internal versus external control of reinforcement.pdf

8/9/2019 internal versus external control of reinforcement.pdf

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9 8 9 A P A A w a r d A d d r es s e s

Internal V ersus E xterna l ontrol o f R einforcem ent

Case H i s t o r y o f a Va r i abl e

Julian B. Rotter

University o f Connecticut

II IIIIIII Iii II II

AB ST RA C T: In this ar ticle the construc t o f general ized

expectancies fo r in ternal versus exter nal control of rein-

forc e me nt i s use d as a m ode l t o pre se n t a br i e f on t he

importance o f broad theory a nd training in theory con-

struction an d evaluation in psychology. Specif ically the

extraordinary heuristic value of this construct is attrib uted

to fo ur characterist ics: the nature o f the definition the

careful im bed ding o f the construct in a theoretical context

the use o f a b road behavior theory in construct ion o f a

measu re of indiv idual dif ferences and the progra mm at ic

nature o f the or iginal research a s wel l as the orm at o f the

early publications. Reeva luation o f the characterist ic cri-

ter ia for p ubl icat ion o f research s tudies a nd for the eval-

ua t ion o f promo t ion or advancemen t fo r psychologists in-

volved in research activities is also discussed.

Internal versus external control of reinforcement, often

referred to as locus of control, is currently one of t h e

most studied variables in psychology and the other social

sciences. Frequent studies have been done in fields as

diverse as political science and public health, and a test

of individual differences in locus of control has been

translated into many different languages. Current research

continues at approximately the same high rate as it did

20 years ago. Perhaps even more surprising has been the

relative success of a test o f individual differences in pre-

dicting behavior for many different populations in a way

that made good sense, rather than providing after-the-

fact explanations that strained credulity.

Briefly, internal versus external control refers to the

degree to which persons expect that a reinforcement or

an outcome o f their behavior is contingent on their own

behavior or personal characteristics versus the degree to

which persons expect that the reinforcement or outcome

is a function of chance, luck, or fate, is under the control

of powerful others, or is simply unpredictable. Such ex-

pectancies may generalize along a gradient based on the

degree of semantic similarity of the situational cues (Rot-

ter, 1966).

Numerous reviews of internal-external control re-

search and applications (Lefcourt, 1976, 1981; Phares,

1976) have been published, and last year Bonnie Strick-

land's (1989) APA presidential address brought much of

this literature up to date. I do not intend another review.

But the enormous and somewhat surprising popularity

of this variable is, in itself, interesting, and I will try in

this article to speculate on the reasons for the widespread

interest in locus of control.

Naturally, I rejected luck as an explanation, but at

first, I thought (Rotter, 1982b) that the social upheaval

of the times might be responsible. The ~g~etnam War,

Watergate, the inner-city riots, and political assassinations

were disturbing in themselves, but were also concerning

many people--including social scientists---because of the

perceived lack o f control over their own lives. Such factors

probably played some role in the interest in locus of con-

trol, as did the interest in the F Scale, a measure of implicit

antidemocratic or potentially fascist attitude (Adorno,

Frenkel-Brunswick, Levinson, Sanford, 1950), follow-

ing World War II. However, on further reflection I felt

that there have frequently been such periods of social

upheaval in the past and that the explanation for the many

research studies published was probably due more to sci-

entifically technical reasons.

In the remainder of this article, I will discuss four

propositions that may account for the heuristic value of

interna l-external control, propositions that I believe are

particularly relevant to the field of personality theory and

personality measurement, but also to the study of psy-

chology as a whole.

The Importance of Precise Definition

The first proposition I would suggest is that the heuristic

value of a construct is partially dependent on the precision

of its definition. One might wonder why so many social

scientists in the last 30 years have been involved in study-

ing a concept that could not be regarded as anything new.

Surely in prerecorded history humans were concerned

with ideas of causality, and early recorded history is re-

plete with stories and myths describing events controlled

by capricious gods and fate, as well as the results of one's

own behavior. When social scientists emerged, they also

dealt with interpretations o f causality, beliefs in luck, fate,

notions of alienation (Seeman, 1959), and celestial inter-

vention. An interest in the perception of causality has

been present for a long time. What was needed was a

April 1990 American Psychologist

Copyright 1990 by the Am erican Psychologica l Associa tion, Inc . 0003-066X/90/ 00.75

Vol. 45, No. 4, 489--493

489


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c o n c e p t t h a t w a s c l ea r e n o u g h t o l e a d t o a c c e p t a b l e m e a -

s u r e m e n t .

A g o o d d e f i n i t i o n , e sp e c i a l l y o f a c o g n i t i v e o r su b -

j e c t i v e v a r i a b l e , m u s t b e s t a t e d i n l a n g u a g e t h a t i s c a r e f u l

a n d p r e c i s e a n d l e ad s t o a c o m m o n u n d e r s t a n d i n g . I t

n e e d s t o b e i l l u s t r a t e d w i t h m a n y b e h a v i o r a l e x a m p l e s

o f it s c o n se q u e n c e s i f i t s p r e se n c e o r a b se n c e i s n o t d i r e c t l y

o b se r v a b l e . I t sh o u l d b e s t a t e d i n su c h a w a y t h a t t h e

o p e r a t i o n s f o r i ts m e a s u r e m e n t a r e n o t o n l y c le a r b u t a r e

w i d e l y a c c e p t e d a s lo g i ca l a n d r e a s o n a b le . T e r m s s u c h a s

self-actualization, coping, intrinsic

v e r su s

ex tr ins ic too-

tivation, unconditional love , a n d cogni t ive psycholog y c r e -

a t e i n t e r e s t a n d e n t h u s i a sm , b u t e a c h s c i e n t i s t r e a d s h i s

o r h e r o w n m e a n i n g i n t o t h e c o n c e p t , a n d o p e r a t i o n s fo r

m e a s u r e m e n t e i t h e r d o n o t e x i s t o r v a r y s o m u c h t h a t

t h e r e s u l t in g r e s e a r c h p r o d u c e s a s e r ie s o f c o n t r a d i c t o r y

o r n o n r e p l i c a b l e s t u d ie s . I n 1 9 4 5 , H e r b e r t F e i g l p r o v i d e d

a s e t o f c r i t e r i a ( p . 2 5 8 ) f o r a g o o d o p e r a t i o n a l d e f i n i t i o n

t h a t w o u l d s t i ll p r o v i d e d i v i d e n d s t o p sy c h o l o g y , i f e v e r y

g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t i n p s y c h o l o g y w o u l d l e a r n a n d u n d e r -

s t a n d t h e m .

E v e n w i t h p r e c i s e d e f i n i t i o n s , i t i s u su a l l y n e c e s sa r y

t o d i s t i n g u i s h b e t w e e n t h e c o n s t r u c t b e i n g d e f i n e d a n d

o t h e r c o n s t r u c t s u s e d i n t h e p a s t o r p r e s e n t w i t h w h i c h

i t c a n b e c o n f u se d , a s w e l l a s m a k i n g c l e a r t h e c o n n e c t i o n s

t o o t h e r c o n s t r u c t s s o t h a t p r e v i o u s l y c o ll e c t e d d a t a c a n

b e i n t e r p r e t e d a n d b u i l t o n .

T h e I m p o r t a n c e o f I m b e d d i n g a C o n s t r u c t

i n a B r o a d e r T h e o r y

T h e s e c o n d p r o p o s i t i o n i s t h a t t h e h e u r i s ti c v a l u e o f a

c o n s t r u c t i s c o n s i d e r a b l y e n h a n c e d i f i t i s i m b e d d e d i n a

b r o a d e r t h e o r y o f b e h a v i o r. A l t h o u g h t h e m a j o r i t y o f

s t u d ie s o f l o c u s o f c o n t r o l h a v e d e a l t w i t h a p p l i e d p r o b -

l e m s , i t i s i m p o r t a n t t o r e c o g n i z e t h a t t h e c o n c e p t o r i g -

i n a t e d b o t h f r o m t h e o r e t ic a l a n d c l in i c a l c o n c e r n s , w i t h

s o c i a l l e a r n i n g t h e o r y o r g a n i z i n g o u r t h i n k i n g i n b o t h

cases.

M o r e sp e c if i ca l ly , i n s e v e r a l o f o u r s t u d i e s i n v o l v i n g

i n c r e m e n t s a n d d e c r e m e n t s o f e x p e c t a n ci e s f o ll o w in g b o t h

n e g a ti v e a n d p o s i t iv e o u t c o m e s , a l a rg e n u m b e r o f o u r

su b j e c t s w e r e n o t r a i s i n g t h e i r e x p e c t a n c i e s a f t e r su c c e s s

o r l o w e r i n g t h e m a f t e r f a i l u r e , a n d w e b e g a n t o s e e a

p a t t e r n o f d i f fe r e n c e i n s i t u a ti o n s i n w h i c h t h e s u b j e c t

b e l ie v e d t h a t s u c c e s s w as d e p e n d e n t o n o n e ' s o w n s k i ll

v e r su s t h o se s i t u a t i o n s i n w h i c h i t w a s c l e a r t h a t t h e e x -

p e r i m e n t e r w a s m a n i p u l a t i n g s u c c es s a n d f a i lu r e in d e -

Editor s note.

Th is article was originallypres ented as a Distinguished

Scientific Contributions award address at the meetingof the Am erican

PsychologicalAssociation n A tlanta in August 1988.

Award-based man uscripts appearing n the America n Psychologist

are scholarlyarticlesbased in part on earlieraward addressespresented

at the APA convention. n keeping with the po licy of recognizing hese

distinguished contributo rs o the field, hesesubmissionsare givenspecial

consideration in the editorial selectionprocess.

Author s note.

Correspondenceconcerning his article should be

addressed to Julian B . R otter, Departm ent of Psychology,U-20, Uni-

versity of Connecticut, Storrs, CT 06269-1020.

p e n d e n t l y o f th e s u b j e c t 's b e h a v i o r. M y i d e a s a b o u t t h e s e

f i n d i n g s c r y s t a l i z e d i n d i s c u s s i n g a p sy c h o t h e r a p y c l i e n t

w i t h J e r r y P h a r e s w h o I w a s s u p e r v is i n g . A s s u p e r v is o r ,

I w a s tr y i n g t o u n d e r s t a n d a n d i n t e r p r e t t h e c l i e n t' s b e-

h a v i o r f r o m a so c i a l l e a r n i n g p o i n t o f v ie w . T h i s c l i e n t ,

w h o m w e h a d p e r s u a d e d t o t r y o u t s o m e n e w b e h a v io r s

t h a t m e t w i t h s u c c e s s , p e r s i s t e n t l y e x p l a i n e d a w a y t h e

s u c c es s e s a s a m a t t e r o f lu c k a n d n o t l i k e ly t o h a p p e n

a g a in . H e a p p e a r e d , i n m o s t s i t u a ti o n s , t o f e el t h a t w h a t

h a p p e n e d t o h i m w a s e n t i r e ly b e y o n d h i s c o n t ro l . T h i s

l e d to o u r h y p o t h e s i s t h a t n o t o n l y d i d l e a rn i n g t a k e p l a c e

d i f f e r e n t l y i n c h a n c e v e r su s sk i ll s it u a t i o n s , b u t i t t o o k

p l a c e d i f f e r e n t ly a m o n g i n d i v i d u a l s i n s i t u a t i o n s t h a t

m i g h t b e c o n s i d e r e d a m b i g u o u s o r n o v e l o r t h a t h a d e l e -

m e n t s o f b o t h c h a n c e a n d s k il l.

A l t h o u g h t h e i m p l i c a t io n s f o r h u m a n l e a rn i n g t h e o r y

w e r e o f p r i m e i m p o r t a n c e i n t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f th i s c o n -

s t r u c t, i t w a s a m e a s u r e o f re la t ive ly s t ab le , c ross- s i tua -

t i o n a l, i n d i v i d u a l d i f f e r e n c es t h a t c a p t u r e d t h e i n t e r e s t o f

m a n y a n d a c c o u n t e d f o r a t l e as t 9 0 o f t h e p u b l i c a t i o n s

t h a t f o l l o w e d .

T w o t h i n g s a b o u t t h i s p u z z l e d m e . O n e o f t h e s e w as

t h a t a l t h o u g h m a n y s o c ia l s c ie n t is t s w e r e e ag e r to u s e t h e

t e s t o f i n d i v i d u a l d i f f e r e n c e s , t h e y c l e a r l y d i d n o t u n d e r -

s t a n d t h e t h e o r y i n w h i c h i t w a s i m b e d d e d . S p e c i f i c a l l y ,

t h e y r e g a r d e d t h e se i n d i v i d u a l d i f f e r e n c e s a s f i x e d t r a i ts ,

o r t y p e s . T h e n o t i o n o f a g e n e r a li z e d e x p e c t a n c y , o f

c o u r s e , i n v o l v e s t h e l e a r n i n g t h e o r y p r i n c i p l e o f g en e r -

a l i z a t io n a n d a g r a d i e n t o f g e n e r a l i z at i o n . S u c h a g r a d i e n t

i m p l i e s b o t h g e n e r a l i t y a n d sp e c i fi c it y , b u t n e v e r t h e l e s s ,

n u m e r o u s a r t ic l e s w e r e w r i t t e n a n d p u b l i sh e d c h a l le n g i n g

t h e n o t i o n o f g e n e r a li t y b e c a u s e s o m e s p e c if i ci ty c o u l d

b e d e m o n s t r a t e d ( R o t t e r, 1 9 7 5 ) . T h e t h e o r y d o e s n o t

sp e c i f y i n d e p e n d e n t t ra i t s , f a c u l ti e s , o r t y p e s , b u t n u -

m e r o u s p s y c h o l o gi s ts h a v e t a k e n a 2 3 - i t e m t e s t, s u b j e c t e d

i t t o a n o r t h o g o n a l f a c t o r an a l ys i s, a n d c o n c l u d e d m i s -

t a k e n l y t h a t th e c o n c e p t h a d n o g e n e r a l i t y b e c a u s e s o m e

s p e c if i ci ty c o u l d b e d e m o n s t r a t e d . G e n e r a l i t y - s p e c i f i c i t y

i s a m a t t e r o f d e g r e e , n o t k i n d .

T h e s e c o n d t h i n g t h a t p u z z l e d m e w a s t h e r e a c t i o n

t o t h e s t ud i es o f p e r f o r m a n c e . M a n y o f t h e o r i g i n al s t u d ie s

o f i n t e rn a l - e x t e r n a l c o n t r o l w e r e d o n e c o m p a r i n g g r o u p s

o n t h e i r p e r f o r m a n c e o n s k i l l a n d c h a n c e t a s k s . S o m e -

t i m e s t h e t a s k s w e r e d if f e r e n t a n d s o m e t i m e s t h e s a m e

a m b i g u o u s t a s k w a s d e s c r i b e d d i f f e re n t l y t o g r o u p s o f

s u b je c ts . T h e s u b s t a n c e o f t h e s e s t u d ie s w a s t h a t c h a n g e s

i n e x p e c t a n c i e s a n d , c o n s e q u e n t l y , b o t h a c q u i s i t i o n a n d

p e r f o r m a n c e w e r e v e r y d i f fe r e n t f o r c h a n c e v e r s u s s k il l

t a sk s , n o t m e r e l y i n d e g r e e b u t i n k i n d . F o r e x a m p l e , i n

a n u m b e r o f r e p li c a t e d s tu d i es , w e d i s c o v e r e d t h a t t h e

w e l l - k n o w n f i n d i n g t h a t 5 0 r e i n f o r c e m e n t i s m o r e re -

s i s ta n t t o e x t i n c t i o n t h a n 1 00 r e i n f o r c e m e n t w a s t r u e

o n ly

i n c h a n c e o r e x p e r i m e n t e r - c o n t r o l l e d ta s k s. I n s k il l

t a s k s i n w h i c h t h e s u b j e c t b e li e v es t h a t r e i n f o r c e m e n t i s

c o n t i n g e n t o n h i s o r h e r o w n sk i l l , t h e o p p o s i t e i s t r u e

( B l a c k m a n , 1 9 6 2 ; H o l d e n & R o t t e r , 1 9 6 2 ; J a m e s & R o t t e r ,

1 9 5 8; R o t te r , L i v e ra n t , & C r o w n e , 1 9 6 1) . O n e h u n d r e d

p e r c e n t r e i n f o r c e m e n t is m o r e r e s i s t an t t o e x t i n c ti o n t h a n

5 0 r e i n f o r c e m e n t .

4 9 0 A p r i l 1 9 9 0 A m e r i c a n P s y c h o l o g is t


3/5

T h e s iz e o f t h e i n c r e m e n t s a n d d e c r e m e n t s f o ll o w in g

su c c e s s a n d f a i l u r e a l so d i f f e rs i n c h a n c e a n d sk i ll t ask s ,

a s d o e s t h e g e n e r a l i z a t io n o f e x p e c t a n c i e s f o r m o n e t a s k

t o a n o t h e r ( B e n n i o n , 1 9 6 1 ; B l a c k m a n , 1 9 6 2 ; P h a s e s ,

1 9 5 7 ; R o t t e r e t a l . , 1 9 6 1 ) . W h a t w a s s u r p r i s i n g t o m e

w a s t h a t t h e s e f i nd i n g s, r e p l i c a t e d w i t h a v a r i e t y o f t a sk s ,

w e r e n o t g r e e t e d b y a c h o r u s o f h u z z a h s b y l e a r n i n g th e -

o r i s ts a n d d i d n o t s t a r t u p a f l u r r y o f r e s e a r c h a s d i d t h e

p u b l i c a t i o n o f a m e a s u r e o f i n d i v i d u a l d i ff e re n c e s.

P a r t o f t h e r e a so n f o r t h i s , I b e li e v e , w a s t h a t l e a r n i n g

t h e o r y , o n c e t h e h e a r t o f p s y c ho l o gy , w a s b e i n g a b a n d o n e d

a s m o r e a n d m o r e e x p e r i m e n t a l p s y ch o l o g is t s w e r e tu r n -

i n g t o i n f o r m a t i o n t h e o r y , c o g n i t iv e p sy ch o l o g y , t h e s t u d y

o f m e m o r y , a n d a r t i fi c i a l i n t e l li g e n c e .

I b e l ie v e t h is w a s p a r t l y t h e r e s u l t o f p r e s s u re , f r o m

s t u d e n t s a n d o t h e r s , t o m a k e t h e i r w o r k r e l e v a n t t o h u -

m a n s , b u t t h e e m p h a s i s i n t h e l e a r n i n g th e o r i e s o f t h e

t i m e w a s o n m o d e l s o f le a r n in g b a s e d o n a n i m a l s w h o

h a d n o l an g u a g e to d e v e l o p c o n ce p t s a n d c o n s e q u e n t l y

g e n e r a li z e d o v e r m a n y f e w e r d i m e n s i o n s a n d , p r e s u m a b l y ,

d i d n o t e n g a g e i n c o m p l e x t h o u g h t p r o c e s se s . T h e p e n -

d u l u m h a s s w u n g a w a y f r o m l e a r n i n g t h e o r i e s , b u t i t w i ll

sw i n g b a c k w h e n p sy c h o l o g i s ts a r e w i l l in g t o f a c e t h e m o r e

c o m p l e x p r o b l e m s o f u n d e r s ta n d i n g a c q u is i ti o n a n d p e r-

f o r m a n c e i n h u m a n s . I t m a y w e l l b e t h a t t h e p r e s en t t r e n d

t o w a r d s o m e t h i n g v a g u e l y c a l le d c o g n i t iv e t h e o r y b a s e d

o n c o m p u t e r m o d e l s r a th e r th a n c o m p l e x h u m a n s , w h o

i n f r e q u e n t l y b e h a v e r a t i o n a l l y , w i l l e v e n t u a l l y su f f e r t h e

s a m e f a t e a s d i d t h e l e a r n i n g t h e o r i e s b a s e d o n a n i m a l

m o d e l s .

W h a t t h e s e l a s t t w o c o n c e r n s m e a n t o m e i s t h a t

m a n y p s y c h ol o gi s ts a re i n a d e q u a t e l y t r a i n e d i n t h e o r y n

n o t t h e m e m o r i z i n g o f s o m e p r i n c i p le s o r h y p o t h e s e s th a t

g o b y t h e n a m e o f t h e o r y , b u t i n u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e c h a r -

a c t e ri s t ic s o f g o o d t h e o r y a n d b a d t h e o r y , p r in c i p l e s o f

t h e o r y c o n s t r u c t i o n a n d t h e u s e o f t h e o r y t o t a c k l e a p p l ie d

p r o b l e m s .

M easu rem en t Pr in c ip les S h ou ld e Der ived

From Psych olog i ca l Th eory

T h e t h i r d p r o p o s i t i o n i s t h a t t h e p r e d i c t iv e v a l u e o f a te s t

i s l ik e l y t o b e i n c r e a s e d i f t h e p r i n c i p l e s o f m e a s u r e m e n t

a r e d e r i v e d f r o m t h e s a m e t h e o r y a s t h e c o n s t r u c t s t o b e

m e a s u r e d . T h e r e s p o n s e t o t e s t it e m s o r s ti m u l i i s i n d e e d

b e h a v i o r a n d , a s su c h , f o l l o w s p sy c h o l o g i c a l l a w s a s w e l l

a s a n y o t h e r b e h a v i o r . S t a ti s ti c al m e t h o d s a r e u s e f u l to o l s

b u t d o n o t s u b s t i t u t e f o r a t h e o r y o f b e h a v io r . F o r e x -

a m p l e , m a n y p e r s o n a l i t y te s t s a re c o n s t r u c t e d u s i n g s ta -

t is t ic a l t e c h n i q u e s d e v e l o p e d t o m e a s u r e i n d e p e n d e n t

f a c u lt i es o f t h e m i n d , a l t h o u g h t h e a u t h o r s t h e m s e l v e s

w o u l d d e n y b e i n g f a c u l t y p s y c h o l o g i s t s . C o r r e l a t i o n

a m o n g r e l a ti v e s ta b l e p e r so n a l i t y c h a r a c t e r i s t ic s i s t h e r u l e

n o t t h e e x c e p t i o n , a n d i t i s p r o b a b l e t h a t t h e u s e o f o r -

t h o g o n a l f a c t o r a n a ly s i s t o b u i l d p e r so n a l i t y te s t s is u su a l l y

m i s c o n c e i v e d .

T h e I n t e r n a l - E x t e r n a l ( I - E ) S c a l e ( R o t t e r , 1 9 6 6 ) w a s

c o n s t r u c t e d n o t o n l y b y k e e p i n g i n m i n d a t h e o r e ti c a l

v a r i ab l e a n d i ts h y p o t h e s i z e d c h a r a c t e r is t i c s b u t a ls o s o m e

i d e as o f t h e k i n d s o f b e h a v i o r s a n d s i t u a ti o n s w e w e r e

i n t e r e s t e d i n s t u d y i n g a n d t h e s u b j e c t s o r p o p u l a t i o n s w e

i n t e n d e d t o u se . I n so c i a l l e a r n i n g t h e o r y ( R o t t e r , 1 9 5 4 ,

1 9 8 2 a ), a b a s i c a s su m p t i o n i s t h a t t h e u n i t o f i n v e s t ig a t i o n

f o r th e s t u d y o f p e r s o n a l it y i s th e i n t e r a c t i o n o f t h e i n -

d i v i d u al a n d h i s o r h e r m e a n i n g f u l e n v i r o n m e n t . B e h a v i o r

i n d i f f e r e n t s i tu a t i o n s w i l l b e d i f f e r e n t , a l t h o u g h t h e r e m a y

b e a g r a d i e n t o f g e n e r a l i z a ti o n f r o m o n e s i t u a t i o n t o a n -

o t h e r .

I n s t u d y i n g l o c u s o f c o n t r o l , b e c a u se w e w e r e d e a l i n g

w i t h a b r o a d c o n s t r u c t i n t e n d e d t o s t u d y b e h a v i o r in a

v a r i e t y o f s it u a ti o n s , w e w a n t e d t o s a m p l e m a n y d i f f er e n t

s i tu a t io n s w i t h o u t m a k i n g t h e t o t a l s c o r e m o r e d e p e n d e n t

o n o n e k i n d o f s it u a t i o n ( s u c h a s s c h o o l a c h i e v e m e n t )

t h a n o n a n o t h e r ( s u c h a s p o l it i ca l in v o l v e m e n t ) . W e d i d

n o t t r y f o r a h ig l~ a l p h a ( t h a t is , th e a c c e p t e d m e a s u r e o f

i n t e r n a l c o n s i s t e n c y ) b e c a u s e w e a s s u m e d t h a t t h e c o r -

r e l a t i o n s a m o n g d i f f e r e n t b e h a v i o r a l r e f e r e n t s f o r t h e

c o n c e p t w e r e p o s i ti v e b u t l o w . O n e c a n g e t v e r y h i g h a l -

p h a s b y a s k i n g t h e s a m e q u e s t i o n o v e r a n d o v e r a g a in ,

b u t t h e p r e d i c t i v e li m i t a t io n s o f s u c h a t e s t a re o b v i o u s .

N o t a l l , i n d e e d , n o t a n y , so - c a l l e d s t a b l e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s

a r e t o t a l l y c r o s s - s i t u a t i o n a l a n d a t e s t w i t h a n a l p h a i n

t h e h i g h . 9 0 s i s s u s p e c t i n t h a t i t m a y w e l l b e m e a s u r i n g

r e s p o n s e s t y le m o r e t h a n p r o v i d i n g a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s a m

p l e o f t h e b e h a v i o r s a n d s i t u a ti o n s o n e w i s h es t o p r e d i c t

o r i t m a y m e r e l y c o n si s t o f r e d u n d a n t i te m s .

A l o n g t h e se s a m e l i n e s , i t s e e m s f o o l i sh t o f o l l o w

t h e o f t e n u s e d p r o c e d u r e o f d o i n g a n i t e m s e l e ct io n o n

t h e b a s i s o f s o m e s i ng l e c r it e r i o n o b t a i n e d i n o n e s p e c i fi c

s i t u a t io n o n o n e h i g h l y h o m o g e n e o u s s a m p l e o f s u b j ec t s ,

w h e n o n e w a n t s t h e t e s t t o p r e d i c t b e h a v i o r i n s e v e ra l

d i f f e r e n t s i t u a t i o n s f o r d i f f e r e n t su b je c t s . I n c o n s t r u c t i n g

t h e I - E S c a l e w e m a d e s e v e r a l a t t e m p t s a t u s i n g L i k e r t

f o r m a t s , b u t t h e s e e a r l y m e a s u r e s w e r e f o u n d t o b e t o o

h i g h l y c o r r e l a t e d w i t h t h e M a r l o w e - C r o w n e S o c i a l D e -

s i r a b i l it y S c a l e ( C r o w n e M a r l o w e , 1 9 6 4 ) . C o n s i s t e n t

w i t h s o c i a l l e a r n i n g t h e o r y t h e n , t h i s i n s t r u m e n t t r e a t s

s o c i a l d e s i r a b i l i t y n o t a s e r r o r t o b e t o t a l l y e l i m i n a t e d

b u t a s a m o t i v e a f f e c t in g c h o i c e b e h a v i o r i n t e s t -t a k i n g

a s w e l l a s o t h e r b e h a v i o r s . W e , t h e r e f o r e , m o v e d t o a

f o r c e d - c h o i c e f o r m a t t o b r i n g t h i s c o r r e l a t i o n d o w n t o a

r e a s o n a b l e l e v el . I m u s t n o t e h e r e t h a t a z e r o c o r r e l a t i o n

w i t h a m e a s u r e o f a n e e d f o r s o c ia l a p p r o v a l i s o n l y d e -

s i ra b l e i f o n e ' s t h e o r y o r e x p e r i e n c e d i c ta t e s t h a t t h e n e e d

f o r so c ia l a p p r o v a l i s i n f a c t u n c o r r e l a t e d w i t h t h e v a r i a b l e

o n e i s s t u d y i n g - - a n u n l i k e l y p r o b a b i l i t y w i t h p e r s o n a li t y

c h a r a c te r i s ti c s , w h i c h a l w a ys t e n d t o b e c o r r e l a t e d w i t h

m a n y o t h e r v a r ia b l es .

T o i m p r o v e o u r i t e m s e l e c t i o n , w e d i d i n d e e d u s e

n o t o n e b u t t w o v e r y d i ff e r e n t c r i t e r ia a n d t w o p o p u l a -

t i o n s . O n e w a s c r i t e r i o n p e r f o r m a n c e o r c h a n g e i n e x -

p e c t a n c i e s o n a m b i g u o u s t a s k s u s i n g c o ll e ge s tu d e n t s

( R o t t e r e t a l. , 1 9 6 1 ) , a n d t h e o t h e r i n v o l v e d i n f o r m a t i o n -

s e e k i n g b e h a v i o r o n t h e p a r t o f p a t i en t s , m o s t l y n o n c o l -

l e g e - e d u c a t e d a d u l ts , i n a t u b e r c u l a r w a r d ( S e e m a n

E v a n s , 1 9 6 1 ) . I f a n i t e m p r e d i c t e d e i t h e r c r i t e r i o n s i g-

n i f ic a n t ly a n d c o r r e l a t e d w i t h t h e o t h e r i t e m s i n t h e s c a l e

s i g n if i ca n t ly h i g h e r t h a n i t d id w i t h t h e M a r l o w e - C r o w n e

m e a su r e , i t w a s r e t a i n e d . I n a l l, f iv e y e a r s o f r e se a r c h a n d

A p r i l 1 9 9 0 A m e r i c a n P s y c h o l o g is t 4 9 1


4/5

f iv e f o r m s o f th e t e s t w e r e u s e d b e f o r e w e a t t e m p te d t o

publ i sh th e sca le ( Jam es , 1957; Pha res , 1955; Rot te r , See-

man, & Live ran t , 1962) . I be l ieve the impl ica t ions a re

t h a t m u c h h a r d , t h o u g h t f u l , w o r k h a s t o g o i n t o d e v i s in g

a u s e f u l me a s u r e o f a p e r s o n a l i t y v a r ia b l e . O n e h a s t o

h a v e a t h e o r y o f b e h a v io r a n d , c o n s e q u e n t ly , o f te s t - ta k in g

b e h a v io r, a s w e l l as s o m e n o t i o n s o f t h e t h e o r e t i c a l p r o p -

e r t ie s o f t h e v a r i a b l e b e in g s t u d i e d i n o r d e r t o d e v i s e a

c o n s t r u c t v a l i d me a s u r e .

I s u p p o s e I c o u ld p u t t h e s e i d e a s i n t h e f o r m o f a

q u e s t io n , H o w m a n y p s y c ho l o g is t s d o e s it ta k e t o c o n -

s t r u c t a n e w t e st ? O n e o f m y c o l le a gu e s , D o r o t h y H o c h -

r e i c h ( p e r s o n a l c o mmu n ic a t i o n , A p r i l 1 9 8 9 ) , s u g g e s t e d

t h e a n sw e r o f a t l ea s t f o u r . . , o n e t o t h i n k u p an d

d e f in e t h e v a r i a b l e , o n e t o c o l l e c t t h e d a t a , o n e t o d o t h e

s t a ti s t ic s a n d a f o u r th t o k e e p t h e o th e r t h r e e f r o m p u b -

l i s h in g p r e ma tu r e ly .

T h e i s sem in a t io n o f K n o w led ge

T h e f o u r t h p r o p o s i ti o n i s t h a t t h e r e s e a r ch m o n o g r a p h

i s a n i d e a l f o r m o f p u b l ic a t i o n f o r th e d i s s e m i n a t i o n o f

k n o w le d g e . A t t h i s t ime , Current Contents a j o u r n a l t h a t

records c i ta t ions , r epor ts tha t s ince 1966 when I f i r s t

p u b l i s h e d t h e m o n o g r a p h o n i n t e r n a l - e x t e r n a l c o n t r o l ,

t h e r e h a v e b e e n a t l e a st 4 ,7 0 0 c i t a t i o n s t o t h a t mo n o g r a p h

in t h e p s y c h o lo g i c a l a n d s o c i al s c i e n c e l i t e r a tu r e , a n u m -

b e r f a r i n e x c e s s o f a n y o th e r a r t i c l e i n t h e p s y c h o lo g i c a l

a n d s o c ia l s c ie n c e s f o r t h e s a me p e r io d o f t ime . I t w a s

a l so o n e o f t h e l a s t m o n o g r a p h s t o b e p u b l i s h e d b y t h e

A m e r i c a n P s y c h o lo g i c a l A s s o c i a t i o n ( A P A ). (I a m n o t

s u r e w h e th e r t h i s w a s a c h a n c e o r c a u s a l r e l a t i o n s h ip . )

H o w e v e r , A P A p u b l i c a t i o n s a p p e a r t o f a v o r s h o r t a r ti c l e s

p r e s u m a b l y b e c a u se o f t h e p r e s s ur e o f n u m e r o u s s u b -

m i t t e d m a n u s c r i p ts .

I t i s m y b e l i e f t h a t t h e r a p id s p r e a d o f i n t e r e s t i n

l o c u s o f c o n t r o l w o u l d h a v e b e e n m a r k e d l y t r u n c a t e d

w i th o u t t h i s k in d o f p u b l i c a t i o n . I n f a c t, t h e f i r st f u l l d e -

s c r i p t i o n o f t h e c o n s t r u c t a p p e a r e d i n 1 9 62 a s a c h a p t e r

i n a t w o - v o l u m e b o o k e n t i t l e d

Decisions Value s and

Groups

e d i t e d b y N . F . W a s h b u r n e a n d w r i t t e n b y my s e l f ,

Me lv in S e e ma n , a n d S h e p h a r d L iv e r a n t . I n t h i s f o r ma t ,

i t d id n o t s e e m to r e a c h m a n y s o c i a l sc i e nt i st s , a n d l a t e r

a p p e a r in g a r t ic l e s ra r e ly c i te d i t . T h e m o n o g r a p h ( R o t t e r ,

1966) r epo r ted the h is tory o f r e la ted cons t ruc ts , a ca re fu l ,

e l a b o r a t e d e f i n i t i o n , a d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e c o n s t r u c t ' s t h e o -

re t ica l r e la t ion to o the r v a r iab les in soc ia l lea rn ing theory ,

a s u m m a r y o f s t u d i e s o f c h a n c e a n d s k il l t a s k p e r f o r-

m a n c e , m e t h o d s o f t es t c o n s t r u c t i o n f o r t h e t e st o f i n d i -

v id u a l d i f f e r e n ce s , a v a r i e ty o f n o r m s f o r d i f fe r e n t p o p -

u l a t i o n s , a n d a s u m m a r y o f r e s u l ts o f o v e r 2 0 v a l i d i t y

s tu d i e s i n v o lv in g v e r y d i f f e re n t k in d s o f c ri t e r i a a n d s t u d -

i es o f a n t ec e d e n t s a n d l o n g - te r m p r e d i c t io n s . M u c h o f

th e d a t a p r e s e n t e d h a d n o t b e e n p r e v io u s ly p u b l i s h e d .

T h e m o n o g r a p h i n c l u d e d s t a t e m e n t s o f l i m i t a t io n s f o r

t h e me a s u r e o f i n d iv id u a l d i f fe r e n ce s n o t o n ly f o r d i f f e re n t

s u b j e c t p o p u l a t i o n s b u t a l s o f o r t e s t i n g c o n d i t i o n s a n d

b e h a v io r a l p r e d i c t i o n s . I d o n o t b e l i e v e t h a t a d o z e n o r

mo r e s e p a r a t e a r t i cl e s s ca t t e re d t h r o u g h d i f f er e n t o u r n a l s

o v e r a p e r i o d o f a t l e a s t e ig h t y e a r s w o u ld h a v e r e a c h e d

a s m a n y p e o p le o r c r e a t e d n e a r l y a s m u c h i n te r es t .

I f p s y c h o l o g y i s t o a d v a n c e i n u n d e r s t a n d i n g h u m a n

b e h av i o r, i t n e e d s t o e m p h a s i z e p r o g r a m m a t i c r e s e a r c h

( w h e t h e r t h e o r e ti c a l o r a p p l ie d ) i n w h i c h t h e o r y a n d e m -

p i r i c a l f i n d in g s a r e c o m b in e d . I t n e e d s a l s o t o b u i l d o n

p a s t r e s e a rc h . T h e t e n d e n c y t o d i s mi s s t h e p a s t , e n c o u r -

a g e d b y t h e p r e s s u r e t o k e e p p u b l i c a t i o n s b r ie f , d o e s n o t

s p e e d u p t h e a c c u m u la t i o n o f s t a b le k n o w le d g e . O n e f o r m

o f t h i s is p a r t i c u l a r l y p e r n i c io u s , t h a t i s , t h e t e n d e n c y t o

u s e n e w t e r m s f o r o l d c o n c ep t s a n d t h e r e b y i g n o r e a ll t h e

r e s e a r c h t h e o r y p r e v io u s ly a c c u mu la t e d . K i r s c h ( 1 9 8 5 ,

1 9 8 6 ) h a s i l l u s t r a t e d t h e v a lu e o f s u c h a n a ly s e s i n h i s

d iscuss ion of an teced ents to the concep t of se l f- e f ficacy , '

a s h a v e Z u r o f f a n d R o t t e r ( 1 9 8 5) i n t h e i r h i s t o r y o f t h e

e x p e c t a n c y c o n s t r u c t .

I a m a w a r e t h a t t h e s t u m b l i n g b l o c k t o a c h ie v i n g

s u c h a n a tmo s p h e r e f o r p u b l i c a t i o n i s t h e p r a c t ic e o f ma n y

e mp lo y e r s , i n c lu d in g o u r b e s t u n iv e r si t ie s , o f me r e ly

c o u n t in g p u b l i c a t io n s i n s t e a d o f e v a lu a ti n g t h e m f o r th e i r

c rea tive , heur is t ic , o r sc ien t i f ic me r i t . P rom ot ion s , tenure ,

a n d m e r i t r a is e s a re d e t e r m i n e d b y s u c h c o u n t s o f p u b -

l ic a ti o n s. L o n g i t u d i n a l r e s e a rc h i n h u m a n d e v e l o p m e n t

a n d p s y c h o p a th o lo g y h a s s u ff e r e d f o r t h e s a m e r e a s o n

because su ch re sea rch usu a l ly r equi re s seve ral yea r s be fore

th e r e s u l t s a r e a v a i l ab l e f o r p u b l i c a t i o n .

I h a v e s ee n s e v e ra l i n s ta n c e s i n w h ic h a n a u th o r h a s

tw o p u b l i c a t i o n s w h e n n o n e w o u ld h a v e b e e n p r e f er a b l e .

T h e f i r s t a r t i c l e r e p o r t e d s o me f i n d in g , a n d t h e s e c o n d

r e p o r t e d t h a t t h e f i n d in g d i s a p p e a r e d w h e n a n e w c o n t r o l

o r d i f f e r e n t p o p u l a t i o n w a s u s e d . M o s t a r t i c l e s I se e i n

th e j o u r n a l s a r e u n im p r e s s iv e b e c a u s e t h e y l a c k su f f ic i e n t

cont ro ls , the th eor y or s ign i f icance of the f ind ings is e i the r

n o t c l e a r o r n o t p r e s e n t , o r t h e r e i s n o t i e - i n w i th t h e

l a rg e n u m b e r s o f st u d i e s t h a t h a v e p r e c e d e d i t. I n d e e d , i f

t h e n u m b e r o f p u b l i c a t i o n s i n s c i e n t if i c j o u r n a l s w e r e a

me a s u r e o f h o w a d v a n c e d a s c i en t i fi c f i e ld w a s , t h e n p s y -

c h o lo g y m ig h t b e a t t h e f o r e f r o n t o f a ll t h e s c i en c e s . U n -

f o r tu n a t e ly , t h a t d o e s n o t s e e m to b e t h e c a se .

C h a n g in g p u b l i c a t i o n p o l i c ie s i s e a si e r t h a n c h a n g in g

the c r i te r ia for r ecogni t ion o f mer i t . S omew here , I be l ieve ,

a s t a r t n e e d s t o b e m a d e . A l t h o u g h t h e i m p o r t a n c e , l o ng -

t e r m s ig n i fi c a n c e, o r h e u r i s t i c v a lu e o f a r e s e a r c h p r o j e c t

m a y b e h a r d t o e v a lu a t e a t t h e t ime o f it s p u b l i c a t i o n , i t

i s n o t a s h a r d t o e v a l u a t e th e t h o r o u g h n e s s , t h e c o n c e r n

f o r s c ie n t i fi c o b je c t i v it y , a n d t h e p r e s e n c e o r a b s e n c e o f

r e p l i c a ti o n . I t ma y b e t ime t o s t o p c lu t t e r i n g t h e j o u r n a l s

w i th h i t - a n d - r u n s t u d i e s t h a t a r e p r o p e r ly d e s ig n e d b u t

a d d l i tt l e t o im p r o v in g t h e o r y o r h a v e n o s e r io u s p r a c ti c a l

appl ica t ions .

I a m a w a r e t h a t t h e s e i d ea s a r e n o t n e w . Ma n y p s y -

c h o lo g i st s ha v e w r i t te n a b o u t o n e o r t h e o t h e r o f t h e m ,

b u t w e a l l fe e l t h a t c h a n g e i s i n t h e h a n d s o f p o w e r f u l

o th e r s a n d t h e r e i s l i t t l e o r n o th in g w e c a n d o a b o u t i t .

B u t , p e r h a p s t h e r e i s , a n d t h e e f f o r t s o f ma n y c a n s t i l l

b r i n g a b o u t c h a n g e .

I w o u ld h o p e t h a t a s t r a t e g y o f g r a d u a l c h a n g e c o u ld

b e w o r k e d o u t b y t h e e f f or ts o f s u c h g r o u p s a s t h e A P A

a n d A m e r i c a n P s y c h o lo g i c a l S o c i e ty ( A P S ) B o a r d o f D i -

4 9 2 A p r i l 1 99 0 A m e r i c a n P s y c h o lo g i s t


5/5

r e c t o r s , t h e A P A S c i e n c e D i r e c t o r a t e , t h e A P A P u b l i c a -

t i o n s B o a r d , t h e C o u n c i l o f C h a i r p e r s o n s o f P s y ch o l o g y

D e p a r t m e n t s , a n d t h e g r o u p s o f d i r e c t o r s o f p s y c h o l o g y

t r a i n i n g p r o g r a m s .

ummary

I t i s p r o b a b l y c l e a r b y n o w t h a t I h a v e u s e d g e n e r a l i z e d

e x p e c t a n c i e s o f i n t e r n a l v e r s u s e x t e r n a l c o n t r o l o f r e i n -

f o r c e m e n t a s a m o d e l f o r a b r i e f o n t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f

b r o a d t h e o r i e s i n p s y c h o l o g y . S u c h t h e o r i e s m a y h a v e s u f-

f e r ed a d ec l i n e w i t h t h e a b a n d o n m e n t o f m o l e c u l a r l e ar n -

i n g t h e o r ie s . T r a i n i n g i n u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e n a t u r e o f th e -

o r i e s a n d i n t h e e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e o r e t ic a l c o n s t r u c t s a n d

t h e i r o p e r a t i o n s h a s a l s o d e c l i n e d . A s a r e s u l t , I b e l ie v e

g e n u i n e p r o g r e s s i n p s y c h o l o g y s u ff e rs . M u c h o f t h e l i t-

e r a t u r e f i l li n g o u r j o u r n a l s w i l l s o o n b e f o r g o t t e n a n d w i l l

g i v e w a y t o n e w f a d s a n d e n t h u s i a s m s t h a t w i l l b e l i t t le

b e t t e r t h a n t h e o n e s t h e y r e p l a c e .

P e r h a p s n o o n e h a s s a i d th i s b e t t e r th a n E . R . G u t h -

r i e i n h i s 1 9 4 6 p r e s i d e n t i a l a d d r e s s t o t h e A m e r i c a n P s y -

c h o l o g i c a l A s s o c i a t i o n :

F a c t s m a y a c c u m u l a t e w i t h o u t t h e o r y ; b u t t h e y w i l l p r o v e t o b e

u n s t a b l e a n d o f l i t t le p r o f i t i n t h e e n d . T h e o r i e s m a y f l o u r i sh i f

th e i r b a s i s l i e s n o t i n s c i e n t i f i c f a c t b u t i n o p in io n s a n d in t e r -

p r e t a t i o n s a c c e p t a b l e o n l y t o t h e m e m b e r s o f a l i m i t e d f a c ti o n ;

b u t t h e y w i l l b e b a d th e o r i e s . S c h o o l s flo u r i s h o n ly w h e n th e o r i e s

a r e n o t c a r r i e d b a c k t o p u b l i c f a c ts . U n l e s s p s y ch o l o g i st s m a i n -

t a in a n in t e re s t i n g e n e ra l t h e o ry th e f i e ld s o f p s y c h o lo g y w i l l

i n c r e a s i n g ly b e c o m e i n d e p e n d e n t c o l l e c ti o n s o f u n d i g es t e d i n -

f o r m a t i o n . ( p p . 1 9 - 2 0 )

I c a n o n l y a d d t o G u t h r i e ' s p r o p h e t i c w a r n i n g t h a t

i f t h e t h e o r i e s a r e g o i n g to a d d t o o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f

h u m a n s , t h e y m u s t b e r o o t e d i n o b s e r v a b le s b u t a l s o m u s t

t a k e i n t o a c c o u n t t h e c o m p l e x i t y o f a n a n i m a l w h o i s

h i g h l y d e p e n d e n t o n a ri c h l a n g u a g e , w h o o f t e n b e h a v e s

i r r a ti o n a l ly , a n d w h o s e c o m p l e x t h o u g h t p r o ce s se s , m o -

t i v a t i o n s , a n d e m o t i o n a l s t a t es s e r i o u s l y a ff e c t b e h a v i o r .

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