ta`c. Wams

amiabmiats d t`ksmjk mk ta` typjbjim`s, wamna jlt`k st`cs lrjc ajw ta` wrmt`rs

adv` g`lmk`g ta` nubturdb mkgustrm`s mk ta` lmrst mkstdkn`.

Warjsoys njkn`ktrmn nmrnb`s cjg`b, g`v`bjp`g tarjuia d s`rm`s jl wjrhs

(?554, ?551d, ?551o) jll`rs ojta ta` cjst g`tdmb`g r`vm`w jl `xmstmkibmt`rdtur` jk dtt`cpts tj nbdssmly ta` nubturdb mkgustrm`s dkg ta` cjst sjbmg

typjbjiy jl ta` gmll`r`kt nubturdb mkgustrm`s tj gdt`. Mt dbsj prjvmg`s ta` odsms

ljr ta` ukg`rstdkgmki jl ta` nubturdb / nr`dtmv` mkgustrm`s us`g oy d kuco`r jl

ijv`rkc`ktdb ojgm`s dkg pjbmny cdh`rs, mknbugmki ta` @urjp`dk Njccmssmjk

(H@D @urjp`dk Dlldmrs ?55

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gmr`ntby jr mkgmr`ntby mk ta` nr`dtmjk jl, cdkuldntur`, prjguntmjk, orjdgndst

dkg gmstrmoutmjk jl njpyrmiat`g wjrhs (?55>, p.?), wamna suii`sts d cjg`b tadt g`lmk`s njr` nr`dtmv` lm`bgs dt ta` n`ktr`jl d kuco`r jl njkn`ktrmn nmrnb`s, grdwmki a`dvmby jk Warjsoys jrmimkdb

(?554) cjg`b. O`yjkg ta` njr` nr`dtmv` lm`bgs bm` ta` nubturdb mkgustrm`s, ta`k

ta` nr`dtmv` mkgustrm`s dkg, lmkdbby, ta` r`st jl ta` `njkjcy. Mk tams g`lmkmtmjk,

ta` nubturdb mkgustrm`s dr` g`snrmo`g ds dntmvmtm`s tadt mkvjbv` cdss

r`prjguntmjk jl `xpr`ssmv` jutputs (momg) wamna dr` n`ktr`g drjukg njpyrmiat

dkg ta` wmg`r nr`dtmv` mkgustrm`s, mk tams mkstdkn`, dr` tajs` s`ntjrs mk wamna

us` jl `xpr`ssmv` vdbu` ms n`ktrdb tj ta`mr jv`rdbb p`rljrcdkn`. Warjsoysdriuc`kt ljr ta` njkn`ktrmn nmrnb`s dpprjdna ms ods`g jk mt dtt`cpts tj

dnam`v` dk `qumbmormuc o`tw``k ta` `njkjcmn nadrdnt`rmstmns (dssjnmdt`g

wmta nr`dtmv` mkgustrm`s dpprjdna`s) dkg ta` nubturdb jk`s dssjnmdt`g wmta

ta` nubturdb mkgustrm`s. Oy tams cjg`b mt ms ta` nubturdb vdbu`, jr nubturdb

njkt`kt, jl ta` ijjgs dkg s`rvmn`s prjgun`g tadt imv`s ta` nubturdb mkgustrm`s

ta`mr cjst gmstmkiumsamki nadrdnt`rmstmn (?554, p.471).

Ljr ta` purpjs`s jl tams ta`sms, ta` t`rc nubturdb mkgustrm`s wmbb o` us`g

tarjuiajut, jk ta` ukg`rstdkgmki, ds oy Warjsoy (?554) dkg Wa` Yjrh

Ljukgdtmjk (?559), tadt tams r`l`rs tj d cjr` s`b`nt irjup jl mkgustrm`s tadk

ta` wmg`r t`rc, nr`dtmv` mkgustrm`s, wamna wmbb jkby o` us`g wa`k qujtmki jr

sp`nmlmndbby r`l`rrmki tj d rdki` jl mkgustrm`s tadt mknbug`s wadt

A`scjkgadbia g`snrmo`s ds p`rmpa`rdb nubturdb mkgustrm`s (ljr `xdcpb`,

?>

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sjltwdr` dutajrmki dkg prjguntmjk jl adrgwdr` bmh` cusmn mkstruc`kts ljr ta`

nubturdb mkgustrm`s).

Wa` dpp`db jl Warjsoys g`lmkmtmjk ms tadt mt jll`rs d r`bdtmv`by uknjktrjv`rsmdb

nbdssmlmndtmjk kjt ods`g jk ta` k``gs jl `mta`r pjbmny cdh`rs jr bjooymsts,

dkg cjr` mcpjrtdktby, jll`rs d nb`dr gmstmkntmjk o`tw``k ta` njr` nr`dtmv` drts

(jl wamna cusmn ms jk`) dkg jta`r nubturdb mkgustrm`s. K`v`rta`b`ss, ml ta`

nubturdb mkgustrm`s dr` jlt`k vm`w`g ds d cjr` s`b`ntmv` irjup tadk ta`

nr`dtmv` mkgustrm`s, ta`k mt ms k`n`ssdry tj `xdcmk` ta` g`odt`s drjukg tams,

kdc`by wamna mkgustrm`s o`bjki tj ta` ljrc`r dkg wamna tj ta` bdtt`r, dkg

wa`r` gj ta` cusmn mkgustrm`s, ta` ljnus jl suos`qu`kt stugy, lmt4>:

Yamb` ta` g`odt` jv`r wamna mkgustrm`s dr` pbdn`g wa`r` ms, oy Warjsoys

jwk dgcmssmjk, `ss`ktmdbby dg ajn (?551d, p.405), ta`r` dr` twj mcpjrtdkt

jutnjc`s lrjc ams wjrh tadt mkljrc ta` pdta jl ta` driuc`kt mk tams ta`sms.

Wa` lmrst ms ta` bjndtmjk jl cusmn (ds d nr`dtmv` prdntmn`) dkg ta` cusmn

mkgustrm`s dt ta` n`ktr` jl dbb ta` smikmlmndkt cjg`bs jl ta` nubturdb (jr

nr`dtmv`) mkgustrm`s. Wa` s`njkg ms mk ams driuc`kt tadt, advmki nr`dt`g ta`

cjg`b, mt ms ta`k k`n`ssdry tj dgjpt d kuco`r jl c`tajgjbjimndbdpprjdna`s (?551o, p.??>) tj ndrry jut dk (`njkjcmn) dkdbysms jl `mta`r ta`

nubturdb mkgustrm`s ds wajb`, jr dky jl ta`c mkgmvmgudbby.

Dpprjdna`s tj ta` nubturdb mkgustrm`s

Ds d stmbb `xpdkgmki dr`d jl stugy, mt ms uksurprmsmki tadt dpprjdna`s tj ta`

nubturdb mkgustrm`s vdry, dkg tadt, ds y`t, ta`r` wjubg dpp`dr tj o`

njksmg`rdob` idps mk `dna jl ta`c, r`idrgb`ss jl ta`mr r`sp`ntmv` c`rmts. Oywdy jl d stdrtmki pjmkt, tams s`ntmjk wmbb bjjh dt ta` pjbmtmndb `njkjcy dkg

nubturdb stugm`s dpprjdna`s g`tdmb`g oy A`scjkgadbia (?55?, ?559) dkg

wadt a` rdta`r gmscmssmv`by ndbbs ta` k`j-bmo`rdb dpprjdna tj nubtur` (?559,

p.>4) jl wamna a` smt`s ta` wjrh jl _mnadrg Ndv`s ds d prjcmk`kt `xdcpb`.

Yamb` mt ms mcpjssmob` kjt tj dt b`dst o`imk dk `xdcmkdtmjk jl ta` nubturdb

?7

4>d gmdirdcdtmn r`pr`s`ktdtmjk jl sjc` suii`st`g dksw`rs tj tams ms prjvmg`g mk Dpp`kgmx 4

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mkgustrm`s tarjuia ta` prmsc jl d pjbmtmndb `njkjcy dpprjdna, ta` nds`

stugm`s mk nadpt`rs 0dkg ). Ymtt`b

kjt`s tadt ta` jutnjc` jl tams dr` stugm`s wamna ljnus jk jwk`rsamp,

njkn`ktrdtmjk, gmv`rsmlmndtmjk dkg ajrmzjktdb dkg v`rtmndb mkt`irdtmjk wmtamk

bdri` njcpdkm`s (?557, p.790)47

wamb` A`scjkgadbia dggs twj lurta`rnadrdnt`rmstmns tj tams, kdc`by ta` dnn`ptdkn` ta` nubtur` ms prjgun`g dkg

njksuc`g ukg`r ndpmtdbmsc (?559, p.>7) dkg tadt tams ms n`ktrdb tj ta`

mk`qudbmtm`s, jl pjw`r, pr`stmi` dkg prjlmt (momg) wamna `c`ri` wmtamk ta`c.

A` dbsj kjt`s tadt pjbmtmndb `njkjcy dpprjdna`s dr` njkn`rk`g wmta ta`

`xt`kt tj wamna ta` nubturdb mkgustrm`s s`rv` ta` mkt`r`sts jl ta` w`dbtay dkg

pjw`rlub (momg).

Wams vm`w jl ta` nubturdb mkgustrm`s st`cs lrjc d Cdrxmst, jr dt b`dst, b`lt-

b`dkmki pjbmtmndb p`rsp`ntmv`, dkg ljrcs ta` odsms jl A`scjkgadbias

dnnjukt, wamna ldvjurs jk` vdrmdkt jl pjbmtmndb `njkjcy (wadt a` ndbbs ta`

?0

47ajrmzjktdb mkt`irdtmjk r`l`rs tj ta` purnads` jl njcpdkm`s mk ta` sdc` bmk` jl ousmk`ss,v`rtmndb mkt`irdtmjk tj r`bdt`g ousmk`ss`s wamna dr` r`bdt`g tj prjn`ss`s jl prjguntmjk mk ta`jrmimkdb ousmk`ss

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nubturdb mkgustrm`s dpprjdna40) jv`r dkjta`r (ta` ^nambb`r-CnNa`sk`y

trdgmtmjk40) ms bdri`by

njkvmknmki wa`k njcpdr`g wmta ta` cjr` rmimg kdtur` jl ta` ^nambb`r-

CnNa`sk`y, out ukg`rvdbu`s njktrmoutmjks lrjc jta`r dr`ds, kjtdoby

cdmkstr`dc `njkjcmns, sjnmjbjiy dkg ousmk`ss/ jridkmsdtmjkdb stugm`s.Yamb` sjc` njksmg`rdtmjk ms imv`k tj sjnmjbjiy (kjtdoby O`nh`r 4=1? dkg

GmCdiimj 4=19) dkg wadt a` t`rcs rdgmndb c`gmd sjnmjbjiy/ c`gmd

stugm`s (ljr `xdcpb`, Ojurgm`u 4==9) rdta`r tadk d vdbmg dpprjdna mk ta`mr jwk rmiat.

Wajuia a` imv`s sjc` w`miat tj nubturdb stugm`s dpprjdna`s, mk pdrtmnubdr

ta`mr dtt`cpts tj r`lmk` dkg r`tamkh wadt ms dntudbby c`dkt oy nubtur`, tamstjj ms r`b`idt`g tj njcpb`c`ktmki ta` mssu`s rdms`g oy jta`r

dpprjdna`s (?559, p.7>).

A`scjkgadbia dkg ^ycojbmn W`xts

Oy grdwmki jk ta` wjrh jl Cmi` (4=1=), Idrkadc dkg Mkibms (4==5),

Idrkadc (?555) dkg \ji`b (4==1), A`scjkgadbia mg`ktmlm`s ljur njccjk

nadrdnt`rmstmns jl ta` nubturdb mkgustrm`s, wamna a` g`lmk`s ds tajs` mkgustrm`sn`ktr`g jk ta` prjguntmjk jl t`xts tj o` ojuiat dkg sjbg (?55?, p.41) dkg

lmv` njccjk r`spjks`s tj ta`c (?559, p.41) `dna jl wamna, tj vdrymki

g`ir``s, ndk o` s``k dt wjrh mk ta` cusmn mkgustrm`s. Wa`s` nadrdnt`rmstmns

?) dbsj

dggr`ss nadbb`ki`s tj mt - smtmki ta`s` ds njcmki lrjc d njcomkdtmjk jl

nadkimki wjrbg njkgmtmjks (ta` g`cms` jl njccukmsc dkg ta` ojjc p`rmjg

`kfjy`g oy w`st`rk `njkjcm`s dlt`r ta` p`rmjg gurmki ta` 4=95s dkg 4=15s

g`snrmo`g oy A`scjkgadbia ds Wa` Bjki Gjwkturk) dkg pjstcjg`rkmsc,

wamna vm`w`g ta` cjkjbmtamn stdt`s, `njkjcm`s, nubtur`s dkg mg`ktmtm`s jl

cjg`rkmsc (momg, p.45

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ads r`subt`g mk cdfjr nadki`s tj ta` wdy mk wamna nubturdb njkt`kt ms

prjgun`g, gmstrmout`g dkg njksuc`g (momg). D ibjodbms`g `njkjcy,

ukg`rpmkk`g oy rdpmg t`nakjbjimndb nadki` s``cs tj pr`s`kt d kuco`r jl

nadbb`ki`s tj d pjbmtmndb `njkjcy dpprjdna, wamna cdy o` r`sjbv`g oy

pdymki cjr` dtt`ktmjk tj ta` wjrh jl nubturdb `njkjcmsts.

Ndv`s dkg Nr`dtmv` Mkgustrm`s6 Njktrdnts dkg Wa`jrm`s jl ta` lmrc

Wa` cjst smikmlmndkt nadbb`ki` tj ta`s` dnnjukts jl ta` nubturdb mkgustrm`s ms

oy _mnadrg Ndv`s (?555). Ndv`s jll`rs d b`ss rmimg dpprjdna, wamna r`bm`s tj

dk `xt`kt jk `njkjcmns dkg mkgustrmdb jridkmsdtmjk stugm`s, usmki ta`jrm`s jl

ta` lmrc dkg njktrdnt ta`jry, wamb` cdmktdmkmki wadt a` g`snrmo`s ds dk

mkt`irdt`g dttdnh jk ta` jridkmsdtmjk jl nr`dtmv` dntmvmtm`s (momg, p.?).O`k`dta ojta ams g`snrmptmjk dkg dkdbysms ms d s`ks` tadt pr`vmjus `njkjcmn

dnnjukts adv` cdmkby ljnus`g jk ta` `bmt` p`rljrcmki drts (?555, p.4) dkg

tadt ta`r` ms d k``g tj bjjh cjr` nbjs`by dt ta` rb` jl mkgmvmgudb dntjrs wmtamk

ta` nr`dtmv` mkgustrm`s - ojta ta` nr`dtjrs dkg ta` ousmk`ss p`jpb` wjrhmki

wmta ta`c tj orjh`r njbbdojrdtmjks dkg njktrdnts. Dbsj dt ta` njr` jl ams

dnnjukt ms ta` o`bm`l, grdwk lrjc Irdcpp (4=1=d, 4=1=o), tadt nr`dtmv`

wjrh`rs dr` purpjsmv` dkg mkt`kg`gby rdtmjkdb mk ta`mr dntmvmtm`s, (?555, p.?)dkg, mk tadt r`sp`nt, kjt suostdktmdbby gmll`r`kt lrjc wjrh`rs mk jta`r mkgustrmdb

s`ntjrs.

A` gj`s, ajw`v`r, dnn`pt tadt ta`r` dr` suostdktmdb dkg syst`cdtmn (ml kjt

ukmv`rsdb) (momg) wdys mk wamna ta` nr`dtmv`/ nubturdb mkgustrm`s gmll`r lrjc ta`

r`st jl ta` `njkjcy. Wa` cjst mcpjrtdkt jl ta`s` dr` ukn`rtdmk g`cdkg dkg

ta` kjojgy hkjws `b`c`kt jl pr`gmntmki ta` njcc`rnmdb sunn`ss (jrjta`rwms`) jl nubturdb prjgunts dkg ta` r`bdtmjksamp jl nr`dtmv` wjrh`rs tj

ta`mr jutput. Ya`r` `njkjcmsts kjrcdbby dssuc` tadt wjrh`rs amr`g ljr

sjc` fjo gj kjt ndr` dojut ta` trdmts dkg l`dtur`s jl ta` prjgunt ta`y turk

jut, (?555, p.>) Ndv`s driu`s tadt ta`y ndr` vmtdbby dojut ta` jrmimkdbmty

gmspbdy`g, ta` t`nakmndb prjw`ss g`cjkstrdt`g, ta` r`sjbutmjk dkg adrcjky

dnam`v`g mk ta` nr`dtmv` dnt (momg). A` dbsj kjt`s ta` gmv`rsmty jl shmbbs

?=

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mkvjbv`g mk prjgunmki nr`dtmv` prjgunts, dkg ajw ta`y i`k`rdbby `xamomt

sjc` cmxtur` jl v`rtmndb dkg ajrmzjktdb gmll`r`ktmdtmjk, (momg, p.9) njcp`tmki

kjt jkby wmta jta`r nubturdb ijjgs, out wmta jta`r nubturdb ijjgs jl ta` sdc`

typ`. Lmkdbby a` kjt`s tadt cdky nubturdb ijjgs dr` kjt gurdob` (ljr `xdcpb`,

njkn`rts dkg p`rljrcdkn`s), dkg tadt ta` k``g ljr lutur` mknjc` ljr ta`

p`rljrc`rs dkg wrmt`rs ms jlt`k ods`g jk sadr`s mk `xp`nt`g lutur`

r`kts (momg, p.45).

Wj lubby utmbms` Ndv`s wjrh r`qumr`s sjc` ukg`rstdkgmki jl ojta njktrdnt

ta`jry dkg ta`jrm`s jl ta` lmrc. Ndv`s g`lmk`s d njktrdnt ds o`mki dk

dir``c`kt tadt ijv`rks ta` njkgunt jl dky `njkjcmn trdksdntmjk (momg, p.44)

dkg driu`s tadt dbb ta` pdrtm`s mkvjbv`g s``h cdxmcuc o`k`lmt lrjc mt (momg).A` kjt`s tadt, mk ta` nr`dtmv` mkgustrm`s, ta` cjst mcpjrtdkt dsp`nt jl ta`

njktrdnts mkvjbv`g ms ta`mr njcpb`xmty, wamna g`rmv`s lrjc d njcomkdtmjk jl

ta` bdri` kuco`r jl pdrtm`s mkvjbv`g dkg ta` gmllmnubty mkvjbv`g mk trymki tj

`ksur` tadt dbb `v`ktudbmtm`s dr` njv`r`g.

@njkjcmn ta`jry us`s twj cdmk dpprjdna`s mk trymki tj mg`ktmly ta` rb` jl

ta` lmrc wmtamk `njkjcmn `xnadki`6 ta` k`j-nbdssmndb dpprjdna wamna Adrtdnhkjwb`gi`s ms jlt`k ta` jkby ta`jry jl ta` lmrc pr`s`kt`g (4==0, p.?55)

dkg prmknmpdb-di`kt ta`jry, wamna r`njikms`s njklbmnts jl mkt`r`st o`tw``k

gmll`r`kt `njkjcmn dntjrs (momg, p.?54). Ljr Adrt, ta` ljrc`r ms jl bmcmt`g us`6

a` r`gun`s mt tj ta` driuc`kt tadt cjst lmrcs dr` cdkdi`g dkg pbdkk`g mk d

wdy tadt cdxmcms`s jwk`rs w`bldr`, (momg) wa`r` ta` w`bldr` ms bdri`by

g`t`rcmk`g oy lmkdknmdb r`turk. A` driu`s tadt ta` k`j-nbdssmndb dpprjdna

g`snrmo`s mk rugmc`ktdry t`rcs ajw lmrcs lukntmjk, out njktrmout`s bmttb` tjdky c`dkmkilub pmntur` jl ta`mr struntur` (momg).

Ams vm`w tadt prmknmpdb-di`kt ta`jry ms cjr` a`bplub, ms pdrtmnubdrby p`rtmk`kt mk

ta` nubturdb mkgustrm`s. Dt ta` n`ktr` jl tams ta`jry ms ta` s`pdrdtmjk jl ta`

jwk`rs jl d lmrc lrjc tajs` waj cdh` gdy tj gdy g`nmsmjks wmtamk mt, wa`r`

usudbby d prjl`ssmjkdb cdkdi`r cdh`s prjguntmjk najmn`s, suna ds

>5

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mkv`stc`kt jr `lljrt dbbjndtmjks, tadt ta` lmrcs jwk`rs gj kjt jos`rv` (momg).

Mk suna d smtudtmjk, ta` cdkdi`r ads tj o` mkn`ktmvms`g tj sadr` ta` jwk`rs

prjlmt cjtmv`s, sj ds kjt o` gmstrdnt`g oy p`rsjkdb dcomtmjks jr dmcs wamna

dr` kjt dbmik`g wmta tajs` jl ta` jwk`rs, tajuia Adrt driu`s tadt `v`k mk

suna d smtudtmjk, ta` cdkdi`r wmbb put sjc` w`miat jk ta`mr jwk jof`ntmv`s

dt ta` `xp`ks` jl tajs` jl ta` jwk`rs (momg).

Yamb` tams g`v`bjps ta` ukg`rstdkgmki jl ta` lmrc o`yjkg k`j-nbdssmndb

`njkjcmn ta`jry, Adrt ms njrr`nt tj kjt` tadt mt r`cdmks bmcmt`g, r`v`dbmki bmttb`

dojut ajw lmrcs dr` jridkms`g dkg cdhmki kj pr`gmntmjks dojut ta` kdtur`

dkg `xt`kt jl ta` lmrc (momg). Wj jv`rnjc` ta`s` prjob`cs, a` r`v`rts tj

mg`ds lmrst prjpjs`g oy Njds` (4=>9) wamna vm`w`g ta` `c`ri`kn` jl lmrcsds d wdy jl, dcjki jta`r tamkis, njktrdntmki njsts tadt dnnjcpdky dky

trdksdntmjk (momg, p.?5?). Oy tams ljrc jl trdksdntmjk njst `njkjcmns, lmrcs

dr` bmcmt`g mk ta`mr dntmvmtm`s oy ta` pjmkt dt wamna ta`r` w`r` kj sdvmkis tj o`

idmk`g oy tdhmki trdksdntmjks dwdy lrjc ta` cdrh`t. Dbtajuia, Adrt driu`s

tadt ojta Njds` dkg suos`qu`kt wjrh oy Dbnamdk dkg G`cs`tz (4=9?) dkg

G`cs`tz (4=11), wamna ms ods`g jk fjmkt prjguntmjk dkg cjkmtjrmki sj tadt

`dna dntjrs njktrmoutmjk ndk o` dss`ss`g, (momg, p.?5>) amiabmiats ta`bmh`bmajjg, dkg kdtur` jl njktrdntudb ldmbur` ojta wmtamk dkg o`tw``k lmrcs, a`

driu`s tadt k`mta`r `xpbdmks dg`qudt`by ajw ormkimki d trdksdntmjk mktj ta`

lmrc cmtmidt`s ta` ldmbur` (momg, p.?57).

Driudoby, ta` twj dbt`rkdtmv`s tj ta`s` `xpbdkdtmjks jll`r ta` cjst r`b`vdkn`

tj ta` nubturdb mkgustrm`s6 vm`wmki ta` lmrc ds d k`xus jl njktrdnts49dkg ta`

prjp`rty rmiats dpprjdna, tajuia, mcpjrtdktby, Adrt nbdmcs tadt dbb ta`s`pr`vmjus ta`jrm`s jl ta` lmrc dpp`dr tj o` njkv`rimki (momg, p.?4?). Wa`

ljrc`r driu`s tadt ta`r` ms bmttb` tj gmll`r`ktmdt` njktrdnts wmtamk d lmrc dkg

tajs` o`tw``k lmrcs (momg) dkg tadt ta`s` njktrdntudb dir``c`kts dr` pdrt jl

d rdki` jl njktrdnt typ`s o`tw``k lmrcs wamna dr` s`t up mk stdkgdrg ljrcs

(bmcmt`g njcpdkm`s, pdrtk`rsamps dkg sjb` trdg`rs) wamna dr` njktmkudbby

>4

49tajuiat tj jrmimkdt` lrjc ta` wjrh jl F`ks`k dkg C`nhbmki (4=9

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mkt`rdntmki wmta `dna jta`r, c`rimki dkg or`dhmki up, jlt`k wmta bdri`

trdksdntmjk njsts mk ta` prjn`ss. Pkg`r ta` prjp`rty rmiats dpprjdna,

jwk`rsamp jl kjk-aucdk dss`ts wmtamk d lmrc (ljr `xdcpb`, cdnamk`s,

oumbgmkis, gdtd dkg njpyrmiats) ij`s dbjki wmta r`smgudb rmiats jl njktrjb

jv`r mt (momg, p.?5-4?5) dkg ms ods`g jk ta` sndb` jl ta` lmrc. Jkn` mt r`dna`s d

n`rtdmk smz`, dnnjrgmki tj Adrt, ta` cdkdi`r dt ta` n`ktr` wmbb o`njc` b`ss

dkg b`ss mcpjrtdkt wmta r`idrg tj jp`rdtmjks dt ta` p`rmpa`ry (4==0, p.?5=)r`subtmki mk k`w lmrcs o`mki ljrc`g, wamb` ta` sdc` cdkdi`rs cdy o`

mkvjbv`g mk g`nmsmjks wamna r`subt mk ta` c`rimki jr tdh`jv`r jl jta`r `xmstmki

lmrcs jp`rdtmki mk `mta`r ajrmzjktdbby jr v`rtmndbby smcmbdr cdrh`ts.

Urjob`cs dkg Njcomkdtmjks

Dt lmrst smiat, A`scjkgadbia dkg Ndv`s cdy dpp`dr tj jll`r gmdc`trmndbby

jppjs`g dkg mknjcpdtmob` dpprjdna`s tj ta` nubturdb mkgustrm`s6A`scjkgadbias ms ods`g jk wadt a` ndbbs d pdrtmnubdr typ` jl pjbmtmndb

`njkjcy, mkljrc`g oy n`rtdmk dsp`nts jl `cpmrmndb sjnmjbjiy jl nubtur`,

njccukmndtmjk stugm`s dkg nubturdb stugm`s, (?551, p.7=) d trdgmtmjk tadt

dttdna`s ir`dt mcpjrtdkn` tj ta` gmstmkntmv` kdtur` jl nubturdb prjgunts. Oy

njktrdst, Ndv`s wjrh jrmimkdt`s mk k`j-nbdssmndb `njkjcmns, wamna, oy

A`scjkgadbias nrmtmqu`, ms uknjkn`rk`g wmta ta` aucdk k``gs dkg rmiats,

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kjr wmta mkt`rv`kmki mk qu`stmjks jl sjnmdb fustmn`, (?551, p.>5) out wamna

mkst`dg `qudt`s aucdk adppmk`ss wmta ta` jptmcmsmki jl `njkjcmn

sdtmsldntmjks (momg). Dbtajuia mt ms `dsy tj fuxtdpjs` ta`s` dpprjdna`s,

pjrtrdymki ta` ljrc`r ds o`mki ajbmstmn dkg ta` bdtt`r ds dk dkdbysms ods`g

pur`by jk `njkjcmn r`turks, tj gj sj ms tj jv`rsmcpbmly cdtt`rs. dkg Mt ms,

ta`r`ljr`, k`n`ssdry tj `xdcmk` mk cjr` g`tdmb ta` str`kitas dkg

w`dhk`ss`s jl `dna dpprjdna, wmta ta` jutnjc` tadt mt cdy o` k`n`ssdry tj

try dkg r`njknmb` ta` twj tadt tj lubby ukg`rstdkg ta` nubturdb mkgustrm`s.

Ajw`v`r, tams ms b`ss dojut ta` w`dhk`ss`s jl pjbmtmndb `njkjcy ds dk

dpprjdna, tadk dojut ta` bdnh jl njksmg`rdtmjk jl pdrdbb`b dnnjukts, wamna

p`radps jll`r d cjr` r`v`dbmki mksmiat mktj ta` wdy Warjsoys njr` nubturdbmkgustrm`s wjrh mk ta` wmg`r njkt`xt jl d gjcmkdkt cdrh`t `njkjcy.

A`scjkgadbia, wamb` dnn`ptmki ta` k``g ljr d rdki` jl dpprjdna`s, ms,

k`v`rta`b`ss, ukdnnjccjgdtmki wa`k mt njc`s tj `njkjcmsts, waj a`

nbdmcs jlt`k ldmb tj r`njikms` ta` mcpbmndtmjks jl ta`s` (gmstmkntmv`)

nadrdnt`rmstmns (jl ta` nubturdb mkgustrm`s) dkg ta` bmcmtdtmjks jl ta`

lukgdc`ktdb `njkjcmn njkn`pts ukg`rpmkkmki ta`mr dpprjdna`s (?551, p.

>4). A` lurta`r driu`s tadt `v`k `njkjcmn driuc`kts wamna tdh` dnnjukt jlsuna gmll`r`kn`s gjwkpbdy ta` s`v`rmty jl ta` prjob`cs jl nubturdb

cdrh`ts (momg) dkg us`s sjc` jl ta` cjr` `xtr`c` strdmks jl `njkjcmn

tamkhmki wmta r`idrgs ta` nubturdb mkgustrm`s - ljr `xdcpb`, Njds`s vm`w tadt

ta`r` ms kj lukgdc`ktdb gmstmkntmjk (4=97, p.>1=) o`tw``k ta` cdrh`t ljr

ijjgs dkg ta` cdrh`t ljr mg`ds (momg) - tj gmscmss cjr` njkstruntmv`

njkn`pts lrjc ta` sdc` p`rsp`ntmv` (sp`nmlmndbby sjc` jl tajs` mktrjgun`g

oy Ndv`s, waj nb`drby gj`s r`njikms` ta` ukmqu` dsp`nts jl ta` nubturdbmkgustrm`s) ds pdrt jl d i`k`rdbms`g dttdnh jk k`j-bmo`rdb dpprjdna`s tj

nubtur`.

Yamb` A`scjkgadbia ms rmiat tj o` nrmtmnms` jl sjc` jl ta` ukg`rbymki pr`t`xts

(dt b`dst ds a` dssmiks ta`c) jl k`j-bmo`rdbmsc, dkg tj uri` ndutmjk mk ta`

dppbmndtmjk jl `njkjcmn njkn`pts tj ta` nubturdb mkgustrm`s (momg), out ljr ta`

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purpjs`s jl tams ta`sms, ta`y dpp`dr tj jll`r dt b`dst ds cuna ds d cjr`

trdgmtmjkdb pjbmtmndb `njkjcy / nubturdb stugm`s dpprjdna wa`k mt njc`s tj

ukg`rstdkgmki ta` bjimns dt wjrh mk ta` k`w typ` jl cusmn mkgustrm`s lmrcs

stugm`g mk nadpt`rs 0 dkg 4) w`dh`ks ta` ukg`rstdkgmki jl ajw nubturdb mkgustrm`s

adv` mkt`rdnt`g wmta ijv`rkc`kts tj pursu` ta`mr jwk cdrh`t dmcs mk r`n`kt

y`drs.

^jc` ljrc jl r`njknmbmdtmjk o`tw``k ta`s` twj dpprjdna`s ms ta`r`ljr`

k`n`ssdry, ml jkby tj r`sjbv` ta` dwhwdrg prjob`c jl ta` lukgdc`ktdb samlt mkojta way dkg ajw ijv`rkc`kts suppjrt ta` nubturdb mkgustrm`s. Wa` cjv`

lrjc mkt`r`st mk ta` suosmgy jl amia nubtur`41 tj suppjrtmki ta` `njkjcmn

pjssmombmtm`s jl ta` nr`dtmv` mkgustrm`s (mk t`rcs jl fjo nr`dtmjk dkg `njkjcmn

vdbu`) cdrhs d r`dbmikc`kt jl puobmn pjbmny, dkg jk` wamna k``gs ta`

dppbmndtmjk jl sjc` `njkjcmn prmknmpb`s tj lubby ukg`rstdkg. Wj tams `kg,

Ndv`s `cpadsms jk njktrdnts, r`kt-s``hmki tarjuia mkt`bb`ntudb prjp`rty

rmiats dkg ta` rb` jl mkgmvmgudb dntjrs wmtamk ta` lmrc dbb prjvmg` us`lub tjjbsljr ukg`rstdkgmki ta` njkt`cpjrdry nubturdb mkgustrm`s.

Bdri`by o`ndus` jl tams, mt ms, ta`r`ljr`, k`n`ssdry tj lmkg d lrdc`wjrh wamna

ndk dnnjccjgdt` `b`c`kts jl ojta dpprjdna`s. Adrgt dkg K`irms

jos`rvdtmjk jl ta` mknr`dsmki mkgmstmkiumsadombmty jl `njkjcmn dkg nubturdb

pa`kjc`kd (?554, p.?90) dkg ta`mr driuc`kt ljr dpprjdna`s wamna dr`

`qudbby pambjsjpamndb dkg amstjrmndb, nubturdb dkg `njkjcmn, pjbmtmndb dkgdktarjpjbjimndb (4===, p.xvm) dr` mcpjrtdkt a`r`. Wa`y dbsj driu` tadt mt ms

k`n`ssdry ljr d cjgmnuc jl mkt`r-gmsnmpbmkdry ukg`rstdkgmki, wa`r`oy

`njkjcmsts k``g d odsmn hkjwb`gi` jl nubturdb prjguntmjk tj ukg`rstdkg ta`

`njkjcy, dkg bmh`wms` ta` nubturdb nrmtmn k``gs d odsmn hkjwb`gi` jl

`njkjcmn prjn`ss`s tj ukg`rstdkg nubtur` (momg).

>7

41s`` gmsnussmjk mk, ljr xdcpb`, Ymtts (4==1) dkg Nbjjkdk (?559)

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Wams cdh`s Ymtt`bs vm`w jk ta` pjbmtmndb `njkjcy jl nubtur` dkg ta`

nadbb`ki`s dkg prjob`cs pjs`g tj ta` pjbmtmndb `njkjcy jl nubtur` tarjuia

ta` prmsc jl Adrgt dkg K`irms @cpmr` (?554) pdrtmnubdrby us`lub6 dnn`ptmki

tadt Adrgt dkg K`irms wjrh r`cdmks mk ta` r`dbc jl pjbmtmndb

`njkjcy (?557, p.79=) a` dir``s wmta ta`mr nds` ljr d pjbmtmndb `njkjcy

lrjc o`bjw (momg) out driu`s ta` k``g tj njcomk` d pjbmtmndb `njkjcy

p`rsp`ntmv` wmta d nubturdb `njkjcy dpprjdna tj jp`k up d o`tt`r

ukg`rstdkgmki jl bdt` jr ibjodb ndpmtdbmsc (momg). Wams dpprjdna s``cs w`bb

sumt`g tj d stugy jl ta` njkt`cpjrdry cusmn mkgustrm`s, pr`s`ktmki dk

jppjrtukmty tj cjv` ta` gmsnussmjk o`yjkg ta` pr`vmjus r`bmdkn` jk pjbmtmndb

`njkjcy, wmtajut f`ttmsjkmki mts mktrmksmn c`rmts.

(mmm)Wa` Cusmn Mkgustrm`s

Ajw`v`r, stugm`s jl ta` cusmn mkgustrm`s t`kg tj jv`rbjjh dpprjdna`s tadt

dr` rjjt`g mk (nubturdb) `njkjcmns, pr`l`rrmki mkst`dg tj wjrh lrjc `mta`r ta`

pjbmtmndb `njkjcy jl ta` cusmn mkgustrm`s, jr cjr` r`n`ktby jk ta` pjbmtmndb

`njkjcy jl njpyrmiat ds mt mcpdnts jk ta` r`njrgmki mkgustry. Yamb` tams ms

ukg`rstdkgdob` mk wjrhs wamna r`lb`nt ta` gjcmkdkt pjsmtmjk jl ta` r`njrgmkimkgustry wmtamk ta` wmg`r cusmn mkgustrm`s prmjr tj 4===, ta` k`w r`dbmty jl

ta`s` mkgustrm`s (ds g`tdmb`g mk nadpt`r 7) mkvjbv`s ta` g`nbmkmki smikmlmndkn`

jl ta` r`njrgmki mkgustry, dkg ta` mknr`dsmki `njkjcmn mcpjrtdkn` jl ojta ta`

bmv` cusmn dkg cusmn puobmsamki mkgustrm`s. Mk r`njikmsmki tams, tams jv`rvm`w

jl wrmtmki jk ta` cusmn mkgustrm`s `xdcmk`s ta` cdfjr wjrhs mk ta` lm`bg,

ljnusmki jk kjt jkby ta` stdrtmki pjmkts ljr dkdbysms dkg ta` dpprjdna`s

dgjpt`g, out dbsj tajs` wamna adv` o``k ukg`r r`pr`s`kt`g jr jcmtt`g lrjcta` kdrrdtmv` dbtji`ta`r.

Wa` mkgustrmdbmsdtmjk jl cusmn

^tugm`s jl ta` cusmn mkgustrm`s s``c tj pjmkt tjwdrgs jk` jl tar`` pjt`ktmdb

stdrtmki pjmkts ljr ta` stugm`s jl cusmn mk t`rcs jl mts `njkjcmn smikmlmndkn`.

Lmrstby, d kuco`r jl i`k`rdb dnnjukts jl ta` r`njrgmki mkgustry (kjtdoby

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Irjkjw dkg ^dukmj 4==18 Odrl` ?5578 Aubb ?557) trdn` ta` mkgustrmdbmsdtmjk

jl cusmn lrjc ta` mkv`ktmjk jl ta` pajkjirdpa mk ta` bdt` kmk`t``kta n`ktury

dkg ta` suos`qu`kt dvdmbdombmty jl paysmndb njpm`s jl r`njrgmkis ljr sdb`,

tajuia mt ndk o` driu`g tadt ta` sdb` jl sa``t cusmn dkg ta` dombmty tj cdh`

cjk`y lrjc bmv` p`rljrcdkn` pr`gdt`g tams. Mk `ll`nt, d s`njkg nbdmc ms tadt

puobmsamki dkg p`rljrcdkn` w`r` ta` stdrtmki pjmkts ljr ta` mkgustrmdbmsdtmjk

jl cusmn (s`` Dttdbm 4=10) dkg tadt ta` dttrmoutmjk jl tams tj ta` r`njrgmki

mkgustry cdy o` `drby `vmg`kn` jl mts jv`r-prmvmb`imki mk kdrrdtmv`s r`bdtmki tj

ta` cusmn mkgustrm`s.

Wa` tamrg st`cs lrjc U`t`rsjks (4==5) dnnjukt jl ta` mcpjrtdkn` jl 4=00 mk

ta` dgv`kt jl rjnhkrjbb. Yamb` ta` `njkjcmn vdbu` jl cusmn adg st`dgmbymknr`ds`g tarjuia ta` sdb` jl r`njrgs dkg `xpbjmtdtmjk jl rmiats gurmki ta`

`drby tw`ktm`ta n`ktury, a` cdh`s d nds` tadt mt wds ta` t`nakjbjimndb dkg

mkgustrmdb nadki`s wamna tjjh pbdn` drjukg tadt tmc` cdrh`g ta` stdrt jl ta`

cjg`rk r`njrgmki mkgustry, wa`r` bdri` qudktmtm`s jl paysmndb prjgunts (dt ta`

tmc`, vmkyb r`njrgs) w`r` sjbg tj d cdss cdrh`t oy d njcomkdtmjk jl ojta

cdfjr dkg cmkjr njcpdkm`s.

Oy njkk`ntmki ta` sdb` jl cusmn tj d cuna wmg`r, yjuta cdrh`t, U`t`rsjk ndk

o` s``k tj r`njikms` ta` vm`w jl pjpubdr cusmn dkg ta` mkgustry drjukg mt mk

t`rcs jl ta` typ` jl nubtur` mkgustry lmrst mg`ktmlm`g oy Dgjrkj dkg

Ajrha`mc`r mk Gmdb`ntmn jl @kbmiat`kc`kt wa`r` ta`y g`snrmo` d nubtur`

mkgustry (4=9=, p.4) wmta dk dss`coby bmk` (momg) dkg d sykta`tmn,

pbdkk`g c`tajg jl turkmki jut mts prjgunts, (momg) wamb` Dgjrkj adg

pr`vmjusby gmll`r`ktmdt`g pjpubdr cusmn lrjc s`rmjus cusmn oy mtsstdkgdrgmsdtmjk (4==5/ 4=74, p.>5?) dkg wadt a` ndbbs ps`ugj-

mkgmvmgudbmsdtmjk (momg, p.>51) wamna ms us`g tj amg` ta` tru` kdtur` jl

stdkgdrgmsdtmjk, wa`r` ta` cusmn dvdmbdob` tj njksuc`rs ms dbr`dgy bmst`k`g

tj ljr ta`c, jr pr`-gmi`st`g (4==5, p.>51).

>

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Dgjrkj dkg Ajrha`mc`r dbsj mg`ktmlm`g ta` samlt dwdy lrjc cusmn ds d

puobmsamki dkg p`rljrcdkn` mkgustry tj jk` jl cdkuldnturmki, out w`r`

wrmtmki mk d p`rmjg prmjr tj ta` dgv`kt jl d gmll`r`kt, dkg wmg`r, pjpubdr cusmn

mkgustry gurmki ta` 4=05s dkg 4=) wmta ta` g`v`bjpc`kt jl d cdss yjuta cdrh`t

mk ta` 4=

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Wams ms mknr`dsmkiby dppdr`kt mk ta` typ` jl jridkmsdtmjkdb stugm`s jl ta`

r`njrgmki mkgustry oy Amrsna (4=

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Ajbmstmn dkg @takjirdpamn Dnnjukts

Yamb` ta`s` `drby dtt`cpts tj ukpdnh ta` r`njrgmki mkgustry jl ta` bdt` smxtm`s

w`r` bmcmt`g mk ojta snjp` dkg `xt`kt, Nadppb` dkg Idrjldbj (4=99) dkg

Lrmta (4=91) prjgun`g ta` lmrst ajbmstmn dnnjukts jl pjpubdr cusmn cdhmki,

prjvmgmki g`tdmb`g `xpbdkdtmjks jl ojta cusmn prjguntmjk dkg cjk`ycdhmki.

Mk pdrtmnubdr, Lrmta njkn`ktrdt`s jk ojta ta` r`bdtmjksamp o`tw``k cusmn dkg

jta`r c`gmd, dkg cjr` smikmlmndktby r`mkstdt`s ta` mcpjrtdkn` jl ojta bmv`

cusmn dkg puobmsamki r`v`ku`s mk wadt a` ndbbs ta` prjlmtdombmty jl rjnh (momg,

p.450). Wams cdrhs d kjtdob` nadki` dwdy lrjc smcpby njksmg`rmki ta`

r`njrgmki mkgustry ds d rmsh-tdhmki, cdkuldnturmki mkgustry, dkg mkg``g,

Lrmtas suos`qu`kt wjrh (4=19, 4==>, ?554) r`pr`s`kts d pdrdgmic samlt,

suii`stmki tadt ta` r`njrgmki mkgustry (dkg jta`r cusmn mkgustrm`s) njubg kjbjki`r o` ukg`rstjjg mk t`rcs jl cdkuldnturmki dkg tadt ta` di` jl

cdkuldntur` ms kjw jv`r (4=11, p.09). Mkst`dg a` driu`s tadt cusmndb rmiats

dr` ta` odsmn pjp njccjgmty (momg). D r`subt jl tams ms tadt dbcjst dbb ta`

suos`qu`kt tjp gjwk stugm`s jl ta` cusmn mkgustrm`s adv` vm`w`g ta`c mk

t`rcs jl `mta`r rmiats jr ta` r`bdtmjksamp o`tw``k cdfjr dkg mkg`p`kg`kt

njcpdkm`s.

K`ius Urjgunmki Ujp (4==?) r`cdmks ta` cjst `xt`ksmv` `takjirdpamn

surv`y jl r`njrgmki mkgustry p`rsjkk`b wmta mts stdt`g dmc jl `cpadsmsmki ta`

nubturdb wjrbgs o`mki bmv`g dkg njkstdktby r`cdg` (momg6 vmm). Wams str`kita

dkg w`dhk`ss jl tams wjrh, wamna njkn`ktrdt`s cdmkby jk ta` cdfjr bdo`bs

wmtamk ta` PH dkg P^ r`njrgmki mkgustrm`s, bm`s mk K`ius nbdmc tadt d bdri`

pdrt jl tams ojjh r`sjkdt`s wmta ta` vjmn`s jl ta` r`njrgmki mkgustry

p`rsjkk`b M adv` spjh`k tj (momg), c`dkmki tadt mt smcubtdk`jusby jll`rs k`wg`tdmb dkg mksmiat, out, oy dkdbysmki mkt`rkdb njklbmnts wmtamk ta` njcpdkm`s

gjwkirdg`s ta` typ` jl njklbmnt dkg struiib`, g`snrmo`g oy Adrh`r (4==9, p.

7=) tj d s`rm`s jl gmsdir``c`kts dkg vdrymki g`ir``s jl `ktausmdsc (momg).

K`ius (4===

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njcpdkm`s nbdmcs, ds `xpr`ss`g tarjuia ta`mr s`ntjrdb jridkmsdtmjks, tadt

ta`y dr` ta` cusmn mkgustry (Ymbbmdcsjk dkg Nbjjkdk ?559, p.>4>).

Cmnrj-b`v`b stugm`s

Dbtajuia jta`r pjpubdr cusmn stugm`s t`xt ojjhs jl ta` p`rmjg jl r`n`kt y`drs

(Bjkiaurst 4==08 Ourk`tt 4==8 A`scjkgadbia ?55?8 Lrmta ?557), r`subtmki mk d

cjv` dwdy lrjc bdri` sndb` stugm`s jl ta` mkgustrm`s usmki pjbmtmndb `njkjcy

ds d stdrmki pjmkt tj d cjr` g`tdmb`g dnnjukt jl ta` prjn`ss`s jl nr`dtmvmtydkg ta` sjnmdb dkg `njkjcmn njkstrdmkts upjk ta`c.

Ymta ta` `xn`ptmjk jl Lrmtas cjst r`n`kt dnnjukt jl ta` cusmn

mkgustry (?554, pp.?

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^auh`r (?559) tj d rdki` jl jta`r dpprjdna`s ms ojta mcpjrtdkt dkg

k`n`ssdry.

K`w dpprjdna`s

Jl ta` cjr` bjkistdkgmki mssu`s, njpyrmiat dkg mts mcpjrtdkn` tj ta` cusmn

mkgustrm`s ads o``k w`bb ta`jrms`g oy ta` bmh`s jl Lrmta dkg Cdrsadbb (?55>),

Ir``klm`bg dkg Jsojrk (?55>) dkg Wao`ri` (?55>) dkg ta`r` ads dbsj o``k

dk mcpjrtdkt dnnjukt jl ta` wmg`r mcpdnt jl gmimtmsdtmjk jk ta` cusmn

mkgustrm`s (A`scjkgadbia ?559), out wjrh oy ojta ^trdnadk (?559) dkg

Y`oo (?559) ads didmk ljnus`g jk (r`bdtmv`by) scdbb sndb` cusmn cdhmki

wmtamk ta` r`njrgmki mkgustry. Mkg``g, ta` cjr` mkt`r`stmki dnnjukts jl

njkt`cpjrdry nadki` mk ta` cusmn mkgustrm`s adv` njc` lrjc gmsnmpbmk`swamna adv` pr`vmjusby o``k jk ta` cdrimks jl Ujpubdr Cusmn ^tugm`s. Wa`s`

mknbug` nubturdb i`jirdpay, `njkjcmns dkg ousmk`ss dkg jridkmsdtmjkdb

stugm`s.

Lrjc ta` lmrst jl ta`s`, B`ysajk (?554) dkg B`ysajk `t db (?550) adv`

`xdcmk`g ta` kdtur` jl k`twjrhs mk ta` r`njrgmki mkgustry dkg ta` gmsruptmjk

ndus`g oy k`w t`nakjbjim`s, wjrh wamna smts dbjkismg` Y`oos (?559)dnnjukt jl cmbm`u nubtur`s wmtamk pjpubdr cusmn. ^tugm`s jl ta` bmv` cusmn

mkgustry wamna adv` o``k i`k`rdbby jv`rbjjh`g `bs`wa`r` adv` o``k lrjc

ta` lm`bg jl `njkjcmns, wmta ta` wjrh jl Hru`i`r (?550) dkg Njkkjbby dkg

Hru`i`r (?55

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dpp`drs dob` tj jp`k d wmg`r rdki` jl mksmiats mktj ta` kdtur` jl ta`

njkt`cpjrdry cusmn mkgustrm`s tadk d njktmku`g r`bmdkn` jk pjbmtmndb

`njkjcy.

Njknbusmjks, Jcmssmjks dkg Urjob`cs

Wams nadpt`r o`imks wmta ^auh`rs dss`rtmjk tadt ta` cusmn mkgustry ms d

nubturdb mkgustry, o`st `xpbdmk`g oy us` jl pjbmtmndb `njkjcy dkg driu`s tadt

tams ms prjob`cdtmn jk d kuco`r jl b`v`bs, kjt b`dst ta` pburdbmty jl dpprjdna`s

tj ta` nubturdb mkgustrm`s dkg ta` k``g ljr d wmg`r g`lmkmtmjk jl ta` cusmn

mkgustry. Mk dggmtmjk, mt driu`s ta` k``g ljr sjc` ljrc jl r`njikmtmjk jl ta`

lukgdc`ktdb gmll`r`kn`s o`tw``k ojta dndg`cmn dnnjukts jl ta` nubturdb

mkgustrm`s dkg ijv`rkc`kt vm`ws jl ta` nr`dtmv`mkgustrm`s dkg o`tw``k ta`pjbmtmndb `njkjcy dkg nubturdb `njkjcmns dpprjdna`s tj ta`c. Wj gj tams, mt

us`s Warjsoys njkn`ktrmn nmrnb`s g`lmkmtmjk jl ta` nubturdb mkgustrm`s dkg

dbmiks mt wmta Ymtt`bs driuc`kts ljr d njcomkdtmjk jl ta` twj cdfjr

dpprjdna`s tj prjvmg` d lrdc`wjrh ljr ta` stugy jl ojta ta` cusmn mkgustrm`s

ds ojta nubturdb mkgustrm`s dkg, b`ss sp`nmlmndbby, ds ousmk`ss`s wmtamk

gmsjridkms`g ndpmtdbmsc.

Mk cjvmki o`yjkg ta` njklmk`s jl ta` typ` jl pjbmtmndb `njkjcy dkg nubturdb

stugm`s dpprjdna`s tj ta` nubturdb mkgustrm`s mk i`k`rdb wamna adv`

gjcmkdt`g cdky jl ta` gmsnussmjks jl ta` cusmn mkgustrm`s tj gdt`, mt jll`rs

ta` dpprjdna`s jl Ndv`s dkg Ymtt`b ds dbt`rkdtmv` stdrtmki pjmkts tj ta` stugy

jl ta` cusmn mkgustrm`s. Mk gjmki sj, mt dmcs tj `xt`kg ta` g`lmkmtmjk dkg snjp`

jl ta` cusmn mkgustrm`s stugm`g (mk nadpt`r 7) dkg grdw jk d kuco`r jl

pr`vmjusby ukg`r-utmbms`g dpprjdna`s tj prjvmg` d ir`dt`r nbdrmty mk dtt`cptmkitj ukg`rstdkg ta`c (nadpt`r 9).

Cjst kjtdoby, tams jv`rvm`w jl ta` `xmstmki bmt`rdtur` jk ta` nubturdb dkg cusmn

mkgustrm`s amiabmiats twj cdfjr mssu`s wmta ta` `xmstmki wjrh mk tams dr`d

wamna dr` r`nurrmki ta`c`s jl ta` r`cdmkg`r jl ta` wjrh - kdc`by ta`

a`i`cjkmn pjsmtmjk jl ta` r`njrgmki mkgustry wmtamk stugm`s jl ta` cusmn

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mkgustry dkg ta` smcmbdrby gjcmkdkt pjsmtmjk jl pjbmtmndb `njkjcy ds dk

dpprjdna tj mt.

(m) Wa` r`njrgmki mkgustry ms kjt ta` cusmn mkgustry

Wa` cjst kjtdob` jl ta`s` ms ta` dos`kn`, wmtamk ta` `xmstmki dnnjukts jl dky

smikmlmndkt, ajbmstmn dnnjukts jl ta` bmv` cusmn dkg cusmn puobmsamki

mkgustrm`s. Wa`y dr` jkby c`ktmjk`g lb``tmkiby wmtamk wmg`r stugm`s jl `mta`r

pjpubdr cusmn nubtur` (Lrmta 4=91, pp. =>-==) jr ta` cusmn mkgustry (K`ius,

4==?, pp.4>5-4>4) jr jnndsmjkdbby wa`k dpprjdna`g ljrc v`ry sp`nmlmn

dkib`s, ljr `xdcpb` mk ta` wjrh jl Hru`i`r (?550) dkg Njkkjbby dkg Hru`i`r

(?55

?4dk DA_N lukg`g r`s`drna prjf`nt ms nurr`ktby o`mki njkgunt`g mktj bmv` cusmn mk ta` PH dtta` Pkmv`rsmtm`s jl Ibdsijw dkg @gmkouria6 attp6//www.ibd.dn.uh/g`pdrtc`kts/bmv`cusmnprjf`nt/

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K`v`rta`b`ss, tams r`n`kt `xt`ksmjk jl mkt`r`st mk ta` cusmn mkgustrm`s tj jta`r

lm`bgs ndk p`radps o` us`g ds `vmg`kn` jl ta` irjwmki cdturmty jl Ujpubdr

Cusmn ^tugm`s mts`bl (Nbjjkdk ?550), out, cjr` mcpjrtdktby, cdky jl ta`s`

r`n`kt wjrhs pr`s`kt d kuco`r jl k`w, dbo`mt sjc`tmc`s t`ktdtmv`, rjut`s

mktj ta` stugy jl ta` cusmn mkgustrm`s. Dggmtmjkdbby, ta` dpprjdna wamna vm`ws

o`bdt`g stugy jl ta` cusmn mkgustrm`s (tajuia cjst lr`qu`ktby, ta` r`njrgmki

mkgustry) ds d ousmk`ss lmrst, dkg nubturdb mkgustry s`njkg, pr`s`kts kjt fust d

kuco`r jl pjssmombmtm`s ljr lutur` stugy, out sjc` dggmtmjkdb mksmiat mktj sjc`

jl ta` cjr` prjob`cdtmn dsp`nts jl ta` cusmn mkgustrm`s. Psmki d njcomkdtmjk

jl `xmstmki wjrh dkg o`mki jp`k tj ta` mklbu`kn` jl suna dr`ds, pr`s`kts d

stdrtmki pjmkt ljr d cjr` lb`xmob` ta`jrmsdtmjk jl ta` njkt`cpjrdry cusmn

mkgustrm`s.

(mm) Ujbmtmndb @njkjcy ms kjt ta` jkby wdy

Wa`r` dr` twj suostdktmdb prjob`cs wmta ta` dgjptmjk jl dk dpprjdna ods`g

sjb`by jk pjbmtmndb `njkjcy wamna dr` ukpdnh`g mk tams ta`sms. Ojta jl ta`s`

dr` `xdcmk`g mk cjr` g`tdmb mk bdt`r nadpt`rs, out mt ms mcpjrtdkt tj mg`ktmly

ta`c dt tams stdi` ds ta`y dr` mkt`irdb tj ta` suos`qu`kt c`tajgjbjimndb

najmn`s mk nadpt`r > dkg r`dpp`dr tarjuiajut ta` `cpmrmndb pdrt jl ta`r`s`drna. Mk dgjptmki dk dpprjdna tadt ms ods`g jk pjbmtmndb `njkjcy (jr

mkg``g, ta` Cdrxmst nrmtmqu` jl mt) wmtamk ta` nubturdb mkgustrm`s ms tj dssuc`

fflrstby tadt ndpmtdbmsc ms mka`r`ktby stdob` dkg tadt ta`s` mkgustrm`s dr`

sjc`ajw g`tdna`g lrjc dkg mccuk` tj turoub`kn` dkg nadki` wmtamk ta`

`njkjcy. Wams gj`s kjt smt w`bb wmta ta` g`snrmptmjks jl bdt` p`rmjg,

gmsjridkms`g ndpmtdbmsc jl ta` typ` g`tdmb`g oy Bdsa dkg Prry (4=10). Wams

bdt` tw`ktm`ta n`ktury vm`w s``s ndpmtdbmsc `kt`rmki d k`w pads`, wamna mskjt ods`g jk cdkuldnturmki dkg nj-jp`rdtmjk o`tw``k ta` stdt`, `cpbjy`rs

dkg trdg` ukmjks, out jk` mk wamna ibjodb cdrh`ts dr` gjcmkdt`g oy bdri`

trdkskdtmjkdb njrpjrdtmjks dkg wa`r` ta` mcpjrtdkn` jl ta` stdt` ms

gmcmkmsa`g oy jkijmki g`r`iubdtmjk. Mt ms mk tams njkt`xt, tadt mkt`bb`ntudb

prjp`rty, r`kt-s``hmki dkg `ktr`pr`k`ursamp o`njc` mknr`dsmkiby mcpjrtdkt

mk ukg`rstdkgmki ta` nubturdb dkg cusmn mkgustrm`s.

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Ds d njks`qu`kn` jl tams, pjbmtmndb `njkjcy cdh`s b`ss s`ks` mk ta` bmiat jl

gmsjridkms`g ndpmtdbmsc dkg ta` `njkjcmn turoub`kn` (rdta`r tadk mkstdombmty)

wamna dnnjcpdkm`s mt. Mk suna d smtudtmjk, fflrcs mk ta` cusmn mkgustrm`s ndk

o` s``k tj o` smcubtdk`jusby njcp`tmki tj fflkg wdys jl i`k`rdtmki mknjc`

(dkg mk sjc` nds`s, prjfflt) out dbsj fjmkmki tji`ta`r tj pr`ssurms` dkg bjooy

ijv`rkc`kts mktj lurta`r g`r`iubdtmki pr`vmjusby puobmnby jwk`g jr r`iubdt`g

`kt`rprms`s jr tj nadki` b`imsbdtmjk mk d cdkk`r wamna ms mk ta`mr njcc`rnmdb

mkt`r`sts.

Wa` s`njkg cdfjr prjob`c wmta pjbmtmndb `njkjcy mk r`bdtmjk tj ta`

njkt`cpjrdry cusmn mkgustrm`s ms tadt mt jll`rs d bmcmt`g dnnjukt jl ajw w`dbtadkg vdbu` dr` prjgun`g wmtamk ta` `njkjcy. Ds d r`subt, mt ms ta` njcomkdtmjk

jl ta`s` twj mssu`s mk ta` njkt`xt jl ta` cusmn mkgustrm`s tadt ojta rdms`s

g`fflkmtmjkdb qu`stmjks dojut ta` kdtur` jl ta` mkgustrm`s dkg cdh`s `b`c`kts

jl puobmn najmn` ta`jry dkg r`kt-s``hmki dpp`dbmki `xpbdkdtmjks jl ta`mr

dntmvmtm`s. Ndv`s mg`ktmffl`s mkt`bb`ntudb prjp`rty ds ta` cdfjr ljrc jl r`kt

wmtamk ta` nubturdb mkgustrm`s, dkg mt ms drjukg tams mktdkimob` njccjgmty tadt

cdky jl ta`s` dntmvmtm`s ndk o` `xpbdmk`g. _`kt, mk `njkjcmn t`rcs, ndk o`g`fflk`g ds uk`drk`g mknjc`, wamna ms usudbby `bmcmkdt`g oy cdrh`ts, tarjuia

prmn` njcp`tmtmjk. Ajw`v`r, mk smtudtmjks wa`r` cjkjpjbm`s `xmst r`kt ndk

njktmku`g tj o` njbb`nt`g. Ds d ljrc jl mkt`bb`ntudb prjp`rty, njpyrmiat, wamna

ukg`rpmks ta` `njkjcmns jl ta` njkt`cpjrdry cusmn mkgustrm`s, ms d

cjkjpjby, wamna ta`y r`cdmk dntmv`by mkvjbv`g mk trymki tj prjt`nt dkg,

mkg``g, `xt`kg.

Oy ljnusmki jk mkt`bb`ntudb prjp`rty ds ta` cjst mcpjrtdkt ljrc jl r`kt ljr ta`

cusmn mkgustrm`s, tams ta`sms pbdn`s ta` fflrcs dkg jridkmsdtmjks mkvjbv`g mk

ta` cusmn mkgustrm`s ds o`mki prmcdrmby njkn`rk`g kjt wmta ta` sdb`s jl

r`njrg`g cusmn, puobmsamki rmiats jr njkn`rt tmnh`ts ds dk `kg mk mts`bl, out ds

dk dntmvmty drjukg wamna r`kt ndk o` sjuiat mk ta` fflrst mkstdkn` dkg ta`k k`w

r`kts i`k`rdt`g. Wams typ` jl r`kt-s``hmki ms `x`cpbmffl`g oy ta` dtt`cpts jl

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mkgmvmgudb fflrcs ds w`bb ds cusmn mkgustrm`s jridkmsdtmjks dkg pr`ssur`

irjups tj cdxmcms` ta` vdbu` jl mkt`bb`ntudb prjp`rty mk ta` ljrc jl

ndcpdmiks tj `xt`kg ta` b`kita dkg `xt`kt jl njpyrmiat, out dbsj tj prjt`nt

ta` cjkjpjbm`s jl ta` jridkmsdtmjks wamna dr` r`spjksmob` ljr ta` njbb`ntmjk

jl ta`s` r`kts jk ta`mr o`adbl.

Mk `ss`kn`, ta` ta`sms wmbb grdw jk sjc` jl ta` b`ss lr`qu`ktby utmbms`g (mk tams

njkt`xt) `b`c`kts jl ta` ta`jrmsdtmjk jl ta` nubturdb dkg nr`dtmv` mkgustrm`s tj

cjgmly, upgdt` dkg nrmtmqu` ta` pr`vmjus stugm`s jl ta` cusmn mkgustrm`s ds

g`tdmb`g mk tams nadpt`r. Mk gjmki sj, mt wmbb nbdmc tadt mknr`dsmkiby vdbu` mk ta`

cusmn mkgustrm`s ms nr`dt`g oy ta` typ` jl r`kt-s``hmki tadt dmcs tj prjgun`

fflkdknmdb idmk tarjuia bjooymki rdta`r tadk trdg` dkg wa`r`mk ijv`rkc`ktsdr` r`bdtmv`by pjw`rb`ss wa`k ldn`g oy ta` njcomkdtmjk jl prmvdt` dkg

mkgustrmdb mkt`r`st irjups. Yamb` t`nakjbjimndb dkg g`cjirdpamn nadki`s mk

ta` cusmn mkgustrm`s adv` ukgjuot`gby dssmst`g tams prjn`ss, ta`y adv` o``k

s`njkgdry tj ta` cjv` tjwdrgs dk `cpadsms jk wadt @h`bukg dkg Wjbbmsjk

g`snrmo` ds ta` pursumt jl prjfflts nr`dt`g oy ijv`rkc`kt dntmjk (4==4, p.9).

Oy dtt`cptmki tj gmsnuss dkg prjob`cdtms` ta` cusmn mkgustrm`s (mk nadpt`r 7)dkg oy idta`rmki `cpmrmndb gdtd jk ta` k`w typ`s jl fflrcs dt wjrh wmtamk ta`c

(mk nadpt`rs 0 dkg 6 C@WAJGJBJI]

Mktrjguntmjk

O`ljr` `xdcmkmki mk g`tdmb ta` jp`rdtmjk jl twj cdfjr lmrcs (^dkntudry Cusmn

Irjup dkg Bmv` Kdtmjk @kt`rtdmkc`kt) wmtamk ta` njkt`cpjrdry cusmn

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mkgustrm`s, tams nadpt`r wjrhs tjwdrgs nr`dtmki d c`tajgjbjiy wamna r`subts

mk njknbusmjks wamna dr` nr`gmob`, r`sjkdkt dkg us`lub (Nadrcdz ?55

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cusmn ousmk`ss didmkst vdrmjus ljrcs jl sjnmjbjimndb dkg fjurkdbmstmn

nykmnmsc (momg, p.vmm). Oy wdy jl njktrdst, A`scjkgadbias stugy jl ta`

nubturdb mkgustrm`s us`s d cjr` g`tdna`g, ta`jr`tmndb dpprjdna (s`` ?559,

pp.>5-05), y`t `v`k wmtamk tams, a` l``bs mt k`n`ssdry tj r`lb`nt jk ams jwk

pjsmtmjk dkg odnhirjukg ds d r`s`drna`r tj prjvmg` ta` njkt`xt ljr ta`

pdrtmnubdr dpprjdna M tdh` tj ta` nubturdb mkgustrm`s (momg, p.?0).

Wa` kdtur` jl tams stugy dbmiks mt cjr` nbjs`by mk ta` bdtt`r dpprjdna,

dnhkjwb`gimki Lrmta dkg Gjyb`s nbdmc tadt r`s`drna`rs mk tams lm`bg lmkg

ta`cs`bv`s dt dk `drby stdi` jl g`v`bjpmki dbt`rkdtmv` lrdc`wjrhs, (?55

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k``g ljr dk `xpbdkdtmjk jl ta` ta` wdys mk wamna d r`s`drna`rs mkvjbv`c`kt

wmta d pdrtmnubdr stugy mklbu`kn`s, dnts upjk dkg mkljrcs suna

r`s`drna (momg). Wams ndk o` lurta`r spbmt, ds Ymbbmi suii`sts, mktj p`rsjkdb

dkg `pmst`cjbjimndb r`lb`xmvmty (?554, p.45). Ojta ta` ljrc`r, wamna n`ktr`s

drjukg ta` vdbu`s, `xp`rm`kn`s, mkt`r`sts, o`bm`ls, pjbmtmndb njccmtc`kts,

wmg`r dmcs mk bml` dkg sjnmdb mg`ktmtm`s (momg) jl ta` r`s`drna`r dkg ta` bdtt`r,

wamna dshs us tj r`lb`nt upjk ta` dssucptmjks (dojut ta` wjrbg dkg dojut

hkjwb`gi`) tadt w` adv` cdg` mk ta` njurs` jl ta` r`s`drna, (momg) wmbb o`

njksmg`r`g ds pdrt jl ta` gmsnussmjk jl ta` wmg`r c`tajgjbjimndb dpprjdna

tadt ljbbjws.

Advmki gmsnuss`g ta` pjsmtmjk jl ta` r`s`drna`r wmtamk ta` r`s`drna prjn`ssmk i`k`rdb t`rcs, mt ms dbsj k`n`ssdry tj vm`w tams mk ta` sp`nmlmn njkt`xt jl tams

r`s`drna, wamna r`qumr`s d g`nbdrdtmjk jl cy mkt`r`st dkg mkvjbv`c`kt mk ta`

cusmn mkgustrm`s dkg sjc` g`tdmb jk ta` `vjbutmjk jl ta` ta`sms. Mt ms,

ta`r`ljr`, wjrta amiabmiatmki ta` cjst r`b`vdkt `b`c`kts jl cy odnhirjukg,

ds w`bb ds d kuco`r jl sp`nmlmn `xp`rm`kn`s dkg mg`ktmtm`s wamna adv` pbdy`g

pdrt mk mts g`v`bjpc`kt. M adv` o``k mkvjbv`g mk ta` cusmn