1. INTERNATIONAL ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PUBLIC POLICY VOLUME 1GLOBAL GOVERNANCE AND DEVELOPMENT EDITOR: Phillip Anthony OHara GPERU, PERTH AUSTRALIA 2009[PAGE PROOFS: TUESDAY 10 NOVEMBER 2009, 11.55AM]

2. First published 2009 by GPERU International Encyclopedia of Public Policy: Volume 1: Global Governance and Development GPERU is an imprint of the Global Political Economy Research Unit 2009 Editorial matter and selection, Phillip Anthony OHara; Individual chapters, the contributors Typeset in Times New Roman, Algerian, Comic Sans MS by GPERU, Perth, Australia. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be commercially reprinted or reproduced or used in any other form or by electronic, mechanical or other means, including photocopying and recording, or any other information storage, without permission by the publisher. Non-commercial use of materials by individuals, libraries, universities and governments requires proper detailed acknowledgement and statement of access details of the encyclopedia. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A Catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Catologing-in-Publication DataA Catalogue record for this book is available from the Library of Congress INT ISBN 0-515-34523-X (set) [Pending] PBK ISBN 0-515-46411-X (set) [Pending] HBK ISNB 0-515-78322-X (set) [Pending] ii

3. INTERNATIONAL ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PUBLIC POLICY VOLUME 1: GLOBAL GOVERNANCE AND DEVELOPMENT EDITORIAL TEAM Editor: Phillip OHara Global Political Economy Research Unit, Curtin University, Perth, Australia Associate editors: Kunibert Raffer Institut fr Volkswirtschaftslehre, der Universitt Wien, Austria. Glen Segell Director of the Institute of Security Policy, London, UK. Editorial Board: Mark Beeson Department of Politics, University of York, UK. John W. Dietrich Department of Politics, Bryant College, Rhode Island, US Amitava Krishna Dutt Dept of Economics & Policy Studies, University of Notre Dame, US Ananya Mukherjee Reed Department of Political Science, York University, Canada Celina Su Brooklyn College, City University of New York, USA Matias Vernengo Department of Economics, University of Utah, Salt Lake City Communications coordinator: Andrew Brennan Global Political Economy Research Unit, Perth, Australia How to Reference (Example):John W. Dietrich, World Government, in P.A. OHara (Ed.), InternationalEncyclopedia of Public Policy: Volume 1Global Governance and Development.GPERU: Perth, pp. 571-581. http://pohara.homestead.com/Encyclopedia/Volume-1.pdfCorrespondence with Editor: iepp1@runbox.com iii

4. Contents of Volume OneAIDS and HIV Phillip Anthony OHara 1Balance of Payments Matias Vernengo 17Brain Drain James J.F. Forest 28Capability Approach to Development Policy Ingrid Robeyns 38Child Labour G.K. Lieten 46Debt Crises and Development Matias Vernengo 57Development Governance G.K. Lieten 69European Union Macroeconomic Policies Angelo Reati 81Foreign Aid B. Mak Arvin 96Foreign Direct Investment Aristidis Bitzenis 106Free Trade Area of the Americas John Dietrich 123Free Trade and Protection James M. Lutz 135Free Trade and Protection: Comparative Nevin Cavusoglu & Bruce Elmslie 145Geneva Conventions John W. Dietrich 158Genocide and Gross Violations of Human Rights Levon Chorbajian 167Global Governance Mark Beeson 180Global Justice and Solidarity Movement Peter Waterman 191Global Political Economy Mark Beeson 199Global Public Goods Kunibert Raffer 208Global Value Chains Jrme Ballet and Aurlie Carimentrand 219Globalization Arestidis Bitzenis 233Hegemony Thomas Ehrlich Reifer 245Human Development Ananya MukherjeeReed 256Human Slavery Edward OBoyle 264International Labour Organization Joseph Mensah 271International Monetary Fund Joseph Mensah 283Lender of Last Resort: International Matias Vernengo 297Microfinance Agus Eko Nugroho 304Middle East Political-Economic Integration Nevin Cavusoglu 316Military-Industrial Complex Tom Reifer 330Millennium Development Goals Thomas Marmefelt 351Monetary Unions Malcolm Sawyer 363Non-Government Organizations Celina Su 373North Atlantic Treaty Organisation Glen Segell 384OPEC Kunibert Raffer 391Political and Economic Integration in East Asia Mark Beeson 402 iv

5. Refugees and Asyllum Seekers Moses Adama Osiro 415Sovereign Debt Kunibert Raffer 431Terms of Trade and Development Kunibert Raffer 443Terrorism Brenda J. Lutz and James M. Lutz 454Tobin-Type Taxes and Capital Controls John Lodewijks 467Transitional Economies John Marangos 475Tourism Jeffrey Pope 490Uneven Development & Regional Economic Performance Konstantinos Melachroines 501United Nations John W. Dietrich 514United States Hegemony Mark Beeson 524War, Collective Violence and Conflict: Civil and Regional Amitava Krishna Dutt 534War, Collective Violence and Conflict: Nuclear and Biological Glen Segell 546World Bank Joseph Mensah 555World Government John W. Dietrich 571World Trade Organization Amitava Krishna Dutt 582 v

6. AIDS and HIV mucosal cancer called Kaposis sarcoma which tended to inflict the elderly, along with Phillip Anthony OHara opportunistic infections, began causing serious problems and even death amongIntroduction young gays during 1980 and 1981. OtherThe AIDS and HIV so-called epidemic is diseases that appeared were cryptococcalcurrently one of the most critical medical, meningitis and serious cases of herpes. Oversocial and governance issues facing the the next few years hundreds of young gayworld. An understanding of the topic men came down with a combination ofencompasses such a wide array of opportunistic infections, severe thrush and/ordisciplinary areas, including biology and herpes, pneumonia, Kaposis sarcoma,chemistry; medicine and health; global cerebral lesions and toxoplasia infection. Bypoverty and affluence; power and authority; late 1981 the CDC reported 108 such patientscommunity and social networks; plus lifestyle and within a year half were dead. By Apriland drug issues. It is a controversial topic 1982, 248 cases were isolated, apparently atwith many unresolved issues, conflicting least 40 of them having had homosexualtheories, and vested interests involved. relations with one particular person, GaetanUnderstanding the issues requires a holistic Dugas, a French-Canadian Air Canada flightperspective that scrutinises a wide spectrum attendant. (He was nicknamed Patient Zero,of literature. and died in March 1984.) By the end of 1984, Issues that would later be seen as 8000 people had been diagnosed with thisinvolving AIDS were first brought to the syndrome in the US.attention of doctors in Los Angeles, New Soon it became apparent that the US wasYork and San Francisco in the late 1970s and not the only nation with this affliction. A fewearly 1980s. The thing that perplexed medics cases were isolated in Europe and Haiti;was the existence of a combination of vague while equatorial Africa soon becameand specific diseases that normally were not seriously involved. While AIDS patients inserious suddenly manifesting in problematic the West were predominantly homosexual, inways. A Los Angeles general practitioner Africa they were almost exclusivelynoticed an increase in mononucleosis-type heterosexual (especially women). Many ofsymptoms such as high fever, swollen lymph the African cases seemed to have an earlierglands, chronic diarrhoea, thrush and weight genesis to the US ones, going back to theloss (opportunistic infections) among his mid-1970s, and having links with Europe.young gay patients that never completely The French put forward the Africandisappeared. Some were hospitalised with hypothesis: that the first (European) wave ofrespiratory distress. Other LA medics had the syndrome emanated from Africa,similarly young gay patients coming down followed by a wave from the US. Somewith Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia (PCP) evidence then arose alluding to a Congoleseand candidiasis. The five cases of PCP were patient going back to 1962 (Grmek 1990:30).noted by the US federal government Centre The interconnected nature of thefor Disease Control (CDC) and documented afflictions quickly became apparent, and byin their weekly bulletin. June of 1982 the CDC had began to call it Other strange and unusually toxic AIDS, the Acquired Immunodeficiencyinfections were noticed in New York and San Syndrome. Various other, equivalent,Francisco. A normally benign skin and acronyms were used in non-English speaking 1

7. nations. Early on AIDS was linked to lifestyle 2.55m (2005) to 3.75m (2020), while adultfactors, such as drug use, sexual promiscuity AIDS-related deaths rise from 1.9m (2005) toand inadequate nutrition. Soon attention 2.6m (2020). The incidence of HIV and AIDSbegan to be focussed on a viral cause, thanks in Africa thus far outweigh the experienceto the combined work of the French Pasteur elsewhere on Earth, both in terms of theInstitute, the US National Institute of Health, absolute seriousness of the problem and theand others. In 1984 it became apparent to proportionate rates of mortality vis--vismany that a certain retrovirus with a those living with the virus.propensity to destroy helper lymphocytes wasthe ultimate cause of the syndrome. During Table 1: Regional HIV & AIDS Incidence 20051984-86 the mechanisms and processes of Living New HIV AIDS with HIV Adult Deathshow the human immunodeficiency virus HIV Cases Rateworked were better understood, at least in Sub-Saharan 25.8m 3.2m 7.2% 2.4mtheir basic form. Since then virtually all the Africa Caribbean 300,000 30,000 1.6% 24,000attention has been given to how to fight this Eastern Europe 1.6m 270,000 0.9% 62,000virus through drugs, vaccines and & Central Asiapreventative measures such as condoms, South & SE Asia 7.4m 990,000 0.7% 480,000better blood preparations, reducing needle North America 1.2m 43,000 0.7% 18,000 Oceania 74,000 8,200 0.5% 3,600exchanges and moderating promiscuous Latin America 1.8m 200,000 0.6% 66,000tendencies. UNAIDS, the World Health Western & 720,000 22,000 0.3% 12,000Organisation, national centres for AIDS Central Europepolicy, non-government organisations, and a North Africa & 520,000 67,000 0.2% 58,000 Middle Easthost of community networks have all played East Asia 870,000 140,000 0.1% 41,000their role in AIDS awareness, prevention and TOTAL 40.3m 4.9m 1.1% 3.1mcontrol. Source: Adapted from UNAIDS/WHO (2005:3)Global Distribution of AIDS/HIV Regional differences in HIV and AIDS inA major problem obtaining consistent SSA are considerable. For instance, HIV-statistics on HIV and AIDS are the changes prevalence among pregnant women attendingthat occurred in definition and testing antenatal clinics in SSA in the mid-2000s wasmethods over the decades. Comparable multi- 38 percent in Botswana, 30 percent in Southregional cross-section data exist only for Africa, 22 percent in Zimbabwe, 19 percentrecent years. See Table 1, below. Worldwide in Mozambique, 11 percent in Ethiopia, plusthere were over forty million HIV-positive 8, 7 and 3.5 percent, respectively, in Cotepersons in the world in 2005. Of these, over dlvoire, Kenya and Ghana. Major differences60 percent of the cases were in sub-Saharan also exist within particular nations. ForAfrica (SSA), where, on average, 7.2 percent instance, HIV-prevalence in parts ofof the whole adult population had antibodies Mozambique varies greatly, from 34 percentfor the virus. Of the 4.9m new cases of HIV in C.S. Ponta-Gea to 26 percent in C.S.E.in 2005, 65 percent were from SSA. However Mondlane to 10 percent in H.R. Montepuezthere is a far greater percent of people dying and C.S. 25 Setembro (2004).from AIDS in SSA: of the 3.1m deaths from The seriousness of HIV outside SSAAIDS worldwide, over three-quarters were varies greatly, from an adult prevalence ratefrom SSA. Projected new adult infections per of 1.6% in the Caribbean to 0.9% in Easternyear in SSA are expected to increase from Europe and Central Asia, 0.7% in North 2

8. America and South & South East Asia to People are living much longer from AIDS0.6% in Latin America, 0.5% in Oceania, to diseases in North America, Europe andrelatively low rates of 0.3% in Western and Oceania, often 15-20 years; while quite a fewCentral Europe, 0.2% in North Africa and the who are HIV-positive never exhibit any majorMiddle East and the lowest rate of 0.1% in symptoms of AIDS.East Asia. While 58% of adults with HIV arewomen in SSA, the percent is about equal Natural History of HIVbetween men and women in North Africa, the Figure 1 illustrates the natural history of SIV-Middle East, the Caribbean and Oceania. HIV as it originated in western Africa andEverywhere else in the worldAsia, the spread throughout the world.Americas, and EuropeHIV is heavilyconcentrated among men (about 75%) (2005). Figure 1: Natural History of SIV-HIV among Human BeingsIn regions where female HIV casespredominate, such as SSA, babies and A B C Dchildren constitute a relatively large Numberpercentage of the infections, being equal to of New Period of Period of Period of Epidemic Human Multiple Rapid or Pandemicthe other high-HIV age category, 25-40 years. SIV-HIV Infections Transfer of SIV Social Change(UNAIDS 2005.) to Humans (& Genetic and/or Dislocation Period of The best time series data are from the US, Evolution To HIV) Increasing Humanas shown in Table 2, below. Resistance To HIVTable 2: USA: Annual AIDS Cases 1985-2003 1985 1990 1995 2000 2003NewAIDS 12,000 50,000 70,000 42,000 43,000casesAIDS 7,000 33,000 52,000 18,000 18,000Deaths USA 1960s 1985 1995 Africa 1910 1960s 1985 2025??PersonsLiving 85,000 218,000 340,000 410,000 It shows Phase A, the origins, starting aroundwith 15,000 1910-1920 with the transfer of two types ofAIDS (567%) (256%) (156%) (121%)(%) Simian Immunodeficiency Virus, SIVCPZ (from chimpanzees [troglodytes]) and SIVSMSource: Adapted from UNAIDS/WHO (2005:67) (sooty mangabeys) to humans, in the form ofThe number of people living with AIDS in HIV-1 and HIV-2, respectively. Transmissionthe US has been increasing over the past occurred by sharing blood or mucosal tissuetwenty years at a fairly consistent level, while through dietetic, sexual and/or domesticthe rate of increase has diminished since the relationships with simians. HIV-1 and HIV-2early 1990s. The epidemic of new AIDS parasites slowly became part of the pool ofcases reached a peak of 80,000 in 1992 and micro-organisms infecting human beings, and1993 (not shown), with the peak of 52,000 genetically evolving in the process throughAIDS deaths per year occurring three years various sub-species of viruses. Phase B led tolater in 1995. Since then new AIDS cases and the initial spread of the viruses through theAIDS deaths have stabilised at around 42- population from very small pockets to the43,000 and 18,000, respectively, in 2003. wider society, as a result of rapid social change or dislocation. This includes, for 3

9. instance, the end of colonial rule and wars of transmission of primate lentiviruses toindependence in western Africa in the 1950s humans is supported by SIV-HIV similarities(vis--vis Portugal, France, Belgium); and the in viral genome structure, phylogenicsexual and gay liberation movements as well relationships, geographical linkages andas the explosion of recreational drug use and plausible routes of transmission. The mostinternational travel, in the US (and Europe) in likely subspecies involved is the commonthe 1960s and 1970s. chimp (Pan troglodytes) through SIVcpz(P.t.t.) Phase C was the emergence of the virus in since they were kept as pets and eaten inthe medical and social consciousness as it west-eastern Africa (Gao et al 1999). SIVs dogradually became a problem of epidemic not cause diseases in monkeys as they haveproportions, at least in certain sub- effective immunity to the viruses.populations or the population in general. Samples of blood contaminated by HIV-1From the 1980s it spread rapidly through have been collected as early as 1959. But thehomosexual populations in New York, Los origins of zoonotic transmission are muchAngeles and San Francisco; as well as earlier. Evidence points to a likely mean yearspreading through the general population in of the most common ancestor of the O-Sub-Saharan Africa; and more latterly in the subtype HIV virus (which may indicate theCaribbean, Eastern Europe and parts of Asia time of cross-species SIV infection) of around(during the 1990s). Phase D, declining 1920-1930 (with a far lower probability of itincidence of HIV and reduced deaths from occurring as early as 1850 or as late as 1950).AIDS, both emerged in the mid-1990s in the It has been estimated that group 0 infectionsUS. As human beings began to increase their have doubled approximately every 9 yearsimmunity to HIV-AIDS though natural or since 1920 (Lemey et al 2004:1064).drug-enhanced measures, the US epidemic Of the HIV-1 genus M there are 11subsided, while SSA as a whole is yet to subtypes labelled A-K, the first five (A-E)peak, and may not do so for another ten to having been studied closely. Korber et altwenty years. (2000) present evidence that the last There are two major strains of HIV, HIV-1 common ancestor of the HIV-1 [M] groupand HIV-2, both of which originated in sub- point to the first half of the twentiethSaharan Africa. There are three groups of century, which could indicate the time ofHIV-1, including M (major), O (outlier) and cross-species infection by SIV, specificallyN (neither M nor O). Within the major M around 1930 (circa 1908-1950). A-J are foundgroup are numerous subtypes A-J, accounting mostly in sub-Saharan Africa; B originatedfor over 90 percent of all worldwide HIV mainly in the US, Europe, and Haiti; a mix ofinfection. Group O origins are isolates from A-C and D-G being common in central andwest-central Africa (Cameroon, Gabon and eastern Africa (Uganda, Kenya, Tanzania andEquatorial Guinea), while N, which is rare, the DR Congo); while M subtype E isemanates from Cameroon. HIV originates common in Thailand. Vasan et al (2006)from cross-species infections between studied the degree of virulence of subtypes A,monkeys and humans, specifically by simian C and D (plus recombinants of these) inimmunodeficiency viruses (SIV) mutating Tanzania, concluding subtype D to be theinto HIV. most deadly, followed by C, then A-C-D Evidence points to at least three recombinants, and the least problematic beingindependent introductions of SIVcpz from A. It is likely that most of the African M-chimpanzees to humans. Zoonotic subtypes (A, C, D), plus the Thai subtype E, 4

10. are more virulent than the B subtype common Natural History of HIV-AIDS inin the US, Europe and Haiti. Korber argues Individualsthat the B-subtype which became manifest in One problem that has always plagued thethe mid-1970s, likely had a pre-epidemic HIV theory of AIDS is that it does notperiod of evolution of 5-15 years, possibly directly cause the syndrome. Rather, the usualbeginning in 1960 (circa 1939-1972). Despite proximate ailments that are part of thea large degree of regional specialisation, all complex are all caused by other micro-the M-subtypes exist globally, likely organisms. HIV is said to ultimatelymigrating from sub-Saharan Africa as a result precipitate these ailments by destroying theof imperial pursuits, trading and wars of helper white blood cells (CD4+ T-cells).independence. When levels of such lymphocytes are at HIV-1 is significantly more virulent than critically low levelswhich could take tenHIV-2 (Jaffer 2004), while the natural history years or moreimmunodeficiency sets inof HIV-2 is more certain. HIV-2 has seven where any number of AIDS diseases cansub-types, HIV-2(A-G), with only HIV- manifest themselves. The most common2(A,B) being epidemic in nature. HIV-2 is ailments being serious cases of skin cancer,restricted mainly to western Africa tumours, pneumonia, thrush, herpes, and(especially Guinea-Bissau). It originated from painful feet and legs.cross-species infection between sooty What is called the natural history ofmangabeys (monkeys) and humans through HIV in the human body includes three mainSIVsm due to dietetic, social and sexual phases (see Figure 2). The first phase isfactors. The most recent common ancestors acute infection with the virus, whetherhave been estimated at 194016 (HIV-2A) through sexual contact, dirty needles, and/orand 194514 (HIV-2B), which are possible blood exchanges. When the virus infects theupper limit proxy dates for cross-species body, seroconversion occurs as the bodytransmission of SIVsm, although a broader starts to produce antibodies to the parasite.model gives 188933 as a lower limit for Some people succeed in stopping the virus atcross-species transmission (Lemey 2003). this point, but in others there is a sudden For group A, after cross-species infection increase in viral load in the cells and a sharpand mutation into HIV-2, there was a period decline in helper T-cells below the normalof low endemicity (eg, 1930-1963) in this level of 1000/L (1000 per micro-litre),closely-knit, kinship-based society of Guinea- especially in the mucus cells and to a lesserBissau. This was followed by a period of extent in the blood. A major immuneexponentially increasing infections (1963- response occurs as the body produces1992) likely initiated by the war of antibodies to the invading virus. Usuallyindependence from Portugal (1963-1974), relatively minor symptoms emerge, includingwhen social dislocation and trans-migration swollen lymph glands, fever, diarrhoea, drywere common. The war hypothesis is cough, numbness of the feet, and other vaguesupported by epidemiological evidence of symptoms. This phase may last a number ofHIV-2 cases among Portuguese veterans who weeks or months, at the end of which theserved in the colonial army during the war. number of helper cells (CD4) stabilises, asThe principle source of the exponential does the viral load and the immune response.growth is said to be the high rate of The second major phase is then reached inunsterilised injections. most HIV cases, the chronic stage, which lasts on average about ten years, with 5

11. variations mostly in the order of 3-5 years. the bodys immune response is slow andSome call this the asymptomatic latency ineffective. Some of the typical AIDS-period, since the mortality-promoting (late- defining diseases include pneumocystitisperiod) opportunistic diseases (AIDS) have Pneumonia, Kaposis sarcoma, AIDS-relatednot yet appeared. In this slow moving phase lymphoma, peripheral neuropathy, andmajor symptoms typically do not emerge. A opportunistic diseases.number of patients never go beyond this stage It has to be said that HIV and AIDSand hence never get the typical AIDS reveals (or exploits) a major limit to thediseases, with or without anti-viral drugs. Yet human immune system. This limit occurs inafter a number of years mucosal CD4 helper- the chronic phase when CD4 T-cells declinecells decline moderately, while CD4 helper- while CD8 T-cells increase, in about equalcells in the blood decline slowly but proportions, while total T-cells remain aboutsignificantly. At the end of this 10 year period constant. CD4 and CD8 refer to aCD4 helper T-cells typically decline from heterogeneous group of cell-surfacetheir normal level of around 1000/L to the glycoproteins on T-lymphocytes that enhanceAIDS-defining level of