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TheasbestosindustryinBelgium(1945-2001)

LauraVandenBorre*&PatrickDeboosere

*Correspondingauthor

E-mail:Laura.Van.den.Borre@vub.ac.be

Phone:+3226148144

Version:29/01/2016

InterfaceDemographyWorkingPaper 2016-2

InterfaceDemography, Vr i je Univers i te i t Brussel , P le in laan5, B-1050Brussel , Belg ium

Tel . ++32/(0)2/6148150 – Fax ++32/(0)2/6148135

Website: http://www.vub.ac.be/demography

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TheasbestosindustryinBelgium(1945-2001)

ByLauraVandenBorre&PatrickDeboosere29January2016

IntroductionBelgiumwasamajorinternationalmanufacturerofasbestosproductsinthepost-waryears.However,specificinformationonBelgianasbestosindustriesisscarcelyavailable.Inlightoftheserioushealtheffectsofasbestosexposure,knowledgeonexposurecircumstancesisavitalkeytounderstandingthemagnitudeoftheasbestosprobleminBelgium.Determ‘asbestos’referstoagroupofsixnaturallyoccurringminerals,asshowninfigure1.Because asbestos minerals can be split into microscopic fibres, numerous differentapplications are possible. Asbestos often occurs in blends with resin, cement or plastics.Uniquely,asbestosmineralscanalsobespunintotextile.Inadditiontotheversatilityofthematerial,oneofthemainadvantagesisthatasbestosremainsunaffectedbyfireandheath.Asbestosisadurable,lightweight,electricallynon-conductivematerialwithgreatinsulatingproperties due to a high resistance to water, acids and microorganisms. Finally, it has anumberofeconomicadvantages:itisabundantandinexpensivetomine.Theseadvantagesmade asbestos, in many respects, an ideal material for an industrializing and electrifyingworld.1Twomineralogical groups of asbestos can be discerned: serpentines and amphiboles. Theserpentine group is characterised by curled fibres that split crossways. The only asbestostypewithin thisgroup ischrysotileasbestos,usedmostcommonly for industrialpurposes.The amphiboles have straight, needle-like fibres that split lengthwise. Amphibolescrocidoliteandamositearecommonlyusedinindustrialapplications.2All typesof asbestosmineralshavebeenassociatedwith adversehealtheffects.Asbestosexposurecausesmalignantmesothelioma,lungcancer,laryngealcancerandovariancancer.Non-malignant asbestos-related diseases include asbestosis, pleural fibrosis and pleuralplaques.3Studies indicate that amphibole types are evenmore hazardous than chrysotileasbestos,becauseoftheirphysicalandchemicalcharacteristics.However,thedegreeofriskrelatedtothetype,shapeandsizeofthefibresremainsamatterofon-goingdebate.41PWJBartrip(2004)‘HistoryofAsbestosRelatedDisease’,PostgraduateMedicalJournal,80.940,72–76.2RobertLVirta(2002)‘Asbestos:Geology,Mineralogy,MiningandUses’(Open-FileReport02-149).3International Agency for Research on Cancer (2012) ‘Asbestos (Chrysotile, Amosite, Crocidolite,Tremolite,Actinolite,andAnthophyllite)’,inAReviewofHumanCarcinogens.PartC:Arsenic,Metals,Fibers,andDusts/ IARCWorkingGroupontheEvaluationofCarcinogenicRisks toHumans,Volume100(Lyon,France:InternationalAgencyforResearchonCancer),219–309.4RonaldFDodson,MarkALAtkinsonandJeffreyLLevin(2003)‘AsbestosFiberLengthasRelatedtoPotential Pathogenicity : A Critical Review’,American Journal of IndustrialMedicine, 44, 291–97; DWayne Berman and Kenny S Crump (2008) ‘Update of Potency Factors for Asbestos-Related LungCancerandMesothelioma.’,CriticalReviewsinToxicology,38Suppl1,1–47

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The longhistoryof industrial asbestosuse is nowunravelling,with severe implicationsonpopulationhealthinBelgium.Duetothelonglatencyperiodsofasbestos-relateddiseases,the impact of asbestos exposure on health becomes apparent decades after exposure.5Globalmortality rates are increasing formalignantmesothelioma,which is caused almostexclusively by asbestos exposure.6Recent research shows Belgium has one of the highestmesotheliomadeathratesintheworld.7A largeproportionofvictimshavebeenoccupationallyexposeddue toextensiveasbestosuseinvariousindustries.8Theimpactofasbestosexposurecanonlybefullycomprehendedwhen we have a clear understanding of the exposure circumstances in these industries.Information on employment size and production processes may help determine thepopulation at risk. Knowledge on the number of exposed and the level of exposuremayprovide some indications about future asbestos-related mortality. Dutch research showshowhistoricexposuremeasurementsanddatacanbeusedinanalyseswiththehelpofajobexposurematrix.9Informationonexposurecircumstancesmayalso lead tonew insights inthe profile of highly exposed workers, possibly increasing vigilance among workers andhealthprofessionals.Finally,identifyingthesourcesofoccupationalexposuremayalsoshedsomelightonenvironmentalexposuretoasbestos.

Figure1SixtypesofasbestosfibresOriginalimagebyAsbestorama10,layoutmodifiedbyauthors.

5EJamrozik,NdeKlerkandAWMusk(2011)‘Asbestos-RelatedDisease’,InternMedJ,41,372–80.6V Delgermaa and others (2011) ‘Global Mesothelioma Deaths Reported to the World HealthOrganizationbetween1994and2008’,Bull.WorldHealthOrgan.,89,716–24C.7LauraVandenBorreandPatrickDeboosere(2014)‘AsbestosinBelgium:AnUnderestimatedHealthRisk. The Evolution of Mesothelioma Mortality Rates (1969-2009).’, International Journal ofOccupationalandEnvironmentalHealth,20.2,134–40.8Asbestfonds/Fondsamiante(2012)HetAsbestfonds.5-JarigBestaan(2007-2012)(Brussel),44p.9ABurdorfandPSwuste(1999)‘AnExpertSystemfortheEvaluationofHistoricalAsbestosExposureasDiagnosticCriterioninAsbestos-RelatedDiseases.’,TheAnnalsofOccupationalHygiene,43,57–66.10Asbestorama,AsbestosAwarenessMinerals,2013

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MethodologyThisstudyaimstoprovideaninventoryoftheavailableinformationontheBelgianasbestosindustry in order to understand exposure circumstances among Belgian asbestos productmanufacturersandidentifypossiblesourcesofnon-occupationalexposurerelatedtotheseindustries.Fourspecificresearchobjectivesareformulated:

a) Identifyasbestosproductmanufacturers;b) Gain insight in themanufacturingprocess, completewithavailable informationon

exposurelevels,typeofasbestosusedandperiodofasbestosuse;c) Recordinformationonemploymentsizeandworkingconditions;d) Report potential sources of environmental or second-hand exposure to asbestos,

relatedtotheidentifiedmanufacturers.

We focus on the manufacturers that were active in 1945-2001. This period is chosenbecauseofthehighlevelofindustrialasbestosuseinpost-waryearsandthesignificanceonrecent and future population health. Belgium banned all industrial asbestos use in 2001.Someoftheasbestoscompanieshavehadlonghistoriesofasbestosuse.Inordertogainafull understanding of the manufacturing process and the duration of asbestos exposure,available information preceding this period is also included in the description of asbestoscompaniesactivein1945-2001. A comprehensive literature review is performed in order to achieve the four stipulatedresearchobjectives.Thesearchofasbestosexposuredataiscomplicatedbythedispersalofrecords.Asaresult,avarietyofsourceshavebeenconsulted.A first line of inquiry focused on academic literature. However, only few Belgian sourcesmentionspecificasbestosmanufacturers.11Secondly,variousgovernmentdocumentswerescrutinized,includingcommitteehearingsandannualstatisticsontradeandproduction.12Inaddition,weexaminedlegislativedocumentssuchasproposalsfornewbillsandtherulingof theBelgianEternit trial.13TheCrossroadsBank forEnterpriseshasalsobeenconsulted.The federal register contains information on all legal Belgian enterprises, both active andnon-active. Some inaccuracies may occur, as the responsibility of reporting lies with the11RVandeWeyer (1973) ‘Bilande L’indemnisationde L’asbestose.’,ActaTubercPneumolBelg, 64,304–51;StephanieVandeVoorde,IngeBertelsandIneWouters(2015)Post-WarBuildingMaterialsinHousinginBrussels1945-1975(Brussels:VrijeUniversiteitBrussel),437p.;H.VanDeVoordeandothers(1967)‘DoodsoorzakenbijdebevolkingwoonachtigrondenbijdearbeiderswerkzaamineenasbestverwerkendenijverheidinhetnoordenvanBrabant’,ActaTubercPneumolBelg,58.6,924–42.12Flemish Committee for environment, nature conservation and planning. Meeting 26 April 2011,VraagOmUitlegvandeHeerKrisVanDijckTotMevrouwVeraDua,VlaamsMinistervanLeefmilieuEn Landbouw, over de Sanering van de Gronden van Balmatt (Commissie voor Leefmilieu,Natuurbehoud en Ruimtelijke Ordening); Nationaal Instituut voor de Statistiek, JaarlijkseProduktiestatistieken-StatistiquesAnnuellesdeLaProduction1973-1994(Brussel).13Belgian Chamber of representatives. Legislative proposal (1988) Wetsvoorstel Betreffende deBeschermingvanMensEnMilieuTegendeSchadelijkeGevolgenvanAsbest,V.FeauxandE.Tomas,35 p.; Rechtbank van eerste aanleg te Brussel (2011) Eindvonnis op tegenspraak in de zaakJonckheere-Vannoorbeeckvs.Eternit,48p.

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enterprises.14Furthermore,companyrecordswereinvestigated.Despiteconsiderableeffort,only few sources were located.15Because many companies went bankrupt as regulationsbecamestricter,webelievemuchinformationmayhavebeendestroyed.Fouroftheformerasbestos products manufacturers have been able to make the switch to asbestos-freematerials.Theircompanywebsiteshavebeenvisited.Existinginventoriessuchasdatabasesof informationonhistoricalheritageandtheDutch‘asbestosmap’havealsobeenusedtoobtaininformationonBelgianasbestosindustries.16SpecificinformationonasbestosvictimsinBelgium isavailableat theFunds forOccupationalDiseases, theAsbestosFundand theBelgianAssociationforAsbestosVictims(ABEVA).17Finally, local,nationalandinternationalmediahavebeenconsultedusingtheGoPressdatabase.18Although many industries have used asbestos or asbestos-containing materials, we havechosentofocusontheprimaryasbestosindustry.Onlycompaniesusingrawasbestosfibresfor the fabrication of (semi) finished goods are featured in this study. If at least twoindependent sources acknowledged asbestos use in the manufacturing process, thecompany has been included in our inventory. Amapof the locations of asbestos productmanufacturershasbeenmadeusingQGIS-software.19Wefurtherdistinguisheightdifferenttypesof industries.Classifyingcompanies intypesofindustrieswassometimesambiguous.Consideringthedifficultiesindeterminingthespecificcompositionoftheproducts,wehavechosentodifferentiatebasedonthefunctionoftheasbestos products. For example, asbestos cement was used in some types of insulationmaterials.Ratherthanclassifyingthesemanufacturersintheasbestoscementindustry,weassignedthesemanufacturerstotheinsulationindustry.The results of the literature review are presented below. Considering the difficulties inaccessing information on asbestos products manufacturers, our findings cannot beconsideredasanexhaustiveinventoryofasbestosindustriesinBelgium.Additionalsourcesofinformationarestillbeingscrutinizedtoimprovetheinventoryandaddnewinformationifpossible.First,wefirstprovideabriefoverviewofindustrialasbestosuseinBelgiuminthepost-waryears.Second,wehavelistedtheidentifiedasbestosproductmanufacturersbythetypeofindustrial activity. A summary of the available information is stated per asbestos productmanufacturer.14‘CrossroadsBankforEnterprises(CBE)’,KruispuntbankvanOndernemingen-Banque-CarrefourDesEntreprises,economie.fgov.be/nl/ondernemingen/KBO/#.Vr…15EvanderRestandLMoerenhout(1980)Eternit.1905-1980.(Kapelle-op-den-Bos,Belgium:EternitN.V.; Eternit S.A., Jaarverslag – Rapport Annuel, 1983-1998 (Kapelle-op-den-Bos, Belgium: EternitN.V.).16 ‘Onroerend Erfgoed’, https://www.onroerenderfgoed.be/nl//; ‘Asbestkaart. Producten’,http://www.asbestkaart.nl/asbestkaart.html17Asbestfonds/Fondsamiante (2012)HetAsbestfonds.5-JarigBestaan (2007-2012) (Brussel), 44p.;FondsvoordeBeroepsziekten(2004)BeroepsziektenVeroorzaaktDoorAsbest.CriteriaVoorDiagnoseEnSchadeloosstelling(Brussel)19p.;MichelVerniers(s.d)‘LaVieàLaS.A.FabrecimCoveritRacontéeParMichelVerniers’,25p.18‘GoPress’,http://www.gopress.be/info/nl19QGIS,version2.8.1Wien.

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HistoricaloverviewofasbestosuseinBelgium.Belgiumhasnonaturaldepositsofasbestosminerals.Allasbestoswas importedsincetheemergence of the Belgian asbestos industries in the late 19th century. Belgian asbestoscompanies experienced a first powerful impetus with the reconstruction after the FirstWorldWar.TheUnitedStatesbecameaprimeoutletforBelgianasbestoscementproducts.OwingtotheeconomicturmoilduringtheGreatDepression,theBelgianasbestos industryturned to its domestic market and began further differentiation in asbestos cementproducts.20TheSecondWorldWarmademanufacturinggrindtoahalt.Virtahascompiledinternational data on supply and consumption trends of raw asbestos, including data forBelgium.21Because of an economic partnership established in 1921, records for Belgium andLuxembourg are combined.22The vastmajorityof asbestoswasused formanufacturing inBelgium as shown by the comparison with national records from the Belgian asbestoscementindustriesin1970-1992.23Table1showstheamountofrawasbestosfibresusedinBelgiumandLuxembourgatfourtimepoints,asreportedbyVirta,24andthecorrespondingamountofasbestosusedintheBelgianasbestoscementindustry,asreportedintheBelgiancensus of production.23 We have calculated the proportion of asbestos consumption inBelgian asbestos cement industries within the total consumption in Belgium andLuxembourg as apercentage. The two sources show some inconsistency, as evidencedbytheexcessof100%in1985.Despitepossibleroundingorregistrationdifferences,itisclearthatthevastmajorityofasbestoswasintendedforBelgianasbestosindustries.

Table1RawasbestosusedintheBelgianasbestoscementindustryandinBelgiumandLuxembourg,inmetrictons,1975-1990

Year Belgianasbestoscementindustry24

BelgiumandLuxembourg23

%withinBelgiumandLuxembourg

1975 50978 58828 86.66

1980 47128 47823 98.55

1985 25069 24884 100.74

1990 25562 26204 97.55

20RCleemput (1948) ‘MonographievanHetAsbestcementfabriekA.L.F.I.T.’,DissertationKULeuven(Leuven).21RobertLVirta(2006)WorldwideAsbestosSupplyandConsumptionTrendsfrom1900through2003(Reston(VA):U.S.DepartmentoftheInterior-U.S.GeologicalSurveyReportNo.:Circular1298,80p.22EduardSomers(2012)‘BelgiumLuxemburgeEconomicUnion’,Max-PlanckEncyclopediaofPublicInternationalLaw,1,869–74.23DataderivedfromNationaalInstituutvoordeStatistiek,JaarlijkseProduktiestatistieken-StatistiquesAnnuellesdeLaProduction1973-1994.24DataderivedfromRobertLVirta(2006)

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Figure 2 shows consumption data of raw asbestos for Belgium and Luxembourg in 1930-2001.Thenegativevaluein1940indicatesanexportfromstockatthestartoftheSecondWorldWar.After thewar,asbestosuse increasedsteeply.By1950, levelsofconsumptionevenexceededpre-warlevels.Although not immediately apparent from the absolute amount of asbestos used, Belgiumdealt in asbestos more so than other countries. According to Nawrot and colleagues,Belgiumhadoneofthehighestasbestosconsumptionlevelspercapitaintheworldduringthe sixties.25 For a population of 10million, 53,790metric tons of asbestoswas used onaverageeveryyearduringthe1960s.

Figure2Apparentconsumptionofrawasbestosfibresinmetrictons,BelgiumandLuxembourg,1930-20012627

Despite reports on the adverse health effects of asbestos exposure since the 1930s,consumptionkeptrisingduringthe1960sand1970s.28AfterthefireintheshoppingcentreInnovation in Brussels in 1967, the use of asbestos-containingmaterialswas even furtherpromotedinBelgium.29Asbestosconsumptionpeakedin1975,afterwhichagradualdeclinesetin.Anumberoflegislativerestrictionswereimplementedinthe1980s,mainlydrivenbyEuropean directives. Unlike other countries, public awareness of asbestos-related healthrisks remained low in Belgium.30From the late 1970s onwards, the public broadcastingcompany of the French speaking community in Belgium (RTBF) reported on the health25TSNawrotandothers(2007)‘Belgium:HistoricalChampioninAsbestosConsumption’,Lancet,369.9574,1692.26DataderivedfromRobertLVirta(2006)WorldwideAsbestosSupplyandConsumptionTrendsfrom1900through2003(Reston(VA):U.S.DepartmentoftheInterior-U.S.GeologicalSurveyReportNo.:Circular1298.p41-74.27ApparentconsumptionhasbeencalculatedbyVirta(2006)asimportminusexportforBelgiumandLuxemburg.Data areprovided in a 10-year time intervals for theperiod1930-1960, in 5-year timeintervalsfor1970-1995,andannuallyfor1996-2003.28R Doll (1955) ‘Mortality from Lung Cancer in Asbestos Workers.’, British Journal of IndustrialMedicine,12.2,81–86;ERAMerewetherandCWPrice(1930)‘ReportonEffectsofAsbestosDustontheLungsandDustSuppressionintheAsbestosIndustry’(London:HMSO);JCWagner,CASleggsandPMarchand(1960)‘DiffusePleuralMesotheliomaandAsbestosExposureintheNorthWesternCapeProvince’,BritishJournalofIndustrialMedicine,17,260–71.29 Evelien de Kezel (2013) Asbest, Gezondheid En Veiligheid. Ontwikkelingen in HetAansprakelijkheidsrecht(Antwerpen:Intersentia),756p.30Ibid.

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hazardsofasbestosonseveraloccasions.31Still,thebroadcastsdidnotcreatemuchofastirthe general public.32More alarming were the reports of environmental exposure in theprison of Jamioulx (1984) and the offices of the European Community (1986).33However,mediaattentionforasbestosremainedrelativelylowuntilthemid-1990s.34Bythen,theuseof sprayed-on asbestos was banned (1980), the use of crocidolite was restricted (1980),maximumexposurelevelswerestipulatedandgraduallybecamestricter(1980;1983;1986;1991;1993).Only in1998,a formalbanonall typesofasbestoswaspassed.Anumberofspecific industrial applicationswere still allowed for chrysotile asbestos until 2001.35After1998, small amounts of imported asbestos are reported.36This can be explained bytranshipmentsintheAntwerpharbour.37 31Marie-AnneMengeot and Salvator Nay, ‘Work and Health: To Die for Asbestos-Le Travail Où LaSanté:MourirdeL’amiante’(RTBF),televisionproduction1977.32Ibid;BelgianSenate.Legislativeproposal(1986)VoorstelvanWetBetreffendedeBeschermingvanMensEnMilieuTegendeSchadelijkeGevolgenvanAsbest.Zitting1986-1987:4December1986,32p.33BelgianSenate.Legislativeproposal(1986).34MarcMolitor (2010)Négociations et TensionsAutourde LaCréationDu FondsAmiante, CourrierhebdomadaireduCRISP(Brussels:CRISP-CentredeResercheetd’InformationSocio-Politiques),61p.35 Evelien de Kezel (2013) Asbest, Gezondheid En Veiligheid. Ontwikkelingen in HetAansprakelijkheidsrecht(Antwerpen:Intersentia),756p.36RobertLVirta(2006)WorldwideAsbestosSupplyandConsumptionTrendsfrom1900through2003(Reston(VA):U.S.DepartmentoftheInterior-U.S.GeologicalSurveyReportNo.:Circular1298,80p.37Tim Moerenhout and others (2014) Inventarisatiestudie Asbesthoudende Materiaalstromen inVlaanderen(Mechelen:OVAM),79p.

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PrimaryasbestosindustryWehaveidentified22manufacturingsitesin16Belgianmunicipalities,asshowninfigure3.Labels refer to the headings of the asbestos companies, which are described below.Companies are classified ineightdifferent industries:Asbestos cementmanufacturing (A);Flooring(B);Insulation(C);Textile(D);Automobile(E);Electricity(F);PaperandFelt(G);andAluminumfoil(H).15 out of 22manufacturing siteswere located in Flanders, which is the northern part ofBelgium. We found two companies in the Brussels Capital region and five in Wallonia.Table 2 presents an overview of the locations of identified companies and the period inwhich they used asbestos. 13 companies startedmanufacturing asbestos products before1945. During the heydays in the 1960s, 18 asbestos companies were active. Sevencompaniescontinuedtouseasbestosuntilthelate1990s.

Figure3Belgianasbestosindustriesactivein1945-2001.

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Table2IdentifiedasbestosproductsmanufacturersinBelgiumactivein1945-2001withlocationandperiodofasbestosuse.

*Noinformationavailable;**Approximationoftimeperiodbasedonavailableinformation

Nameofthecompany Location PeriodofasbestosuseA1Alfit Tisselt(Willebroek)

A2Coverit Harmignies(Mons)

A3Eternit Tisselt(Willebroek)

A3,B1&C3Eternit Kapelle-op-den-Bos

A4JMBalmatt Mol

A4JMBalmatt Ghent

A5Modernite Hofstade(Aalst)

A6Scheerders-VanKerchove(SVK) Sint-Niklaas

A7AsbestileSchoonaarde

(Dendermonde)

B2FademacSchoonaarde

(Dendermonde)*

C1Aeroplast Zele

C2EtablissementsErnestLenders Ixelles(Brussels)

C4Fourisol Wilrijk(Antwerpen) *

C5SociétéBelgeIsolex Ixelles(Brussels)

D1CharlesDelvoye Kortrijk

D2DouhaDorJemeppe-sur-Meuse

(Seraing)

D3LaFilaturedesfeutresetamiantes

d’AuvelaisAuvelais

D4BelgischeAsbest-enrubberfabriek Deurne(Antwerpen)

E1DonInternational Manage

F1Vynckier Ghent

G1VonAsten Eupen

H1UsinesPolMadou Ghent

1933 1971

1924 1987

1929 1998

1924 1996

1923 1997

1962 1997**

1965 19841923 1998

1885 1998

1897 1975

1913 1951

1967 1969**

1945 1955

1950 1974**

1946 1970**

1939 **

1905 1977

1905 **

1966

1905

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1922 1998**

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A. AsbestoscementindustryThe Austrian inventor Ludwig Hatschek first patented the technical process of asbestoscement inAustria in 1900. Rawasbestoswas transformed into pulp and thenmixedwithcement and water. The proportion consisted of 10-15% asbestos fibres and 85-90%cement.38Predominantlychrysotile fibreswereused.39TheuseofamphibolesamositeandcrocidolitehasalsobeenreportedinBelgianasbestoscementindustriestofurtherincreasetensilestrength.40Asbestos cement products are the most important application of asbestos worldwide.41Becauseoftheversatilityofasbestoscement,applicationsarenumerous.Popularproductsincludecorrugatedsheets,roofslatesandpipes,butalsoasbestoscementcountertopsanddecorativeornamentswereproduced.42InBelgium, the largemajorityof imported fibreswereused in theproductionof asbestoscementproducts,asindicatedintable1.Cleemputcorroboratestheimportanceofasbestoscement in the Belgian asbestos industry in the late 1940s in his dissertation.43Furtherimplementation of asbestos in other industries, such as textiles, did not play a significantroleinBelgiumasopposedtotheU.S.A.ortheU.K..Accordingtotheassociationofasbestosmanufacturers, the Committee of Information for Asbestos Benelux (CIAB), the asbestoscementindustryused93%ofthe31,000tonnesofasbestosthatwasconsumedinBelgiumin 1985.44The Flemish public waste management services (OVAM) estimates that themanufacturing of asbestos cement products constitutes 96%of all asbestos production inBelgium.45Figure4presentstheemploymentsizeintheasbestoscementindustryfortheperiod1973-1994. Almost 5,000 people were working in 6 asbestos cement companies in the early1970s.Onlythreemanufacturersremainedin1994.Overtheperiodof21years,thenumberof employees has decreased with 65% in the asbestos cement industry. The number ofmanualworkershasfluctuatedovertimebetween82%and85%ofallemployees.Thelargemajorityofasbestoscementworkersweremale:lessthan1outoftenmanualworkerswasawoman.Amongnon-manualworkers,approximately26%wasfemale.38HFrey(1940)‘L’Eternit:L’evolutiondeSesProcédésdeFabrication’,BulletinTechniquedeLaSuisseRomande,66,273-81;StephanieVandeVoorde,IngeBertelsandIneWouters(2015)Post-WarBuildingMaterialsinHousinginBrussels1945-1975(Brussels:VrijeUniversiteitBrussel),437p.39AMPye(1979)‘AReviewofAsbestosSubstituteMaterialsinIndustrialApplications’,JournalofHazardousMaterials,3.2,125–47.40RechtbankvaneersteaanlegteBrussel(2011)EindvonnisoptegenspraakindezaakJonckheere-Vannoorbeeckvs.Eternit,48p.41RobertLVirta(2006)WorldwideAsbestosSupplyandConsumptionTrendsfrom1900through2003(Reston(VA):U.S.DepartmentoftheInterior-U.S.GeologicalSurveyReportNo.:Circular1298,80p.42StephanieVandeVoorde,IngeBertelsandIneWouters(2015).43RCleemput(1948)‘MonographievanHetAsbestcementfabriekA.L.F.I.T.’,DissertationKULeuven(Leuven).44BelgianChamberofrepresentatives.Legislativeproposal(1988)WetsvoorstelBetreffendedeBeschermingvanMensEnMilieuTegendeSchadelijkeGevolgenvanAsbest,V.FeauxandE.Tomas,35p.45TimMoerenhoutandothers(2014)InventarisatiestudieAsbesthoudendeMateriaalstromeninVlaanderen(Mechelen:OVAM),79p.

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Figure4EmploymentsizeinabsolutenumbersintheBelgianasbestoscementindustry,1973-199446a

aNumberabovebarsrepresentthenumberofasbestoscementcompaniesinBelgiumatthetime.

Figure 5 presents the raw asbestos consumed by the Belgian asbestos cement industriesfrom the early 1970s to the early 1990s, as well as the manufactured asbestos cementproductsatthistime.47Correspondingtothedeclineinemployment,useandmanufacturingdroppedwithapproximately80%overthe20-yearperiod.ConsideringthelargequantityofasbestosusedintheBelgianasbestoscementmanufacturinguntil1998,healtheffectsduetooccupationalasbestosexposureareofhighconcern.Thesheervolumeofmanufacturedgoodsprovidesanindicationofthelevelofactivityonthefactoryfloor.Inaddition,itmayalso indicate thesizeofpotential secondaryasbestosexposure.Asmanyasbestoscementproducts are still in place today, fibres may be released in the environment due todeteriorationorhandlingoftheproducts.4846Nationaal Instituut voor de Statistiek, Jaarlijkse Produktiestatistieken-StatistiquesAnnuelles de LaProduction1973-1994.47Ibid.48Tim Moerenhout and others (2014) Inventarisatiestudie Asbesthoudende Materiaalstromen inVlaanderen(Mechelen:OVAM),79p.

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Figure5ManufacturedorfinishedproductsandrawasbestosusedinBelgianasbestoscementcompaniesinmetrictons,1973-1993.4950

We have located seven manufacturing sites of asbestos cement products in Belgium. Allsevenarelistedbelowinalphabeticalorder,withasummaryoftheavailableinformation.

A1. AlfitinTisselt(Willebroek) The company Alfitmanufactured asbestos cement products in Tisselt in the period 1933-1970.51Previously, the Amelinckx family owned the factory, known then as Amelit.52Thefactoryproducedcorrugatedsheets,pipesandslatesinasbestoscement.Alfit was the topic of a dissertation in economics by Cleemput in 1948.53 The result is adetaileddescriptionofthisasbestoscementfactoryintheearlypost-waryears.At full capacity 70 peoplewere employed.Workwas divided in three shifts, allowing thecompanytomanufacturenightandday.Thefactoryhadtwomachinestoproduceasbestoscementplates. Pipeswere constructedbyhand.According to the floorplan, thedifferentproductionunitswere located inthesame largefactoryhall. Inotherwords, rawasbestosfibres were handled in the same room as the repair work. Administrative services werelocatedinanadjacentroomtothemainfactoryhall.Usually,finishedproductsconsistedof10-15% asbestos fibres. Asbestos fibres originatedmostly from Canada, South Africa and49Nationaal Instituut voor de Statistiek, Jaarlijkse Produktiestatistieken-StatistiquesAnnuelles de LaProduction1973-1994.50 Since 1993, the annual census of production no longer includes the amount of raw asbestos intonnes.Since1994,theamountofmanufacturedproductshasalsobeenomitted.51Tim Moerenhout and others (2014) Inventarisatiestudie Asbesthoudende Materiaalstromen inVlaanderen(Mechelen:OVAM),79p.52Agentschap Onroerend Erfgoed, ‘Tegelfabriek Emannuel Rottiers’, Inventaris Onroerend Erfgoed,https://id.erfgoed.net/erfgoedobjecten/1844[accessed4January2016].53RCleemput (1948) ‘MonographievanHetAsbestcementfabriekA.L.F.I.T.’,DissertationKULeuven(Leuven).

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Rawasbestos

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Italy.54Considering the natural deposits in these countries, Alfitmay have used chrysotile(Canada, South-Africa and Italy), amosite (South-Africa), crocidolite (South-Africa) andtremolite (Italy) in the late 1940s.55The company had three trucks to transport the rawmaterials and finished products. The canal Willebroek-Brussels was in the immediateproximityofthefactory,butinlandshippingwasonlyseldomemployedfortransport.56Wefoundindicationsofconsiderableenvironmentalexposureinthepast.TheproprietoroftheAlfitfactoryalsoownedthenearbynaturereserveBlaasveldbroek.Becausethesitewasabounding inwater, asbestoswastewas used to elevate pathways and banks until 1970.This area was remediated by the public wastemanagement services in Flanders (OVAM)duringthe1990s.57AccordingtoOVAM,bothchrysotileandamphiboletypeswereusedtoraise a total of 2.5 km of paths and embankments. The volume of asbestos-containingmaterialsintheareawasestimatedtobe12,000m3.58

A2. Fabrecim-CoveritinHarmignies(Mons)FabriqueRéunies de Fibro-ciment-Coverit, in short Coverit,was the only asbestos cementmanufacturerintheWalloonregioninthesouthofBelgium.59Originally,CoveritstartedoutasadivisionofthecompanyCimentsPortlandArtificielsBelgesD’Harmigniesin1924.60ThecompanyproducedmainlywhitePortlandcement,whichisthewhiteversionofacommoncement type. The Coverit divisionwas responsible for the production of asbestos cementproducts.ThecompanywastakenoverbytheCimenteriesetBriqueteriesRéunies(CBR)andthe ComptoirMobilier et Financier in 1963. CBRwas one of themost important cementmanufacturersinBelgiumatthetime.61ThecompanystillproducedPortlandcementunderthe new name Fabrecim-Coverit.62However, work efforts were now mainly focused onasbestos products manufacturing. The company produced slates and pipe in asbestoscement.6354Ibid.55RobertLVirta(2006)WorldwideAsbestosSupplyandConsumptionTrendsfrom1900through2003(Reston(VA):U.S.DepartmentoftheInterior-U.S.GeologicalSurveyReportNo.:Circular1298,80p.56RCleemput (1948) ‘MonographievanHetAsbestcementfabriekA.L.F.I.T.’,DissertationKULeuven(Leuven).57FlemishCommitteeforenvironmentandnatureconservation,agriculture,fishingandruralpolicy,planningandhistoricbuildings.Committeehearing10January2007,HoorzittingoverdeVerspreidingvan Asbest in Het Milieu (Commissie voor Leefmilieu en Natuur, Landbouw, Visserij enPlattelandsbeleid en Ruimtelijke Ordening en Onroerend Erfgoed), report by Joke Schauvliege andRudiDaems(Brussel).58OVAM, ‘Asbest EnBodem. SoortenAsbestbodemverontreiniging’,http://www.ovam.be/asbest-en-bodem[accessed26January2016].59René Brion and Jean-Louis Moreau (2007) Inventaire Des Archives Du Groupe Cimenteries CBRCementbedrijven. 1854-2002 (Association pour la Valorisation des Archives d’Entreprises a.s.b.l.ArchivesGénéralesduRoyaumeInventaires),416p.60Michel Verniers (s.d) ‘LaVie à La S.A. FabrecimCoverit Racontée ParMichel Verniers’, 25 p.;DeBlock (1933) ‘CinquièmeExposition InternationaleDuBâtiment’, La Cité. RevueMensuelle BelgeD’ArchitectureetD’Urbanisme.61CRISP(1963) ‘L’industrieCimentièreEnBelgique.’,CourrierHebdomadaireDuCRISP1963/42,222,23p.62Ibid.;RenéBrionandJean-LouisMoreau(2007).63MarcMolitor (2010)Négociations et TensionsAutourde LaCréationDu FondsAmiante, CourrierhebdomadaireduCRISP(Brussels:CRISP-CentredeResercheetd’InformationSocio-Politiques),61p.

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Althoughwe cannot pinpoint the exact timing, the company became in need of financialsupport,probablyduringthelate1970sandearly1980s.64Anewinvestorsteppedin:Eternitbecamemajority stockholderof99%of thecompany.65SociétéGénérale,oneof the largeinvestorsofCBR,heldtheremainingonepercent.66ThefactoryatHarmigniesclosedwith257 people on the payroll in 1987.67The motives remain unclear. According to MichelVerniers,formeremployeeatCoverit,thecompanyclaimedtohavedifficultieskeepingupwith the high quality recommendations for their products. Verniers himself believes thedecision was induced by the increasing number of reports of asbestos-related diseasesamongworkers.68MichelVerniersstartedhiscareeratCoveritattheageof14in1956andworkedtherefornearly 30 years. He recorded his experiences before his death due to peritonealmesothelioma in2009. Thedocumentprovidesa firsthand testimonyof theemploymentconditionsatCoveritfromthelate1950sonwards.69According toVerniers, chrysotileandcrocidolitewereused in theproductionprocess.Themixtureconsistedof2,858lwater,231kgasbestosand1,500kgcement.Rawasbestoswasimported in burlap sacks via trucks or railway. Approximately 180 men and 30 womenworkedon the factory floor.Workersdidnotusemasksor gloves.70According todirectorPhilippeJanus,protectivemaskswereavailableatthefactorybutworkersonlyworethemseldom.71Alldivisionssharedthesamedressingrooms,thuspossiblyexposingworkersthatdidnotworkdirectlywithasbestos.Themaledressingroomhadtwoshowers,whichwerereserved forworkers responsible for shredding andmixing raw asbestos. Female dressingroomsdidnothaveshowerfacilities.Themajorityofworkerswenthomecovered indust.Verniers notes additional work-related health risks such as accidents related to themachineryandexposurestocokegasesanddieselexhaustsfromtheforklifts.72Awarenessofasbestos-relatedhealthrisksgrewamongworkersin1977,whentheWalloonpublicbroadcastingcompany(RTBF)featuredthefactoryontelevision.Acoupleofmonthslater,theworkersreceivedinformationonasbestos-relatedhealthrisks.Thedocumentwascomposed by the Committee for information on asbestos for the Benelux (CIAB), anassociationofmajorasbestosmanufacturers.73Since1984,moreprotectivemeasureswereimplemented.Thefactorywasmodernizedwithnew ventilation systems. Separate dressing rooms and showers were installed for maleworkersatthehighestexposurelevels.Attentiveofhealthhazardsassociatedwithasbestosexposure,Vernierskeptalistovertheyearsregisteringthecausesofdeathofhiscolleagues.At his last entry inMay 2007, 132 of his former colleagues had died due to an asbestos-64‘CementgroepGroeitUitTotKonglomeraatVoorBouwprodukten’,DeTijd,24September1994.65MarcMolitor (2010)Négociations et TensionsAutourde LaCréationDu FondsAmiante, CourrierhebdomadaireduCRISP (Brussels:CRISP-CentredeResercheetd’InformationSocio-Politiques),61p.;MichelVerniers(s.d)‘LaVieàLaS.A.FabrecimCoveritRacontéeParMichelVerniers’,25p.66MichelVerniers(s.d);RenéBrionandJean-LouisMoreau(2007)InventaireDesArchivesDuGroupeCimenteries CBR Cementbedrijven. 1854-2002 (Association pour la Valorisation des Archivesd’Entreprisesa.s.b.l.ArchivesGénéralesduRoyaumeInventaires),416p.67MarcMolitor(2010).68MichelVerniers(s.d).69Ibid.70Ibid.71‘FabriekvandeDood’,GazetvanAntwerpen,14July2004,p.6.72MichelVerniers(s.d).73Ibid.

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related disease.74The Belgian association of asbestos victims (ABEVA) continued his workandreported171deathsand31casesofasbestos-relateddiseasesin2013.75The waste disposal site near the factory was sealed in 1998. Exposure levels have beenmeasuredatthesitebytheWalloonpublicwastemanagementservices(SPAQuE)in2005-2006.Noenvironmentalasbestosexposurewasfoundatthesiteatthattime.76

A3. EternitinKapelle-op-den-BosandTisselt(Willebroek)WhenHatschekdiscovered theprocedure forasbestoscementmanufacturing,hedecidedtocallthenewmaterial‘Eternit’toreflectitsdurability.77AlphonseEmsenswasoneofthefirst toacquirea license formanufacturing thisnewtypeofasbestoscement.TheBelgianEternit started just north of Brussels in the little town of Haren in 1905. Threemachineswere used to manufacture asbestos cement slates and sheets.78In 1924, the companyrelocated to Kapelle-op-den-Bos. In 1929, a second Eternit factory opened in the nearbyTisseltwhereasbestoscementpipeswereproduced.Eternit started looking beyond the Belgian borders in the 1930s, when it acquired fiveasbestos cement-manufacturing sites in the Netherlands. As a result, some of theproduction units were shifted between factories during the economic crisis in the early1980s to solve the problem of excess capacity in the different Eternit branches. Theproduction of corrugated sheets moved from Kapelle-op-den-Bos to the Dutch Eternitfactory in Goor. Flat sheets were still being produced at the site. The factory in Tisseltbecame responsible for the entire production of asbestos cement pipes in the LowCountries.79The Belgian Eternit Group grew out to be an important multi-national asbestos cementmanufacturer,with important ties to the Swiss EternitGroup.80In theearly 1990s, Eternitwasactiveinover32countriesacrossfourcontinents.81ThegroupchangeditsnametoEtexGroupin1995.ThelastcompanyintheEtexgroupstoppedmanufacturingasbestoscementproductsin2003.82TheEternitfactoriesinKapelle-op-den-BosandTisseltwerethefrontrunnersoftheBelgianasbestos cement industry. Belgian journalist Nay reports that the manufacturing site inKapelle-op-den-Bos used approximately 35,000 tonnes of chrysotile; 3,000 tonnes ofcrocidolite and 1,000 tonnes of amosite in 1977.83Considering that 53,806 tonnes of rawasbestos was used in six Belgian asbestos cement companies in 1977, the supremacy ofEternitontheBelgianmarketisclear.8474Ibid.75‘Asbest.DeStilleKillerWintVeld.’,Humo,14May2013,p.124–31.76‘RisqueMaîtriséChezCoverit.Jusqu’ici...’,LeSoir,31January2008.p.11.77HFrey(1940)‘L’Eternit:L’evolutiondeSesProcédésdeFabrication’,BulletinTechniquedeLaSuisseRomande,66,273-8178EvanderRestandLMoerenhout(1980)Eternit.1905-1980.(Kapelle-op-den-Bos,Belgium:EternitN.V.79Robert Frank Ruers (2012) ‘Macht En Tegenmacht in deNederlandseAsbestregulering’, DoctoraldissertationErasmusUniversiteitRotterdam(Rotterdam).80Ibid.81EternitS.A.,Jaarverslag–RapportAnnuel,1991(Kapelle-op-den-Bos,Belgium:EternitN.V.).82RobertFrankRuers(2012).83SalvatoreNay(1997)MortelAmiante(Bruxelles:EVO).84Nationaal Instituut voor de Statistiek, Jaarlijkse Produktiestatistieken-StatistiquesAnnuelles de LaProduction1977(Brussel).

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Duringtheheydaysinthe1960sand1970s,over3,000peopleworkedatthemanufacturingsitesinKapelle-op-den-BosandTisselt.85Nayreportsthatoutofthe2,500employeesinthelate 1970s, only 80 workers had direct contact to raw asbestos.86Figure 6 shows theemploymentsizebyoccupationalcategoryintheperiod1983-1998,aspublishedinannualcompany reports. Employment size has decreased withmore than 40% over the 15-yearperiod.

Figure6SizeofemploymentinabsolutenumbersatEternitNVin1983-1998.87

Nayreportshazardousworkingcircumstances in the1970s.88Eternitconfirmssomeof theemploymentconditions,butexplainsthemasasignofthetimes.89Dustextractionsystemswere installed during the 1950s andweremodernized in the years thereafter. Theuse ofprotectivemasks was obliged from the early 1970s on but only for workers in charge ofemptying thebagsof rawasbestos.Theproductionprocesswas revised in themid-1970s.Theasbestoswaskeptwetduringtheentiremanufacturingprocesstodecreaseexposuretoasbestos dust. Plastic bags replaced burlap bags for transport. At the end of the 1970s,packaging further improved and the bags were provided with clear labels. By then, bagswereopenedautomaticallyormanuallywithafilteringinstallation.90According to Eternit, crocidolite was used only in specific products during the 1950s and1960s. The factory in Tisselt used crocidolite tomanufacture pipes until 1980. The use ofamositelasteduntil1979inKapelle-op-den-Bosanduntil1982atthemanufacturingsiteinTisselt.91Inordertoadapttothechangingmarketdemands,Eternitreportsexploringnewasbestos-free technologies in 1983.92Six years later, products without asbestos fibres85RechtbankvaneersteaanlegteBrussel(2011)EindvonnisoptegenspraakindezaakJonckheere-Vannoorbeeck vs. Eternit, 48 p.; ‘Een Industrie Die Haar Sporen Niet Laat Uitwissen’, Knack, 10Augustus2005,p.44.86SalvatoreNay(1997)MortelAmiante(Bruxelles:EVO).87EternitS.A.,Jaarverslag–RapportAnnuel,1983-1998(Kapelle-op-den-Bos,Belgium:EternitN.V.).88SalvatoreNay(1997).89RechtbankvaneersteaanlegteBrussel(2011)EindvonnisoptegenspraakindezaakJonckheere-Vannoorbeeckvs.Eternit,48p.90Ibid.91RechtbankvaneersteaanlegteBrussel(2011).92EternitS.A.,Jaarverslag–RapportAnnuel,1983(Kapelle-op-den-Bos,Belgium:EternitN.V.).

1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998

Total 1614 1639 1629 1564 1540 1505 1536 1487 1424 1303 1221 1132 1087 1005 954 915

Management 6 8 8 7 7 7 6 7 7 7 10 8 8 8 8 8

Non-manualworkers 261 254 249 222 226 224 231 219 224 201 191 185 183 157 147 144

Manualworkers 1347 1377 1372 1335 1307 1274 1299 1261 1193 1095 1020 939 896 840 799 763

0

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

1400

1600

1800

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accountfor71.6%ofthetotalproduction(pipesexcluded).93EternitstoppedusingchrysotileasbestosinKapelle-op-den-Bosin1996andinTisseltin1997.94VanCleemputandcolleaguesanalysedtherelationbetweenthesizeofpleuralplaquesandcumulativeexposurelevelsamongasbestoscementworkers.95Althoughthecompanynameor location is not specified, we believe these workers were employed at Eternit. TheacknowledgementsectionstipulatesthatEternitpaidfortheCT-scansoftheworkers’lungs.The study reports estimates of exposure levels in three job categories, based on fibremeasurementsbetween1970and1985.Meanexposurelevelsin1975wereapproximately1.5f/mlforproductfinishing;1.8f/mlfortheproductionandstorageofproducts;and9.0f/mlforthehandlingofrawasbestosmaterial.The factoriesdidnotonlyhavean importanteconomic impacton the surrounding towns,Eternit also fulfilled a societal role in the area as a meeting-place for various social andathleticclubs.96Withapproximately79%ofpersonnellivingina10km-radiusofthefactory,Eternitwasfirmlyembeddedintheregion.97Environmental exposure in the vicinityof the factoriesmayhavebeen substantial. EternitandtheFlemishpublicwastemanagementservices(OVAM)startedremediatingthefactorygrounds in the 1990s. Remediation was only completed in 2000.98OVAM has spentconsiderable effort in the remediation of the Kapelle-op-den-Bos and Tisselt area.Moerenhoutandcolleaguesdescribetheseprojectsinmoredetail,includingthecoveringofthe waste disposal sites in Kapelle-op-den-Bos (in 1988), Tisselt (in 1988) and Boom (in1983).99Asbestos waste was also used frequently to elevate embankments and hardengroundsinthearea.Asaresult,pathwaysanddrivewaysinprivatehomesmayalsocontainasbestoswaste. The Flemish publicwaste services started a project in 2015 to remediatecontaminatedsitesin19municipalitiesinthearea.100

A4. J.M.BalmattinMolandGhentJ.M. Balmatt started as a family business when six local families opened ‘N.V. Beton enMollith’ in 1923. The companymanufactured asbestos cement products in a new factorybuilding near the Bocholt-Herentals canal. The American asbestos group Johns-Manvilleinvestedinthecompanysome5yearslater.Thenew‘Johns–Manville’prosperedaftertheSecondWorldWarwith150to200workersemployed in1953.101Asecondmanufacturing93EternitS.A.,Jaarverslag–RapportAnnuel,1989(Kapelle-op-den-Bos,Belgium:EternitN.V.).94RechtbankvaneersteaanlegteBrussel(2011).95JVanCleemputandothers(2001)‘SurfaceofLocalizedPleuralPlaquesQuantitatedbyComputedTomography Scanning: No Relation with Cumulative Asbestos Exposure and No Effect on LungFunction.’,AmericanJournalofRespiratoryandCriticalCareMedicine,163.3,705–10.96EvanderRestandLMoerenhout(1980)Eternit.1905-1980.(Kapelle-op-den-Bos,Belgium:EternitN.V.; Alain Finet and Romina Giuliano (2012) Eternit. Outil de Destruction Massive (EditionsEstaimpuis).97EvanderRestandLMoerenhout(1980).98RechtbankvaneersteaanlegteBrussel(2011)EindvonnisoptegenspraakindezaakJonckheere-Vannoorbeeckvs.Eternit,48p.99Tim Moerenhout and others (2014) Inventarisatiestudie Asbesthoudende Materiaalstromen inVlaanderen(Mechelen:OVAM),79p.100 OVAM, ‘Inventarisatiefase Asbestproductieafval-Projectregio Kapelle-Op-Den-Bos/Willebroek’,Nieuwsbrief,April2015,4p.101‘StakingOpde“Mollite”in1953’,DeDesselaar,May2012,p.20.

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siteopenedinGhentin1962.102Employmentsizeroseupto520duringthe1960s,withthelargemajorityofworkersremaininginMol.103Thecompanywassoldtoanumberofboardmembers and employees in 1983 after financial difficulties at the American companyheadquarters.Thischangeinownershipwasreflectedinyetanotherchangeinname:J.M.Balmatt.104At this time, it was gradually dawning that asbestos exposure entails serioushealthrisksandEuropeanlegislationbeganimplementingregulationsonasbestosuse.J.M.BalmattinMolemployedapproximately370peoplein1988.Thecompanyhadstoppedmanufacturing asbestosproducts sixmonthsbefore thebankruptcy in July 1998.105At thetime, the factory in Mol provided jobs to 187 manual workers and 48 administrativeemployees.Approximately30workersfromthesiteinGhentlosttheirjobs.106Themanufacturing site inMolwasheavily contaminatedwithasbestos,heavymetals andvarious chemicals.107OVAMestimated that the site containedapproximately 58,500m3ofasbestoswaste.108TheremediationprojectwasoneofthebiggestinBelgium.In2003andin2005somepreliminarymeasuresweretaken,includingtheremovalofthemosthazardousasbestoswaste. The sitewas sold to the Flemish government in 2007, afterwhichOVAMand the Flemish Institute for Technological Research (VITO) startedexecuting amajor soilremediation project.109Rematt, the subsidiary of J.M. Balmatt, became an independentcompany in 1993 and still remains active at the remediated site in Mol as an asbestosdisposalcompany.110

A5. ModerniteinHofstade(Aalst)Little is knownabout asbestos cementmanufacturerModernite. The factorywas a familybusiness, according to Coverit-employee Michel Verniers.111Asbestos cement slates andpipesweremanufacturedbetween1965and1984.112Moerenhoutand colleagues report that the factorygroundswereelevatedusingasbestoswaste.Inaddition,awastedisposalsitewaslocatedonthesite,whichwascoveredin1999.The size of the deposited waste is has been reported to have a volume of 15,000m3byOVAM,113and of 24,000 m3 by local media.114The waste has been covered and furtherremediationawaitsfinancialinflux.115102‘J.M.BalmattGooitHanddoekindeRing-MolseCementproducentMet260WerknemersVraagtEnKrijgtGerechtelijkAkkoord’,GazetvanAntwerpen(Kempen),13May1998,p.3.103RVandeWeyer (1973) ‘BilandeL’indemnisationdeL’asbestose.’,ActaTubercPneumolBelg,64,304–51.104‘StakingOpde“Mollite”in1953’,DeDesselaar,May2012,p.20.105Flemish Committee for environment, nature conservation and planning.Meeting 26 April 2011,VraagOmUitlegvandeHeerKrisVanDijckTotMevrouwVeraDua,VlaamsMinistervanLeefmilieuEn Landbouw, over de Sanering van de Gronden van Balmatt (Commissie voor Leefmilieu,NatuurbehoudenRuimtelijkeOrdening)106‘J.M.BalmattGooitHanddoekindeRing-MolseCementproducentMet260WerknemersVraagtEnKrijgtGerechtelijkAkkoord’,GazetvanAntwerpen(Kempen),13May1998,p.3.107OVAM,‘Mol-BalmattSite’,http://www.ovam.be/mol-balmatt-site[accessed26January2016].108Tim Moerenhout and others (2014) Inventarisatiestudie Asbesthoudende Materiaalstromen inVlaanderen(Mechelen:OVAM),79p.109OVAM,‘Mol-BalmattSite’.110;‘AsbestbedrijfRemattDraaitZonderVergunning’,HetNieuwsblad,1December1998,p.14.;‘CrossroadsBankforEnterprises(CBE)’,<economie.fgov.be/nl/ondernemingen/KBO/#.Vr…>.111MichelVerniers(s.d)‘LaVieàLaS.A.FabrecimCoveritRacontéeParMichelVerniers’,25p.112TimMoerenhoutandothers(2014).113Ibid.

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A6. Scheerders-VanKerchove’sVerenigdefabrieken(SVK)inSint-NiklaasThecoupleLéon-JeanScheerdersandCamillavanKerchovestartedtheirbusiness in1905.Thecompanyperformedanumberofservices including industrialbookbinding,thesaleofcoals and the manufacturing of bricks and tiles.116Scheerders-Van Kerchove’s Verenigdefabrieken started producing asbestos cement products in 1923. 117 Although a newproductionunitwassetuptomanufactureasbestos-freecorrugatedsheets in1990,118theuse of asbestos in cement products lasted until 1998. 119 Vande Weyer reports anemployment size of 420 people in 1953-1972.120Almost 700 were employed at SVK in1994.121

A7. AsbestileinSchoonaarde(Dendermonde)Notmuch is knownabout theasbestos cementmanufactureN.V.Asbestile. The companyproducedasbestoscementproductsintheperiod1913-1951.122

B. FlooringAsbestos was used in flooring in a number of ways, as it could be used from maincomponenttoamerefillingagent.Themostimportanttypewasvinylflooring,consideringthe production size of these products, as well as the amount of fibres used inmanufacturing.123WefoundtwomanufacturersofasbestosfloorsinBelgium.

B1. EternitinKapelle-op-den-BosEternit alsomanufactured asbestos cementproducts for flooring. Threedifferent typesofpanellingwereproduced:asolidpanel‘Massal’whichwasmostsuitableforfloors;apanel114‘SaneringAsbeststortLigtStil’,HetLaatsteNieuws(Denderstreek),9July2011,p.13.;‘3,6MiljoenEuro Voor Sanering Asbestsite’, Nieuws (Tv Oost), http://www.tvoost.be/nieuws/3-6-miljoen-euro-voor-sanering-asbestsite-21484,[accessed20January2016].115Ibid.116‘IkDoeMijnWerkNogAltijdEvenGraagAlsOpdeEersteDag’,GazetvanAntwerpen(Waasland),22November2011,p.18.117SVK, ‘Historiek’, SVK Company Website, http://www.svk.be/nl/over-svk/historiek [accessed 20January2016].118Ibid.119‘SVKProduceertGeenAsbestmaterialenMeer’,Gazet vanAntwerpen (Waasland), 13November1998,p.1.120RVandeWeyer (1973) ‘BilandeL’indemnisationdeL’asbestose.’,ActaTubercPneumolBelg,64,304–51121‘SVKWil20JaarZekerheid-StadOrganiseertVanavondHoorzittingoverMilieuvergunning’,GazetvanAntwerpen,17februari1997,p.10.122 ‘Geschiedenis van Schoonaarde’(2009), http://www.dendermonde.be/product.aspx?id=1547[accessed29January2016].123S Harmsma and HFHM. Mulder (2006) Asbest in Kaart. Historisch Onderzoek AsbestgebruikMethodeAsbestkansenkaart(Groningen:ReGister),164p.

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‘333’whichwas tobeused for floorsand fireplaces;andhollowelements ‘ACE’ forstairsandfireplaces.124

B2. FademacinSchoonaarde(Dendermonde)EternitN.V.wasco-ownerofFademac.125Thecompanywasspecializedinproducingflexiblesyntheticmaterialsforwallsandfloors,basedonasbestosandpolyvinylchloride(PVC).126A local newspaper published an advertorial on the factory in 1965. The article includes adescriptionoftheproductFloorflex,whichisatilemadeofPVCandasbestosfibres.Atthetimeofpublication,thefactoryemployed32administrativeemployeesand120workers.127

C. InsulationTheFlemishpublicwastemanagementservices(OVAM)estimatedtheamountofasbestos-containing products for Flanders indirectly, building on asbestos consumption data fromBelgium and Luxemburg and product information from theNetherlands. Assuming similarFlemish and Dutch manufacturing patterns, insulation materials accounted forapproximately3.2%ofthetotalasbestosmanufacturingindustry.Thestudyestimatesthat81,556 tonnesof asbestos-containing insulationmaterialswereproduced in Flandersuntil2001.128Although often used as insulation, estimates for sprayed asbestos coatings wereperformedseparately.Sprayed-onasbestosisaveryhazardousmaterial,asitcancontainupto 95% of asbestos fibres. Thematerial is highly friable and high levels of exposuremayoccuras thematerial is sprayeddirectlyonthesurfacewithaspraygun.129ABelgiancasereportmentions theuseof sprayed-onasbestoscontainingapproximately90%amosite.130TheprocedurewasinventedintheUKin1932.131Theuseofsprayedasbestoscoatingswasbanned in Belgium in 1980.132Approximately 12,998 tonnes of sprayed-on asbestos wereproduced in Flanders, under the assumption that 0.8%of all asbestos fibreswereused inthisindustrialbranch.133

C1. AeroplastinZeleInformation on Aeroplast N.V. is scarce. The company developed an acoustic insulationmaterialcalledAcousticplast.Thistypeofplastercontainedasbestosfibres,vermiculiteand124Stephanie Van de Voorde, Inge Bertels and IneWouters (2015) Post-War BuildingMaterials inHousinginBrussels1945-1975(Brussels:VrijeUniversiteitBrussel),437p.125‘Fabrieken van Bij Ons: De N.v. Fademac Te Schoonaarde’, De Voorpost. Het Weekblad VoorDendermondeEnOmliggende,23January1965,p.1;p.9.126StephanieVandeVoorde,IngeBertelsandIneWouters(2015).127‘Fabrieken van Bij Ons: De N.v. Fademac Te Schoonaarde’, De Voorpost. Het Weekblad VoorDendermondeEnOmliggende,23January1965,p.1;p.9.128Tim Moerenhout and others (2014) Inventarisatiestudie Asbesthoudende Materiaalstromen inVlaanderen(Mechelen:OVAM),79p.129Pascal Dumortier and Paul De Vuyst (2011) ‘Asbestos Exposure duringUncontrolled Removal ofSprayed-onAsbestos.’,TheAnnalsofOccupationalHygiene,56.1,49–54.130DumortierandDeVuyst(2011).131RobertFrankRuers (2012) ‘MachtEnTegenmacht indeNederlandseAsbestregulering’,DoctoraldissertationErasmusUniversiteitRotterdam(Rotterdam).132RoyalDecreeof15December1978inMoniteurBelge-BelgischStaatsbladon2February1979.133Moerenhoutandothers(2014).

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a binding agent. The plaster had to be applied directly to the surface with a trowel.134AccordingtotheCrossroadsBankforEnterprises,AeroplastN.V.startedinZelein1967andwentbankrupttwoyearslater.135

C2. EtablissementsErnestLendersinIxelles(Brussels)Only few sourcesmention Etablissements Ernest Lenders. The company produced a largevarietyofboardsandpanels,mainly foracoustic insulationbetween1945andmid-1950s.EtablissementsErnestLendersmanufacturedasbestos-containingpanels,namedPaxtile,aswellasaerosolasbestos(SprayedLimpetAsbestosS.L.A.).136Advertisementsofthecompanyhave been included in an online image archive assembled by Brussels researchers in aproject on post-war construction materials and building techniques.137The ads show thecompanywasfirst locatedinruedeMutualité,Uccle(Brussels)andthenmovedtoRueduSceptre,Ixelles(Brussels)twoyearslater.138

C3. EternitinKapelle-op-den-BosEternit had awide rangeofmineral and synthetic insulationmaterials, but also producedasbestos-containing insulation. The product Menuiserite was a panel in asbestos cementwith cellulose fibres.139 Menuiserite panels are manufactured without asbestos since1994.140

C4. FourisolinWilrijk(Antwerpen)Little information is available on Fourisol in Wilrijk. The company produced acousticinsulationbasedonasbestosfibres,calledAsbestosSpray.141

C5. SociétéBelgeIsolexNVinIxelles(Brussels)Isolexproducedatypeofsprayed-onasbestos,calledSprayedLimpedAsbestos(SLA).142The134Stephanie Van de Voorde, Inge Bertels and IneWouters (2015) Post-War BuildingMaterials inHousinginBrussels1945-1975(Brussels:VrijeUniversiteitBrussel),437p.135‘CrossroadsBankforEnterprises(CBE)’,economie.fgov.be/nl/ondernemingen/KBO/#.Vr…136VandeVoorde,BertelsandWouters(2015).137Van de Voorde, Stephanie, Bertels, Inge and Wouters, Ine, ‘Image Archive. Post-War BuildingMaterials in Housing in Brussels (1945-1975)’, Post-War Building Materials in Housing in Brussels(1945-1975),http://materiauxdeconstructiondapresguerre.be/history/[accessed20January2016].138Van de Voorde, Stephanie, Bertels, Inge and Wouters, Ine, ‘Image Archive. Post-War BuildingMaterials in Housing in Brussels (1945-1975)’, Post-War Building Materials in Housing in Brussels(1945-1975),http://materiauxdeconstructiondapresguerre.be/history/[accessed20January2016].139Stephanie Van de Voorde, Inge Bertels and IneWouters (2015) Post-War BuildingMaterials inHousinginBrussels1945-1975(Brussels:VrijeUniversiteitBrussel),437p.140DamiaanDeBacker(2008),AsbestinOnsMilieu(Mechelen:OVAM),124p.141VandeVoorde,BertelsandWouters(2015);‘DeManDieBerlaymontSpoot’,HetNieuwsblad,21December2000,p.7.142VandeVoorde,BertelsandWouters(2015).

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companywaslocatedinIxelles(Brussels)fromtheearly1950stothemid-1960s.143RecordsfromtheCrossroadsBankforEnterprisesindicatethecompanywentbankruptin1974.144

D. TextileTextile was one of the first applications of asbestos fibres in history. Reports have beenmade of asbestos shrouds for Egyptian pharaohs in 2000-3000 BC. 145 Industrialmanufacturingofasbestos textile started in Italy in theearly1800s.Evenasasbestoswasincreasingly used in various industries, the manufacturing of asbestos textile remained asmall but valuable industry.146We have identified four asbestos textile manufacturers inBelgium.

D1. CharlesDelvoyeN.V.inKortrijkCharles Delvoye started the production of asbestos textiles in 1946.14760 people wereworkingatthemanufacturingsiteintheearlydays.148Asbestostextilemanufacturinglasteduntil the early 1970s. Afterwards, Charles Delvoye produced ceramic-based textiles forthermic insulation. Approximately 35 employees lost their jobs when the company wentbankruptin2005.149

D2. EtablissementsH.DouhaDorinJemeppe-sur-Meuse(Seraing)Little is known about Douha-Dor. According to records from the Crossroads Bank forEnterprises,thecompanywasfoundedin1939.150DouhaDorwasasmallmanufacturingsitewith approximately 20 to 40workers in the period 1953-1972.151The company producedfire-resistantclothingandgloves.

D3. LaFilaturedesfeutresetamiantesd’AuvelaisinAuvelaisThisweavingmillproducedasbestostextiles,includingasbestoscords,in1905-1977.152Thefactorywasfeaturedinatelevisionbroadcastcalled‘WorkandHealth:ToDieforAsbestos’143Van de Voorde, Bertels andWouters ‘Image Archive. Post-War BuildingMaterials in Housing inBrussels (1945-1975)’; ‘Crossroads Bank for Enterprises (CBE)’,economie.fgov.be/nl/ondernemingen/KBO/#.Vr….144‘CrossroadsBankforEnterprises(CBE)’.145Samuel P Hammar and others (2008) ‘Neoplasms of the Pleura’ in ‘Pulmonary pathology’ by JFTomashefski,PTCagle,CFFarverandAFraire(eds.).(NewYork:Springer)p.558–734146RobertLVirta(2006)WorldwideAsbestosSupplyandConsumptionTrendsfrom1900through2003(Reston(VA):U.S.DepartmentoftheInterior-U.S.GeologicalSurveyReportNo.:Circular1298,80p.147‘Textielbedrijf Nv Charles Delvoye Uit Kortrijk Failliet’, De Standaard, 5 October 2005, p. 50;SalvatoreNay(1997)MortelAmiante(Bruxelles:EVO).148‘DelvoyeOvergenomen’,KrantvanWest-Vlaanderen,14October2005,p.1.149‘TextielfabriekIsFailliet’,HetVolk(Kortrijk-Waregem-Menen),6October2005,p.15.150‘CrossroadsBankforEnterprises(CBE)’,economie.fgov.be/nl/ondernemingen/KBO/#.Vr…..151RVandeWeyer (1973) ‘BilandeL’indemnisationdeL’asbestose.’,ActaTubercPneumolBelg,64,304–51.152Officedutravailetinspectiondel’industriedeBelgique,IndustriesDuCaoutchoucetdeL’amiante,MonographiesIndustrielles(Brussel,1907);Nay(1997).

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on RTBF in 1977.153The broadcast presented a female weaver at work, although alreadyaffectedbytheadversehealtheffectsofasbestos.

D4. BelgischeAsbest-enrubberfabriek-LaManufacturedel’amianteetdecaoutchoucinDeurne(Antwerpen)

According to records in theCrossroadsBank forEnterprises, thecompanywas founded in1905.154LaManufacture de l’amiante et de caoutchoucwas a small producer of asbestostextile.155Approximately60peoplewereemployedin1953-1972.156

E. AutomobileindustryAsbestoswasalsousedinthemanufacturingofbrakes,gasketsandotherfrictionmaterialsforvariousmeansoftransportation,suchascars,trainsandairplanes.Usuallychrysotileasbestoswasusedintheproduction.157WehavelocatedonemanufacturerofcarpartscontainingasbestosinBelgium.

E1. DonInternationalinManageDon International manufactured asbestos-containing brake linings for automobiles. 158Records from theCrossroadsBank forEnterprises showDon Internationalwas founded in1966.159The English BBA group, previously called British Belting and Asbestos, owned thecompanyintheearly1990s.160

F. ElectricityAsbestosishighlysuitedforelectricalapplications,asitiselectricallynon-conductiveandhasgreatinsulationqualities.161OneBelgianmanufacturerofelectricalmaterialswasidentified.153Marie-AnneMengeot and SalvatorNay, ‘Work andHealth: ToDie forAsbestos-Le TravailOù LaSanté:MourirdeL’amiante’(RTBF),televisionproduction1977.154‘CrossroadsBankforEnterprises(CBE)’155Officedutravailetinspectiondel’industriedeBelgique(1907);MarcMolitor(2010)Négociationset Tensions Autour de La Création Du Fonds Amiante, Courrier hebdomadaire du CRISP (Brussels:CRISP-CentredeResercheetd’InformationSocio-Politiques),61p.156VandeWeyer(1973).157S Harmsma and HFHM Mulder (2006) Asbest in Kaart. Historisch Onderzoek AsbestgebruikMethodeAsbestkansenkaart(Groningen:ReGister),164p.158‘StrengereWettenGeenProbleemVoorBelgischeAsbestsektor’,DeTijd,5April1991.159J.Forsyth(2013)MajorCompaniesofEurope1991/92:Volume2MajorCompaniesoftheUnitedKingdom,TheMajorCompaniesSeries(SpringerScience&BusinessMedia).160 J. Forsyth (2013); BBA Aviation, ‘Our History’, BBA Aviation website,http://www.bbaaviation.com/about-us/history.aspx[accessed19January2016].161PWJBartrip (2004) ‘History ofAsbestosRelatedDisease’,PostgraduateMedical Journal, 80.940,72–76.

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F1. UsinesVynckierFrèresetCie-VynckierinGhentVynckier was founded in Brussels in 1920 by three brothers as Usines Vynckier Frères etCompagnie. The company moved to Ghent two years later.162 Since 1937, the businessexpanded and moved into three former textile factories at Nieuwevaart in Ghent.163VynckierwasoneofthelargestBelgianmanufacturersofelectricalmaterialsforinstallationsat low voltage. Some electrical switch-boxes for industrial purposes were manufacturedusingasbestosfibres.164Duringthe late1980sandearly1990s,approximately1650peoplewereworkingatthemanufacturingsiteinGhent.165

G. PaperandfeltThefirstaccountsofindustrialapplicationsofasbestosreportthemanufacturingofasbestospaper in Norway and Russia in the 18th century.166Usually, only chrysotile is used tomanufactureasbestospaperandcarton,withproportionofapproximatelyof80%to100%ofasbestos.167InBelgium,wefindoneasbestospapermanufacturer.

G1. VonAsteninEupenVonAsten startedmanufacturing papermachine clothing in Eupen at the end of the 19thcentury.168The finished products were used in the papermaking process. Forming fabric,pressfabricanddryerfabricareusedtomakeflatdrysheetsoutofpulp.EduardvonAsten,sonofthecompany-founderOscar,patentedonethecompany’srevolutionaryproducts inthe1920s.Asbestoswasusedtoproducefelts,designedfordryinginpapermachines.Thefeltcouldconsistofwirescoveredinasbestosorofweftsofasbestostreads.169Duringtheperiod1953-1972, the companyemployed50workers.170Weknow little about theuseofasbestosintheproductionprocessafterwards.Itishighlylikelythatthecompanyswitchedtosyntheticfibreswellbeforetheasbestosbanin1998.162‘CAD/CAMEnCAEAlLangEenRealiteitBijVynckier’,DeTijd,18October1988.163 Agentschap Onroerend Erfgoed, ‘Vynckiersite’, Inventaris Onroerend Erfgoed, ID 18527,https://inventaris.onroerenderfgoed.be/dibe/relict/18527[accessed19January2016].164‘StrengereWettenGeenProbleemVoorBelgischeAsbestsektor’.165‘CAD/CAM En CAE Al Lang Een Realiteit Bij Vynckier’; ‘IS0 9001 Voor Gentse Producent vanElektrischMateriaal’,DeTijd,2October1992.166RobertFrankRuers (2012) ‘MachtEnTegenmacht indeNederlandseAsbestregulering’,DoctoraldissertationErasmusUniversiteitRotterdam(Rotterdam).167S Harmsma and HFHM Mulder (2006) Asbest in Kaart. Historisch Onderzoek AsbestgebruikMethodeAsbestkansenkaart(Groningen:ReGister),164p.168‘DieFirmavonAstenUnIhrEinflussAufDieModernePapierherstellung’,Grenzecho,19November2010.169PatentbyEduardVonAsten(1920),‘ImprovementsinFeltsforUseontheDryingPortionofPaperandPaste-BoardMachines’,2p.;PatentbyEduardVonAsten(1925),‘ImprovementsinFeltsforUseontheDryingPortionofPaperandPaste-BoardMakingMachines’,2p.170RVandeWeyer(1973)‘BilandeL’indemnisationdeL’asbestose.’,ActaTubercPneumolBelg,64,304–51.

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H. Aluminumfoil

H1. UsinesPolMadouinGhentThefactoryPolMadoumanufacturedatypeofasbestos-containingaluminiumfoil,calledAsbral.171Thecompanymanufacturedroofingpaper,paperboardsinGhentsince1897.172140peoplewereemployedin1978.173NorecordsoftheindustrialactivitiesatPolMadouwerefoundafterthelate1970s.

ConclusionThis inventory presents information on asbestos use in 22manufacturing sites during thepost-war period. Asbestos products were manufactured in eight different industries. 16municipalities have been pinpointed as locations of occupational exposure in the primaryasbestos industry. Out of the identified companies, 13 companies started manufacturingasbestosproductsbeforethepost-warperiod.Sevencompaniescontinuedtouseasbestosuntilthelate1990s.OneofthemainlimitationsofthisinventoryisthelackinavailableinformationonasbestosindustriesinBelgium.Asaresult,ourfindingscannotbeconsideredasanexhaustivelistofasbestoscompanies.Researcheffortstooptimizetheinventoryareon-going.Anyadditionalinformationrelatedtotheresearchobjectiveswouldbemuchappreciated.Ifreadershaveanyremarksordata,weasktonotifyus.Newinformationwillbestudiedandincorporatedintheinventoryifpossible.171‘Asbestkaart.Producten’,http://www.asbestkaart.nl/asbestkaart.html[accessed12January2016].172AgentschapOnroerendErfgoed,‘UsinesPolMadouEnDirecteurswoning’,DeInventarisvanHetBouwkundigErfgoed,https://inventaris.onroerenderfgoed.be/dibe/relict/18263[accessed14January2016].173CRISP(1978)‘L’industrieDesPâtes,PapiersetCartonsEnBelgique’,CourrierHebdomadaireDuCRISP,822-823-824.37,62p.

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