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Marshall, J.S., Gardner, T.W., Protti, M., and Nourse, J.A., 2009, International geosciences fi eld research with undergraduate students: Three models for expe-riential learning projects investigating active tectonics of the Nicoya Peninsula, Costa Rica, in Whitmeyer, S.J., Mogk, D.W., and Pyle, E.J., eds., Field Geology Education: Historical Perspectives and Modern Approaches: Geological Society of America Special Paper 461, p. 77-98, doi: 10.1130/2009.2461(08). For permission to copy, contact [email protected]. ©2009 The Geological Society of America. All rights reserved.
The Geological Society of AmericaSpecial Paper 461
2009
International geosciences fi eld research with undergraduate students: Three models for experiential learning projects
investigating active tectonics of the Nicoya Peninsula, Costa Rica
Jeffrey S. MarshallGeological Sciences Department, Cal Poly Pomona University, Pomona, California 91768, USA
Thomas W. GardnerDepartment of Geosciences, Trinity University, San Antonio, Texas 78212, USA
Marino ProttiObservatorio Volcanológico y Sismológico de Costa Rica (OVSICORI-UNA), Universidad Nacional, Heredia, Costa Rica
Jonathan A. NourseGeological Sciences Department, Cal Poly Pomona University, Pomona, California 91768, USA
ABSTRACT
International fi eld experiences offer exceptional opportunities for effective student learning in the geosciences. Over the 10 yr period between 1998 and 2008, more than 40 undergraduate students from 14 institutions participated in fi eld research investigating active tectonics on the Nicoya Peninsula, Costa Rica. Three different project models were used: (1) a month-long summer research project, (2) a series of 1 to 2 wk inde-pendent fi eld study projects, and (3) a week-long fi eld research module. These projects shared a common research theme (active tectonics), fi eld area (Nicoya Peninsula), and pedagogy (experiential learning), thus allowing for easy comparison of teaching meth-ods, logistics, and learning outcomes. Each model has unique pedagogical benefi ts and challenges, and is therefore better suited for a different group size, student to faculty ratio, project duration, and budget. Collectively, these student research projects gener-ated signifi cant publishable data relevant to ongoing investigations of forearc tectonics and earthquake hazards along the Costa Rican Pacifi c margin. Individual student proj-ects were carefully designed to provide a quality fi eld learning experience, while adding a new piece to the larger research puzzle. Indicators of project success include levels of student engagement; gains in technical and cognitive fi eld skills; and productivity of stu-dent-authored publications, reports, and presentations. Students commonly described these projects as instrumental in shaping their professional identity as geoscientists. Blending international fi eld research with experiential learning pedagogy creates a powerful synergy that captures student imagination and motivates learning. By placing students beyond the comfort of their home learning environment, inter national fi eld
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INTRODUCTION
In the natural sciences, the most effective student learning takes place during hands-on fi eld experiences (Lonergan and Andresen, 1988; Manduca and Mogk, 2006). While classroom and laboratory instruction are important, students achieve greater comprehension and self-confi dence while engaged in experi-ential fi eld studies aimed at solving real-world problems (e.g., Kern and Carpenter, 1986; Elkins and Elkins, 2007). Fieldwork is considered an essential component of student learning in most undergraduate geosciences programs (Manduca and Carpenter, 2006; Drummond and Markin, 2008). As a degree requirement, geology majors are generally expected to complete a fi eld meth-ods course and some form of extended fi eld camp or research program. Geology alumni often describe these fi eld experiences as instrumental in preparing them for success in their careers as professional geoscientists (e.g., Kirchner, 1994; Manduca, 1996).
The impact of natural sciences fi eld learning is further enhanced when students are exposed to new environments that expand their perspective on the natural world, and broaden their understanding of global connections. Educational research has demonstrated that learning is most effective when students are challenged by uncertainty, whereby moderate levels of anxiety increase the motivation to learn (Citron and Kline, 2001). In particular, international study programs that are guided by expe-riential learning pedagogy (cf. Dewey, 1938; Kolb, 1984) have been shown to signifi cantly increase student cognition by placing participants beyond the comfort and predictability of their home learning environment (Lutterman-Aguilar and Gingerich, 2002; Montrose, 2002). With careful planning and design, study abroad fi eld experiences can provide exceptional opportunities for enhanced student learning by introducing new disciplinary per-spectives and challenging students to think outside the box (e.g., McLaughlin and Johnson, 2006; Ham and Flood, this volume). International fi eld projects that are rooted in research methodol-ogy and driven by student inquiry can be especially rewarding for participating students and faculty (Bolen and Martin, 2005; Mankiewicz, 2005).
In this paper, we evaluate three different project models for international experiential fi eld research with geosciences under-graduate students in Costa Rica, Central America (Figs. 1 and 2). Each one of these project models was employed in the same fi eld area and had a common research theme and pedagogy, thereby allowing easy comparison of teaching methods, learning out-comes, and logistical advantages. We begin by exploring Costa
Rica as a premiere destination for international geosciences fi eld projects. We then describe the tectonic and geologic signifi cance of the project study area on Costa Rica’s Nicoya Peninsula. We continue by presenting a detailed overview of each of the three project models. Finally, we compare the project goals, teaching methods, logistics, costs, and learning outcomes of each model.
Natural Sciences Field Study in Costa Rica
In recent decades, Costa Rica has gained a global reputa-tion as a premiere destination for natural sciences fi eld trips and study programs. This politically stable nation has developed a thriving ecotourism industry (e.g., Laarman and Perdue, 1989; Fennell and Eagles, 1990; Lumsdon and Swift, 1998; Weaver, 1999) and is recognized internationally as a center for scientifi c fi eld research (e.g., Clark, 1985; Stone, 1988; Silver and Dixon, 2001; León and Hartshorn, 2003; Bundschuch and Alvarado, 2007; Silver et al., 2007). Many U.S. universities now offer study abroad programs and fi eld courses in Costa Rica focused on the natural and environmental sciences (e.g., McLaughlin, 2005; Parrott, 2005; Vadino, 2005). The world-renowned Costa Rican National Park and Nature Reserve system (Boza, 1993) currently encompasses over 25% of the country’s territory, pro-tecting a spectacular array of neotropical landscapes, habitats, and ecosystems. The country is also known for world-class river rafting, spelunking, rain-forest trekking, canopy tours, and exotic wildlife. Costa Rica has a well-developed transpor-tation infrastructure and offers a full range of lodging facili-ties that cater to a wide variety of travel needs. Access is easy from many countries worldwide, and airline fares are generally affordable from major airports.
In particular, Costa Rica provides an especially attractive setting for international study trips and research experiences focused on geology and the environment (Marshall, 2005). In recent years, many geology departments and research consor-tia have organized successful Costa Rica fi eld trips, courses, and research projects for undergraduate students (e.g., Gard-ner, 1999; Mango, 2003; Marshall et al., 2004b, 2005a; Flood and Ham, 2005; Marshall, 2005; Over et al., 2005). Within a relatively compact land area (51,100 km2), Costa Rica features a diverse assemblage of geologic terrains, microclimates, and ecosystems that offer rich educational fi eld opportunities for visiting students. Located along the Middle America convergent margin (Fig. 1), Costa Rica spans a spectrum of morphotectonic provinces (Fig. 2), extending from the rugged coastlines of the
projects pique student curiosity, sharpen awareness and comprehension, and amplify the desire to learn. Experiential learning pedagogy encourages students to defi ne their own research agenda and solve problems through critical thinking, inquiry, and refl ec-tion. The potent combination of international fi eldwork and experiential learning helps students to develop the self-confi dence and reasoning skills needed to solve multifaceted real-world problems, and provides exceptional training for graduate school and profes-sional careers in the geosciences.
Three models for experiential learning projects investigating active tectonics of the Nicoya Peninsula, Costa Rica 3
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Figure 1. Digital elevation model (DEM) showing the tectonic setting of Costa Rica, Central Amer-ica. Costa Rica is part of the Central American volcanic arc formed by northeastward subduction of the Cocos plate (COC) beneath the Caribbean plate (CAR) at the Middle America Trench (MAT). The Cocos plate encompasses seafl oor formed along both the East Pacifi c Rise (EPR) and Cocos-Nazca spreading center (CNS). Hotspot volcanism at the Galapagos Islands (GHS) generates a rough domain of thickened Cocos-Nazca spreading center seafl oor that includes the Cocos Ridge (CR
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plate, and the Carnegie Ridge (CR2) on the Nazca plate (NAZ). Sharp contrasts between East Pacifi c Rise
and Cocos-Nazca spreading center seafl oor on the subducting Cocos plate result in variations in upper-plate morphotectonics, seismicity, and volcanism along the Costa Rican Pacifi c margin. Arrow with number indicates the motion direction and rate of the Cocos plate relative to the Caribbean plate (DeMets et al., 1990). Box outlines the area shown in Figure 2. Additional tectonic features: PAC—Pacifi c plate, NOAM—North American plate, SOAM—South American plate, PAN—Panama microplate, PFZ—Panama fracture zone. (DEM is courtesy of the German Marine Sciences Institute, IFM-GEOMAR.)
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Figure 2. Digital elevation model (DEM) of Costa Rica show-ing the tectonic setting of the Nicoya Peninsula (see Fig. 1 for location). This image reveals the relationship between the mor-phology of the subducting Cocos plate (COCOS) and the mor-photectonic structure of the overriding Caribbean plate (CARIB) and Panama microplate (PAN). Seafl oor domains of the Cocos plate (yellow letters): EPR—smooth crust derived at East Pacifi c Rise, CNS-1—smooth crust derived at Cocos-Nazca spreading center, CNS-2—rough hotspot-thickened crust generated at the Galapagos hotspot. Plate boundaries (red letters): MAT—Mid-dle America Trench, CCRDB—Central Costa Rica deformed belt. Offshore bathymetric features (orange letters): CR—Cocos Ridge, QP—Quepos Plateau, FSC—Fisher Seamount Chain. On-shore topographic features (blue letters): NP—Nicoya Peninsula, OP—Osa Peninsula, GVC—Guanacaste Volcanic Cordillera, CVC—Central Volcanic Cordillera, TrC—Tilarán Cordillera (ex-tinct), AgC—Aguacate Cordillera (extinct), TmC—Talamanca Cordillera (extinct), FC—Fila Costeña thrust belt. (DEM cour-tesy of C. Ranero, Institut de Ciències del Mar–Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científi cas [ICM-CSIC], Barcelona, Spain. Image derived from digital topographic data from the Shuttle Radar Topography Mission [NASA-SRTM] linked to R.V. Sonne multi-beam bathymetric data from the Institut für Meereswissen-schaften [IFM-GEOMAR], Universität Kiel, Germany.)
4 Marshall et al.
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Pacifi c forearc, across the mountainous cordilleras of the volca-nic front, to the broad lowlands of the Caribbean backarc (Mar-shall, 2007). Abundant outcrops exhibit a wide range of rock types and textbook structures. Earthquakes, landslides, and vol-canic eruptions are frequent, and their impact on Costa Rica’s landscape and human history are readily apparent. In addition to geology and natural hazards, students can also examine environmental problems related to population growth, defores-tation, water resources, and tourism. Costa Rica’s two major universities, Universidad de Costa Rica (UCR) and Universidad Nacional (UNA), have active geosciences research and teaching programs, with talented faculty and modern facilities. Diverse government agencies and nongovernmental organizations also conduct geologic and environmental studies (e.g., Ministerio de Ambiente, Energía y Telcomunicaciones [MINAET], Instituto Geográfi co Nacional [IGN], Instituto Costarricense de Electri-cidad [ICE], Refi nadora Costarricense de Petróleo [RECOPE], Fundación Neotrópica [FN], Instituto Nacional de Biodivers-idad [INBio], Centro Científi co Tropical [CCT], and Organi-zation for Tropical Studies [OTS]). Together, these diverse academic, government, and nonprofi t entities offer many opportunities for interaction and collaboration among visiting undergraduate students and Costa Rican scientists.
Undergraduate Geosciences Research on Costa Rica’s Nicoya Peninsula
Over the 10 yr period between 1998 and 2008, more than 40 undergraduate students from 14 colleges and universities par-ticipated in a sequence of related fi eld research projects inves-tigating active tectonics on the Nicoya Peninsula, Costa Rica (Fig. 3). These projects were organized around three different models (Tables 1–3) encompassing a range of fi eld education strategies. These were (1) a month-long summer research proj-ect conducted by 12 students and fi ve faculty mentors (Keck Geology Consortium, 1998), (2) a series of 1 to 2 wk indepen-dent fi eld study projects conducted by one to three students, and one or two faculty mentors (Cal Poly Pomona University and Trinity University, 2003–2008), and (3) a week-long fi eld research module with 14 students and two faculty mentors (Cal Poly Pomona University, 2008). During each of these projects, the participating students engaged in hands-on fi eld investiga-tions utilizing techniques from multiple geoscience disciplines, including geomorphology, stratigraphy, structural geology, geochemistry, and geophysics. Each student’s fi eldwork served as the basis for a research thesis or for fi eld study credits at his or her home institution. Individual student projects were care-fully designed to provide a quality fi eld learning experience while adding a new piece to a larger research puzzle on the active tectonics of the Costa Rican Pacifi c margin. Collectively, these projects generated signifi cant new data that support ongo-ing investigations of forearc deformation and subduction cycle earthquakes on the Nicoya Peninsula (e.g., Marshall, 2008; Marshall et al., 2008a, 2008b, 2008c).
Geologic Setting of the Nicoya Peninsula
Costa Rica is part of the Central American volcanic arc, which is formed by subduction of the Cocos plate beneath the Caribbean plate at the Middle America Trench (Fig. 1). Plate convergence offshore occurs at a rapid rate of 8–9 cm/yr (DeMets et al., 1990). The subducting Cocos plate consists of seafl oor produced along both the East Pacifi c Rise and the Cocos-Nazca spreading center (Hey, 1977; Barckhausen et al., 2001). Hotspot volcanism at the Galapagos Islands generates a rough domain of thickened seafl oor that includes the Cocos Ridge and adjacent seamounts. Two major segment boundaries on the subducting Cocos plate intersect the Middle America Trench offshore of the Nicoya Peninsula in Costa Rica (Fig. 2). The fi rst boundary is a triple-junction trace that divides crust derived at the East Pacifi c Rise (EPR crust) from that formed along the Cocos-Nazca spreading center (CNS-1 and CNS-2 crust). The second bound-ary is an abrupt morphologic break between smooth mid-ocean-ridge–derived seafl oor to the northwest (EPR and CNS-1 crust), and rough hotspot-thickened seafl oor to the southeast (CNS-2 crust). Contrasts in subducting plate morphology, thickness, and thermal structure across these boundaries produce along-strike variations in seismicity, volcanism, and upper-plate morphotec-tonics (e.g., Gardner et al., 1992, 2001; Protti et al., 1995; Fisher et al., 1998, 2004; Marshall et al., 2000, 2001, 2003a; Ranero and von Huene, 2000; von Huene et al., 2000; Fisher et al., 2003; Norabuena et al., 2004; Sak et al., 2004; DeShon et al., 2006; Sitchler et al., 2007; Morell et al., 2008).
The Nicoya Peninsula spans an emergent segment of the northern Costa Rican forearc (Fig. 2), exposing Cretaceous sea-fl oor basement (Nicoya Complex) overlain by an upward-shal-lowing sequence of Late Cretaceous–Quaternary marine sedi-ments (Dengo, 1962; Lundberg, 1982; Baumgartner et al., 1984). Because of its proximity to the subduction trench (60–70 km), the Nicoya Peninsula is an ideal setting for the study of megathrust earthquakes and forearc deformation (Marshall, 2008). The penin-sula’s landmass sits directly above the seismogenic zone, within a recognized high-potential seismic gap (Protti et al., 2001). The last major earthquake centered beneath the Nicoya Peninsula occurred in 1950, with a magnitude of M
w 7.7. This event produced wide-
spread damage and generated abrupt coseismic uplift, followed by gradual interseismic subsidence along the peninsula’s coastlines (Marshall and Anderson, 1995; Marshall, 2008). The net pattern of late Quaternary deformation is recorded by emergent marine terraces along the peninsula’s coast and by incised alluvial-fi ll ter-races within interior valleys (Hare and Gardner, 1985; Marshall and Anderson, 1995; Gardner et al., 2001; Marshall et al., 2001, 2008a, 2008b, 2008c). The primary research goal of the under-graduate fi eld projects described in this paper was to investigate the geomorphic and geologic evidence for tectonic deformation, and to constrain the rates and patterns of active uplift along the Nicoya Peninsula. These studies reveal variations in the coastal uplift pattern that coincide with documented differences in the off-shore structure and morphology of the subducting Cocos plate.
Three models for experiential learning projects investigating active tectonics of the Nicoya Peninsula, Costa Rica 5
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Figure 3. (A) Digital elevation model (DEM) of the Nicoya Peninsula (NASA-SRTM) showing the location of fi eld study sites. Letters and num-bers refer to the projects listed in Table 3. (B) Oblique-view DEM of northern Costa Rica (courtesy of C.J. Petersen, German Marine Sciences Institute, IFM-GEOMAR) showing the Nicoya Peninsula and segmented structure of the subducting Cocos plate offshore. CCRDB—Central Costa Rica Deformed Belt. (See Figs. 1 and 2 for location and explanation of symbols.)
6 Marshall et al.
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THREE MODELS FOR FIELD RESEARCH PROJECTS
1. Keck Summer Research Project (1998)
During the summer of 1998, the Keck Geology Consortium (Manduca, 1997; de Wet et al., this volume) sponsored a month-long undergraduate research project on the southern Nicoya Pen-insula (Gardner et al., 1999a). This project, referred to hereafter as the Keck Summer Research Project, involved 12 undergradu-ate students and fi ve project faculty, including authors Gardner, Marshall, and Protti (Table 1). In addition, four faculty advisors from participating institutions visited the fi eld area during the project. In all, the project participants represented a total of 11 different universities and colleges from the United States and Costa Rica. The Keck Geology Consortium provided full project funding, participant stipends, and logistical support (Table 2).
The primary research focus of the 1998 Keck Summer Research Project was the tectonic impact of subducting sea-mounts on coastal geomorphology and structure at Cabo Blanco on the Nicoya Peninsula’s southern tip (Fig. 3). A secondary focus involved the tectonic origin of the peninsula’s oceanic basement crust. Following the established model for Keck Geol-ogy Consortium advanced-level projects (Manduca, 1999), each student engaged in an independent investigation that contributed toward the overall research goals of the group project (projects A1–A5; Fig. 3; Table 3). Participating students made a year-long commitment to their projects, developing and completing their original research in consultation with the project faculty and a “faculty sponsor” from their home institution. In most cases, the students’ individual projects formed the basis for a senior thesis that they completed during the academic year following summer fi eldwork. A mid-year workshop at Trinity University provided a venue for discussion, data compilation, and planning for proj-ect completion (Gardner et al., 1999b). The students presented their fi nal research results at the 1999 Keck Geology Consortium Undergraduate Research Symposium, and submitted four-page extended abstracts for publication in the symposium proceedings (projects A1–A5; Table 3). In addition, several students presented their research at regional meetings of the Geological Society of
America, and the results from six of the student projects were published as part of a peer-reviewed research article in the jour-nal Geology (Gardner et al., 2001).
The Keck Summer Research Project consisted of fi ve basic phases: (1) preproject preparation, (2) summer fi eldwork, (3) independent research at home institutions, (4) abstract writing and presentations for the Keck Research Symposium, and (5) professional conference presentations and publication of a jour-nal article. From the outset, the project was designed with the ultimate goal of generating publishable research results (Gardner, 1999). Students were selected for the project through a competi-tive application process. During the spring prior to the fi eld sea-son, the project director distributed background reading on the geology of the study area, and provided logistical information to prepare students for fi eldwork in Costa Rica.
In Costa Rica, the project began with several days of fi eld trips to key localities designed to introduce the students to the fi eld area and the research questions. Following this introduction, the students were asked to write project proposals outlining their research plan. These proposals were reviewed by project faculty and revised by the students following one-on-one discussion. Together, the group developed a set of major hypotheses to be tested through fi eld research. The fi rst hypothesis was that coastal uplift and faulting within the fi eld area was controlled by seamount subduction beneath the Nicoya Peninsula’s southern tip. The sec-ond hypothesis was that the local stream networks were respond-ing to the same deformation mechanism. The third hypothesis was that oceanic basement rocks in the fi eld area shared a similar tec-tonic origin with those beneath mainland Costa Rica.
To address these questions, the students and faculty spent the next 3 wk engaged in fi eldwork (Figs. 4A–4F), utilizing tech-niques of geomorphology, stratigraphy, structural geology, geo-chemistry, paleomagnetism, and geodesy (Gardner et al., 1999a). Five students investigated uplifted Quaternary marine terraces by mapping and surveying terrace deposits and collecting samples for radiometric dating (Figs. 4D–4F; project A1; Table 3). These fi ve students each worked in different, but contiguous fi eld areas along the coastline. A sixth student examined stream channel morphology within all fi ve of these areas, characterizing patterns
TABLE 1. COSTA RICA FIELD PROJECTS: PARTICIPANTS AND DURATION
noitaruD stnapicitraPStudents Project Student to Visiting Teaching Participating faculty faculty ratio faculty assistants institutions Fieldwork Follow-up work A. Keck Summer Research Project (1998) 12 5 2:1 4 0 11* 1 mo 1 yr
B. Independent Field Study Projects (2003–2008) 1–3 1–2 1:1–3:1 0–2 0 1–4† 1–2 wk 4 mo–1 yr
C. Field Research Module (2008) 14 2 7:1 4 2 2§ 1 wk 1 mo *Amherst College, Carleton College, Colorado College, Franklin and Marshall College, Pomona College, Trinity University, Washington and Lee University, Whitman College, Mississippi State University, Pennsylvania State University, and Universidad Nacional de Costa Rica. †Cal Poly Pomona University, Trinity University, Universidad de Costa Rica, and Universidad Nacional de Costa Rica. §Cal Poly Pomona University and California State University Northridge.
Three models for experiential learning projects investigating active tectonics of the Nicoya Peninsula, Costa Rica 7
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of bedrock incision and knickpoint retreat (Fig. 4C; project A2; Table 3). Two students studied structural deformation by collect-ing kinematic data from faults and folds within Tertiary marine sedimentary rocks (Fig. 4A; project A3; Table 3). Two students examined uplift patterns through geodetic leveling and disloca-tion modeling (project A4; Table 3). Finally, two students exam-ined the origin of oceanic basement rocks through paleomagnetic and petrologic/geochemical studies (project A5; Table 3).
The logistics of daily fi eldwork (Figs. 4A–4F) required care-ful planning and considerable forward thinking by the project director and faculty. The primary fi eld area encompassed two 40 km stretches of coastline that are nearly orthogonal to one another (Figs. 2 and 3). The area is rural with unpaved roads and rugged terrain. Six four-wheel-drive vehicles were available for regular use. Each student was required to work with a fi eld part-ner, and each faculty member was in charge of a group of several students. Field partners were rotated on a daily basis to ensure that each student had the chance to visit the other students’ study areas while also having ample time to work in their own area. Likewise, the faculty also took turns working in different areas in order to spend fi eld time with each student. Every evening follow-ing dinner, the group met to discuss that day’s results and to plan fi eld logistics for the next day. On some evenings, the faculty gave presentations on regional geology, or on fi eld research techniques.
During the length of the Keck Summer Research Project, the students and faculty stayed at a rural ecotour lodge located within the fi eld area near Cabo Blanco (Fig. 3). The project director reserved the entire facility, allowing for complete free-dom of movement and use of public areas. The owner and staff attended to participant needs and prepared all meals, including sack lunches for the fi eld. This arrangement provided a safe, secure, and comfortable home base for students and faculty. This was critical for engendering group camaraderie and maintaining morale during this month-long project. The covered outdoor din-ing area served as an excellent space for offi ce work, group meet-ings, and presentations (Fig. 4B).
An important aspect of this experiential learning project was to allow students to formulate their own hypotheses, research agenda, and data collection strategy. It was therefore critical for the faculty to anticipate the principal methods and equipment necessary to tackle the research problems. The equipment had to be brought from the United States, purchased in Costa Rica, or borrowed from the host-country institution (Observatorio Vol-canológico y Sismológico de Costa Rica [OVSICORI-UNA]). Once at the rural fi eld site, it was extremely challenging to acquire additional equipment. This required careful advance planning and the collaborative support of the host-country institution in moving equipment through customs, transporting it to the fi eld site, and purchasing or lending additional required items.
2. Independent Field Study Projects (2003–2008)
Over the 5 yr between 2003 and 2008, 12 undergraduate stu-dents from Cal Poly Pomona University, Trinity University, and
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35
$0
$0
*E
xpen
ses
rep
orte
d he
re a
re a
ppr
oxim
ate
and
are
not c
orre
cted
fo
r in
flatio
n, c
hang
es in
trav
el c
osts
, or
diffe
renc
es in
exc
han
ge r
ate
over
the
10 y
r p
roje
ct p
erio
d fr
om 1
998
to 2
008.
† Tot
al p
roje
ct c
ost i
nclu
des
airf
are,
gro
und
tra
nspo
rtat
ion,
lodg
ing,
mea
ls, a
nd fi
eld
supp
lies
for
all p
artic
ipan
ts (
stud
ents
, fa
culty
, tea
chin
g as
sist
ants
). T
hese
cos
ts d
o no
t inc
lude
pa
rtic
ipan
t stip
ends
, con
trac
t ser
vice
s (e
.g.,
radi
omet
ric d
atin
g), p
urch
ase
of m
ajor
fiel
d eq
uipm
ent,
or
dona
ted
equi
pm
ent,
vehi
cles
, and
ser
vice
s fr
om h
ost-
coun
try
inst
itutio
ns.
§ T
otal
cos
t per
per
son
equa
ls th
e to
tal p
roje
ct c
ost f
or a
ll pa
rtic
ipan
ts (
stud
ents
, fac
ulty
, tea
chin
g as
sist
ants
) di
vide
d b
y th
e to
tal n
umb
er o
f pa
rtic
ipan
ts.
# T
otal
cos
t per
stu
dent
equ
als
the
tota
l pro
ject
cos
t for
all
part
icip
ants
(st
uden
ts, f
acul
ty, t
each
ing
assi
stan
ts)
divi
ded
by
the
tota
l num
ber
of s
tude
nts.
**T
otal
dai
ly c
ost p
er s
tude
nt e
qua
ls th
e to
tal p
roje
ct c
ost p
er s
tude
nt d
ivid
ed b
y th
e pr
ojec
t dur
atio
n in
da
ys.
8 Marshall et al.
spe 461-08 page 8 of 22
TA
BLE
3. C
OS
TA
RIC
A F
IELD
PR
OJE
CT
S: R
ES
EA
RC
H T
OP
ICS
, RE
PO
RT
S, A
ND
PU
BLI
CA
TIO
NS
Cos
ta R
ica
field
pro
ject
s an
d st
uden
t res
earc
h to
pics
* S
tude
nt r
epor
ts†
S
tude
nt c
o-au
thor
ed p
ublic
atio
ns†
Ref
eren
ces§
S
enio
r F
ield
Sym
posi
um
Con
fere
nce
Jour
nal
thes
is
repo
rt
sh
ort p
aper
ab
stra
ct
artic
le
A
. Kec
k S
umm
er R
esea
rch
Pro
ject
(19
98)
1. Q
uate
rnar
y m
arin
e te
rrac
e up
lift i
n re
spon
se to
sub
duct
ing
seam
ount
s 5
N.A
.
5 3
1 a,
b, c
, e, g
, m, n
, o, d
d
2. S
trea
m in
cisi
on a
nd k
nick
poin
t ret
reat
in r
espo
nse
to te
cton
ic u
plift
1
N.A
.
1 0
1 h,
dd
3. D
efor
mat
ion
kine
mat
ics
in fo
lded
and
faul
ted
mar
ine
sedi
men
tary
ro
cks
2 N
.A.
2
0 0
d, I
4. G
eode
tic le
velin
g an
d di
sloc
atio
n m
odel
ing
of te
cton
ic u
plift
and
tilti
ng
1 N
.A.
2
0 0
f, k
5. O
rigin
of N
icoy
a ba
sem
ent t
erra
ne: P
aleo
mag
netis
m a
nd g
eoch
emis
try
1 N
.A.
2
1 0
j, l,
p
T
otal
pro
ject
rep
orts
and
pub
licat
ions
# evoba ee
S 1
4 21
0
01
B. I
ndep
ende
nt F
ield
Stu
dy P
roje
cts
(200
3–20
08)
1. T
ecto
nic
uplif
t and
mar
ine
terr
aces
of t
he C
oban
o su
rfac
e (2
003)
0
1
N.A
. 0
[1]
ff 2
. Tec
toni
c up
lift a
nd m
arin
e te
rrac
es o
f the
Igua
nazu
l sur
face
(20
03)
[1]
0
N.A
. 8
[1]
q, r
, s, t
, u, a
a, b
b, c
c, g
g 3
. Upl
ift r
ate
varia
tions
bet
wee
n Ig
uana
zul a
nd C
oban
o su
rfac
es (
2005
) 1
0
N.A
. 7
[1]
v, w
, y, z
, aa,
bb,
cc,
gg
4. G
eom
orph
olog
y an
d pe
trol
ogy
of H
oloc
ene
beac
h de
posi
ts (
2005
) [1
] 0
N
.A.
1 [1
] x,
gg
5. U
plift
and
faul
ting
of C
oban
o su
rfac
e m
arin
e te
rrac
es (
2005
) 0
2
N.A
. 0
[1]
ff 6
. Geo
mor
phol
ogy
and
tect
onic
s of
La
Man
sión
allu
vial
terr
aces
(20
07)
0 0
N
.A.
5 [1
] y,
z, a
a, b
b, c
c, g
g 7
. Upl
ifted
mar
ine
terr
aces
of t
he C
arill
o-C
amar
onal
sur
face
(20
07)
0 0
N
.A.
5 [1
] y,
z, a
a, b
b, c
c, g
g 8
. Str
atig
raph
y of
upl
ifted
mar
ine
sand
ston
es a
nd te
rrac
e de
posi
ts (
2007
) 0
2
N.A
. 0
[1]
ff 9
. Geo
mor
phol
ogy
and
tect
onic
s of
Rio
Ora
allu
vial
terr
aces
(20
08)
[1]
0
N.A
. 4
[1]
aa, b
b, c
c, d
d, g
g
T
otal
pro
ject
rep
orts
and
pub
licat
ions
# evoba ee
S ]2[
41 0
5
4
C. F
ield
Res
earc
h M
odul
e (2
008)
1. V
olca
nic
stra
tigra
phy
and
cros
s se
ctio
n of
the
Poá
s V
olca
no s
umm
it cr
ater
N
.A.
14
N
.A.
0 0
N.A
. 2
. Geo
logy
and
geo
mor
phol
ogy
of C
oban
o m
arin
e te
rrac
es a
nd
.A.
N 0
0 .
A.N
41
.A.
N skcor tne
mesab 3. S
truc
tura
l ana
lysi
s of
fold
ed a
nd fa
ulte
d C
abo
Bla
nco
mar
ine
.A.
N 0
0 .
A.N
41
.A.
N skcor yratne
mides
Tot
al p
roje
ct r
epor
ts a
nd p
ublic
atio
ns#
evoba eeS
0 0
0
41 0
*See
Fig
ure
3 fo
r st
udy
site
loca
tions
.
† Num
bers
in b
rack
ets
(e.g
., [1
]) in
dica
te r
epor
t or
publ
icat
ion
inco
mpl
ete
or in
pre
para
tion;
N.A
.—no
t app
licab
le.
§ Le
tters
ref
er t
o th
e fo
llow
ing
publ
icat
ions
(se
e re
fere
nce
sect
ion
for
com
plet
e ci
tatio
ns):
Sym
posi
um s
hort
pap
ers:
(a)
Bee
(19
99);
(b)
Bur
gette
(19
99);
(c)
Bur
ton
(199
9);
(d)
Cla
ypoo
l (1
999)
; (e
) C
ooke
(19
99);
(f)
Her
nánd
ez (
1999
); (
g) K
ehrw
ald
(199
9);
(h)
Kra
al (
1999
); (
i) K
rull
(199
9);
(j) R
eeve
s (1
999)
; (k
) S
hear
er (
1999
); (
l) S
tam
ski (
1999
). C
onfe
renc
e ab
stra
cts:
(m
) B
urge
tte e
t al
. (1
999)
; (n
) C
ooke
et
al.
(199
9);
(o)
Gar
dner
et
al.
(199
9c);
(p)
Sta
msk
i et
al.
(199
9);
(q)
Kha
w e
t al
. (2
003)
; (r
) M
arsh
all e
t al
. (2
003b
); (
s) K
haw
and
Mar
shal
l (20
04);
(t
) M
arsh
all
et a
l. (2
004a
); (
u) M
arsh
all
et a
l. (2
004b
); (
v) M
ars
hall
et a
l. (2
005b
); (
w)
LaF
rom
bois
e et
al.
(200
6);
(x)
Utic
k et
al.
(200
6);
(y)
Mar
shal
l et
al.
(200
7a);
(z)
Mar
shal
l et
al.
(200
7b);
(aa
) M
arsh
all
et a
l. (2
008a
); (
bb)
Mar
shal
l et
al.
(200
8b);
(cc
) M
arsh
all
et a
l. (2
008c
); (
dd)
Mor
rish
and
Mar
shal
l (2
008)
. Jo
urna
l ar
ticle
s: (
ee)
Gar
dner
et
al.
(200
1);
(ff)
T.W
. G
ardn
er (
2009
, per
sona
l com
mun
.); (
gg)
J.S
. Mar
shal
l (20
09, p
erso
nal c
omm
un.)
. N.A
.—no
t app
licab
le.
# T
he to
tals
rep
orte
d he
re a
re th
e to
tal n
umbe
r of
stu
dent
co-
auth
ored
rep
orts
and
pub
licat
ions
from
eac
h fie
ld p
roje
ct. T
hese
tota
ls d
o no
t nec
essa
rily
equa
l the
sum
of t
he n
umbe
rs
liste
d in
the
colu
mns
abo
ve b
ecau
se s
ome
of th
e re
port
s an
d pu
blic
atio
ns m
ay in
corp
orat
e th
e re
sults
of m
ore
than
one
res
earc
h to
pic
or s
tude
nt p
roje
ct.
Three models for experiential learning projects investigating active tectonics of the Nicoya Peninsula, Costa Rica 9
spe 461-08 page 9 of 22
Figure 4. Students of the 1998 Keck Summer Research Project, Nicoya Peninsula, Costa Rica. (A) Alix Krull (Pomona College), Natalie Keh-rwald (Colorado College), and project faculty member Dr. Ed Beutner (Franklin and Marshall College) recording structural data from a tidal platform outcrop of the Miocene Malpaís Formation at Santa Teresa. (B) Natalie Kehrwald (Colorado College) and project director Dr. Tom Gardner (Trinity University) discussing fi eld data on the outdoor patio of Nature Lodge Finca los Caballos near Cobano. (C) Erin Kraal (Wash-ington and Lee University) and faculty sponsor Dr. Dave Harbor surveying a channel longitudinal profi le for a knickpoint study along the Río Lajas. (D) Bhavani Bee (Franklin and Marshall College) collecting shell samples for radiocarbon dating on an outcrop of uplifted Holocene beach gravels at Cabo Blanco. (E) Emily Burton (Carleton College) describing a soil profi le on uplifted Holocene beach deposits at Santa Teresa. (F) Reed Burgette (Whitman College) surveying a topographic profi le across uplifted Holocene beach ridges at Malpaís.
10 Marshall et al.
spe 461-08 page 10 of 22
the Universidad de Costa Rica participated in a series of inde-pendent geosciences research projects on the Nicoya Peninsula (Fig. 3) directed by authors Marshall and Gardner (Table 1). These projects, hereafter referred to as the independent fi eld study projects, served as the basis for either a required geology senior thesis, or for independent study credits at the students’ home institution. These projects were funded by a combina-tion of small campus research grants, faculty travel funds, and existing National Science Foundation (NSF) grants for related regional investigations (Table 2). In some cases, students contrib-uted their own funds to cover some costs, such as airfare or food.
Fieldwork for the independent fi eld study projects gener-ally lasted between 1 and 2 wk (Table 1) and involved one to three students per trip (Figs. 5A–5G). These fi eld projects were carefully designed to generate new data that would contribute to the broader collaborative research efforts of the two faculty advisors. The overall focus of these research projects (projects B1–B9; Fig. 3; Table 3) was to investigate variations in tectonic deformation patterns along the Nicoya Peninsula segment of the Middle America Trench (e.g., Marshall et al., 2008a, 2008b, 2008c). The students utilized fi eld techniques of geomorphology, stratigraphy, structural geology, and geochronology to investigate the uplift and depositional history of Quaternary marine terraces (Figs. 5A–5B), coastal sediments (Fig. 5D), and fl uvial deposits (Figs. 5E–5G). The participating students also had opportunities for professional interaction with Costa Rican scientists working on related problems (Fig. 5C). Project results have been pre-sented in senior theses, independent studies reports, and student-coauthored abstracts, posters, and talks, presented at regional, national, and international professional meetings (projects B1–B9; Table 3).
The fi eld areas for the independent fi eld study projects included four principal locations on the Nicoya Peninsula, three along the coast and one in the peninsula’s interior (projects B1–B9; Fig. 3; Table 3). Four of the projects focused on the Cabo Blanco area, site of the 1998 Keck Summer Research Project and the 2008 fi eld research module. This location lies inboard of a chain of subducting seamounts (Fig. 2) that generates rapid coastal uplift and the formation of a prominent fl ight of marine terraces. The students working on independent fi eld study proj-ects in this area focused their research on the geomorphology and stratigraphy of uplifted Pleistocene terraces (projects B1, B3, B5, and B8; Fig. 3; Table 3). This work expanded on the results of earlier investigations in this area, which had focused primarily on emergent Holocene terraces (Marshall and Anderson, 1995; Gardner et al., 2001). Together, these studies assembled a com-prehensive picture of the late Quaternary uplift history at the Nicoya Peninsula’s southern tip. New age constraints (14C and optically stimulated luminescence [OSL]) on the Cabo Blanco coastal terraces established a framework for terrace correlation to other sites along the Nicoya coast (e.g., Marshall et al., 2008a, 2008b, 2008c).
During other fi eld seasons, students examined marine terraces and beach sediments along the northern and central
segments of the Nicoya Peninsula coastline (projects B2–B4 and B7; Fig. 3; Table 3). These sites lie inboard of relatively smooth subducting seafl oor (Fig. 2), and thus uplift rates are an order of magnitude lower than at Cabo Blanco. The marine terraces at these sites had not yet been studied in detail. These projects, therefore, played an important role in expanding the database on Nicoya Peninsula coastal uplift patterns. In addition to marine terraces, several students also examined alluvial gravel terraces along river valleys near the coast and within the peninsula’s interior (projects B6 and B9; Fig. 3; Table 3). These projects built upon prior river terrace studies on the Nicoya Peninsula (Hare and Gardner, 1985) and else-where along the Costa Rican Pacifi c margin (Marshall et al., 2001). Correlation of the fl uvial and marine terrace sequences is expanding our coverage of tectonic uplift patterns on the Nicoya Peninsula.
Students were selected for these independent research projects based on their level of interest, academic preparation, and prior fi eld experience. The faculty advisors generally pre-pared the participants for fi eldwork several months in advance, through individual conversation and group meetings. The stu-dents received logistical information, background reading, and necessary fi eld maps. Prior student research reports and posters were used as a means to instruct and inspire project participants. A set of research questions and a general plan for fi eldwork were developed through faculty-student discussion.
In Costa Rica, the projects usually began with reconnais-sance fi eld trips, designed to familiarize the students and fac-ulty with the study area. The students were encouraged to ask questions and to suggest ideas for the upcoming fi eldwork. The faculty introduced the students to the fi eld equipment, including global positioning system (GPS) units, altimeters, and survey-ing gear. After returning to the hotel from fi eld reconnaissance, the group would usually examine aerial photographs under a ste-reoscope, and look over topographic and geologic maps of the study area. At this point, the students and advisor would develop a schedule for fi eldwork during the ensuing days.
The daily fi eld routine for each of these projects depended on the research goals, study area, length of stay, number of stu-dents, and weather conditions. Nearly all projects involved fi eld mapping of coastal terraces and deposits (Figs. 5A–5B), and the surveying of topographic profi les using differential GPS, baro-metric altimetry, and hand levels with stadia rods (Fig. 5G). Other typical fi eld activities included measuring stratigraphic columns, describing sediments and soils, and collecting sam-ples for isotopic dating and thin sections (Figs. 5D–5E). Each evening, the students and faculty worked together on fi eld data (Fig. 5F), discussed new fi ndings and project progress, and planned fi eldwork for the following day. Field accommodations for these projects consisted of reputable tourist hotels through-out the Nicoya Peninsula (Table 2), including the lodge used in both the Keck Summer Research Project and the fi eld research module. Rental four-wheel-drive vehicles were used for travel during each fi eld season.
Three models for experiential learning projects investigating active tectonics of the Nicoya Peninsula, Costa Rica 11
spe 461-08 page 11 of 22
Figure 5. Students of the 2003–2008 independent fi eld study projects, Nicoya Peninsula, Costa Rica. (A) Fookgiin Khaw and Julie Parra (Cal Poly Pomona) near an uplifted Holocene beachrock horizon on Playa Pochotes. (B) Fookgiin Khaw, Julie Parra, and Lauren Annis inspecting an outcrop of Nicoya Complex oceanic basement at Playa Junquillal. (C) Eli LaFromboise and John Utick (Cal Poly Pomona) with project director Dr. Jeff Marshall and Costa Rican seismologist Dr. Marino Protti at the Observatorio Volcanológico y Sismológico de Costa Rica, Universidad Nacional (OVSICORI-UNA), Heredia. (D) Eli LaFromboise and John Utick (Cal Poly Pomona) collecting beach sand samples on Playa Negra. (E) Shawn Morrish (Cal Poly Pomona) describing soil profi le on uplifted river terrace deposits along the Río Ora. (F) Shawn Morrish (Cal Poly Pomona) gen-erating river terrace topographic profi les on a laptop at Hotel Villas Kalimba, Playa Sámara. (G) Shawn Morrish (Cal Poly Pomona) recording global positioning system (GPS) coordinates of a marine breccia outcrop at Puerto Carrillo.
12 Marshall et al.
spe 461-08 page 12 of 22
3. Field Research Module (2008)
During spring break of 2008, the Geological Sciences Department at Cal Poly Pomona University ran a week-long fi eld studies course in Costa Rica, focusing on the Nicoya Pen-insula (Figs. 2 and 3). This course, referred to hereafter as the fi eld research module, was led by authors Marshall and Nourse, and it involved 14 undergraduate students from two different California State University campuses, Cal Poly Pomona and Cal State Northridge (Table 1). The students completed a series of fi eld exercises (Figs. 6A–6G) and earned a total of four units of course credit for two sections of “Geology Field Module.” Because Cal Poly Pomona does not offer its own geology sum-mer fi eld camp, majors have the option of taking four two-unit fi eld modules as a substitute. The 2008 Costa Rica fi eld research module counted as two fi eld module sections because of the intensity of fi eldwork involved, and the participation of two faculty members with different fi eld specialties. The course also included two teaching assistants: an advanced Cal Poly Pomona undergraduate student, and a Cal State Northridge master’s degree student who was doing his thesis research on the Nicoya Peninsula. A graduate student from the Cal Poly Pomona Biological Sciences Department also participated in the course, conducting independent research in the same fi eld area. Funding for the fi eld research module was provided by a grant from the Cal Poly Pomona College of Science, supple-mented by student contributions (Table 2).
The focus of the 2008 fi eld research module was the active tectonics and geomorphology of the Middle America conver-gent margin in Costa Rica. The group visited two active vol-canoes within the Central Volcanic Cordillera (Fig. 2) and spent three fi eld days in the Cabo Blanco area at the southern tip of the Nicoya Peninsula (Fig. 3). The students engaged in three fi eld projects (projects C1–C3; Fig. 3; Table 3) during the course: (1) a geologic cross section exercise at Poás Vol-cano (Fig. 6E), (2) a geologic and geomorphic mapping exer-cise along a Nicoya Peninsula road transect (Figs. 6A, 6B, and 6D), and (3) a structural geology exercise on a tidal platform in the same area (Fig. 6C). Each morning began with a “fi eld briefi ng” during which the faculty and students discussed the day’s assignments and strategy for fi eldwork (Fig. 6F). In the fi eld, the students worked with partners, making fi eld measure-ments and recording data and observations in fi eld notebooks and on topographic maps (Figs. 6A–6E). The faculty and teach-ing assistants circulated among the students to provide guid-ance and to answer questions (Fig. 6B). At the close of each fi eld day, the students worked on their maps and notebooks and completed preliminary assignments that were due at the end of each exercise. In the evenings, the students read assigned research papers (Fig. 6G) and gave summary presentations to the group. On one occasion, the students had the opportunity to discuss Nicoya Peninsula tectonics with a visiting group of U.S. and Costa Rican seismologists and geodesists. One month after return to the United States, the students were required to submit
a fi nal research report on all three of the fi eld projects (projects C1–C3; Table 3). This report was to include 5–10 pages of text, maps, cross sections, stratigraphic columns, and fi eld photos. The students were also asked to submit their fi eld notebooks for grading. The project faculty members were available during this time for questions and consultation.
Students were selected for the fi eld research module through a competitive application process. A series of required planning meetings was held over a period of 4 mo leading up to the trip. The group traveled to Costa Rica together on a single fl ight. On the fi rst day, the group visited Poás Volcano National Park and walked on trails to the active summit crater and extinct crater lake. The faculty gave short fi eld lectures on the geology, tectonics, and eruption history of the Central American volcanic arc and Poás volcano itself. The students were given a set of topographic and geologic maps of the crater area. They were instructed to sketch the crater in their notebooks (Fig. 6E), and record descriptions of volcanic units exposed along the crater rim. The assignment for this project was to construct a topographic profi le and geologic cross section across the volcano’s summit.
The following day, the group traveled by highway and ferry to the southern Nicoya Peninsula (Fig. 3). Multiple fi eld trip stops were made en route to illustrate the geology and tectonics of the central Costa Rican volcanic arc and forearc region. Prior to departure for Costa Rica, each student was assigned a set of three research articles that they were asked to read (Fig. 6G) and present to the group. For three consecutive evenings, begin-ning with the fi rst night on the Nicoya Peninsula, each student presented a 5 min summary of one of his/her articles. A group discussion followed. The reading/presentation list was orga-nized to cover a deliberate set of research topics related to the course theme and students’ fi eldwork. Prior to their presenta-tions, the students were encouraged to consult with the project faculty. The students were graded based on their general under-standing of the paper and clarity of presentation.
The mapping exercise began the next day with a fi eld trip to introduce students to the geology and geomorphology of the study area (project C1; Fig. 3; Table 3). Stops were made along their mapping transect to describe geologic units ranging from oceanic basalt basement, to marine turbidite deposits, to emer-gent Quaternary marine terraces. In addition, students were shown examples of critical structures such as faults, folds, and unit contacts. Prior to the fi eld trip, the students were given a set of topographic maps ranging in scale from 1:12,000 to 1:50,000. During the course of the day, they used these maps and hand-held GPS units to locate the fi eld-trip stops. The students were also given a blank topographic profi le of the mapping transect, a copy of the Quaternary sea-level curve, and geochronologic data from marine terrace deposits and bedrock units.
The next morning, students began mapping at the inland end of a 2 km road transect that descended 160 m in elevation to the beach. They worked in teams of two or three students (Fig. 6A) with one GPS unit, a hand level, and at least one Brunton com-pass per team (Fig. 6D). The faculty and teaching assistants
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Figure 6. Students of the 2008 fi eld research module, Nicoya Peninsula, Costa Rica. (A) Brian Oliver and Travis Avant (Cal Poly Pomona) recording fi eld data during a mapping exercise near Delicias. (B) Cristo Ramírez (Cal State North-ridge) and project faculty member Dr. Jon Nourse (Cal Poly Pomona) checking map location near Delicias. (C) Andrew Keita and Azad Khalighi (Cal Poly Pomona) discussing fi eld strategy during structural geology exercise on Cabuya tidal platform. (D) Azad Khalighi (Cal Poly Pomona) measuring strike and dip of Delicias thrust fault. (E) Jessica Bruns and Shawn Morrish (Cal Poly Pomona) taking fi eld notes at the crater of Poás Volcano. (F) Students and faculty during morn-ing fi eld briefi ng on the patio of Nature Lodge Finca los Caballos near Cobano. (G) Julie Brown and Daniel Heaton (Cal Poly Pomona) reading research articles on the Paquera ferry, Golfo de Nicoya.
14 Marshall et al.
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spread out along the mapping transect to provide assistance (Fig. 6B). The students were instructed to record all fi eld loca-tions and data (e.g., UTM, strike, and dip) on their base maps and in their notebooks. They were also encouraged to sketch outcrops, make detailed lithologic descriptions, and collect rep-resentative samples of all mapping units. The students used the blank topographic profi le to sketch a conceptual cross section, and they used the Quaternary sea-level curve to develop a work-ing model for coastal uplift and marine terrace formation. Upon return to the lodge, the rock samples were placed in a common area, and students were provided with additional maps, aerial photos, and stereoscopes. The students then worked on refi ning their fi eld maps and notebook descriptions.
The last fi eld day on the Nicoya Peninsula was devoted to the structural geology project (project C2; Fig. 3; Table 3). This project involved collecting structural measurements from complex folds and faults within a highly deformed marine tur-bidite unit exposed at the coast in a level wave-cut tidal plat-form (Fig. 6C). The students fi rst created a base map on graph paper by measuring the study site dimensions using GPS. Dur-ing falling tide, the students worked in teams of two or three using Brunton compasses to measure and record the orientation of bedding, fold hinges, axial planes, and faults. The students were encouraged to spread out across the tidal platform in order to increase the total group coverage of the study site. The maps and data from each team were later compiled by the faculty and provided to each student after returning home to Cal Poly Pomona. The fi nal assignment was to create a structural map of the study site and write a report interpreting the data and sum-marizing the deformation history of this unit.
The next day, the group made the return trip to the capital city San José in Costa Rica’s Central Valley. That evening, the students drafted preliminary maps and illustrations from each of their three fi eld projects, due the following morning. On the last day in Costa Rica, the group made a fi eld trip to Irazú Vol-cano National Park and the colonial capital city of Cartago. The students visited the active crater of Irazú and sites in Cartago affected by the devastating 1910 earthquake and deadly lahars of 1964. No assignments were required from this trip.
Accommodations for the 2008 fi eld research module included two well-established tourist lodges, one in the capital city San José and the other near Cabo Blanco on the Nicoya Peninsula (Fig. 3). The authors had used both of these establish-ments for well over a decade. The Nicoya Peninsula hotel was the same one used in the 1998 Keck Project and several of the independent study projects. This rural ecotour lodge, located a short distance from the fi eld area, provided a secure and comfortable home base for students and faculty (Fig. 6F). The group ate all meals at the lodge, reducing the chance of food- or waterborne illness. Returning to the lodge at midday for lunch also helped to mitigate the effects of heat and dehydration. Four four-wheel-drive rental vehicles were used for travel during the project. This allowed for greater mobility on the rural dirt roads in the fi eld area.
COMPARISON OF FIELD PROJECT MODELS
Project Goals and Teaching Methods
Our three project models share a common research theme, fi eld area, and overarching pedagogy, allowing for easy com-parison of project goals, teaching methods, logistics, costs, and learning benefi ts. In each case, the students investigated forearc tectonics and coastal geomorphology on Costa Rica’s Nicoya Peninsula (Figs. 2 and 3). These projects were based around experiential learning pedagogy (cf. Dewey, 1938; Kolb, 1984) in which students adopted a holistic view of their study topic and played an active role in guiding the learning process. A key element of this approach is to encourage students to develop their own research agenda, and to engage them in the deliberate practice of hands-on problem solving through critical thinking, inquiry, and refl ection (e.g., Montrose, 2002). Each of our proj-ects used experiential learning as a potent strategy for develop-ing the self-confi dence and reasoning skills necessary for solving multifaceted real-world problems in the geosciences. The goals and methods for accomplishing this differed between each of the projects depending on group size, faculty-student ratio, project duration, and expected outcomes and products (Tables 1–3).
Project GoalsThe principal goal of the longer-duration Keck Summer
Research Project was to engage students in a comprehensive fi eld research experience, including a year-long commitment to post–fi eldwork analysis, interpretation, and presentation of results through thesis writing, conference presentations, and jour-nal publications. Like the Keck project, the goal of the indepen-dent fi eld study projects was to engage students in comprehen-sive research; however, expectations for follow-up activities and products varied among students, ranging from short-term writing of a fi eld report, to a full year of data analysis and preparation of a senior thesis, thesis defense, and conference presentations. In contrast, the primary goal of the shorter fi eld research mod-ule was to develop technical and cognitive fi eld skills within a narrower research context, leading to a concise, written report on fi eld results. Both the Keck Summer Research Project and the independent fi eld study projects can be defi ned as “research apprenticeships” (Seymour et al., 2004), in which the faculty mentors guide small groups of junior- to senior-level students through longer-duration comprehensive research experiences. The fi eld research module, on the other hand, can be defi ned as a “research-based learning course” (Seymour et al., 2004), in which research-like experiences form the pedagogical founda-tion for coursework.
Teaching ApproachThe two longer-duration “research apprenticeships” (Keck
Summer Research Project and independent fi eld study projects) devoted more time to building the research context and allow-ing students to formulate their own hypotheses and strategies
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for fi eldwork. In contrast, the shorter “research-based learning course” (fi eld research module) bypassed the formulation of hypotheses and jumped straight to focused inquiry on the nature of fi eld data and data collection techniques needed to answer specifi c research questions. For example, the Keck Summer Research Project and independent fi eld study projects both began with students exploring their entire fi eld area, and thinking about the impact of tectonics, climate, and sea-level change on the landscape. Through group discussion, the students then devel-oped a set of hypotheses that could be investigated during their fi eldwork. The students then worked on identifying the type of fi eld evidence that could be used to address their hypotheses and determining appropriate techniques of data collection and analy-sis. They formulated a research plan and fi eld strategy, and then they engaged in fi eldwork and data evaluation. The fi eld research module, on the other hand, was based on a strategy of visiting previously known outcrops that exposed useful geologic infor-mation (e.g., a road cut through a dated marine terrace) and ask-ing students about the type of data that could be collected at the site to answer a specifi c research question (e.g., the terrace uplift rate). Through faculty-guided inquiry, the students then learned how to collect a particular data set (e.g., terrace topographic pro-fi le and inner-edge elevation). The fi eldwork, therefore, was more “cookbook” in nature and involved less “big picture” inquiry. In all three projects, however, the students were challenged to inter-pret the signifi cance of the data they collected. For the fi eld mod-ule students, this was limited to relatively simple, localized inter-pretations, whereas the Keck and independent study students had more latitude and time to integrate their interpretations within the broader research context.
Student MentoringThe ratio of students to faculty (Table 1) was an important
factor infl uencing the teaching methods and intensity of student mentoring in the fi eld. The Keck Summer Research Project had a ratio of 12 students to 5 faculty members (<3:1), and for most of its duration, additional faculty sponsors visited the fi eld area. For most of the project, therefore, the student to faculty ratio was maintained at near 2:1. This allowed for signifi cant faculty-student mentoring in the fi eld and also facilitated the overall project structure of students working simultaneously at sepa-rate fi eld sites, with rotating fi eld partners and faculty mentors. Students and faculty were able to devote entire days to tackling specifi c problems at individual fi eld sites, and the students were able to benefi t from the varied input of different faculty on dif-ferent days. This approach, however, involved signifi cant logisti-cal complexity and required careful planning and forethought. The independent fi eld study projects also had low student to faculty ratios (3:1–1:1), allowing for individualized fi eld mentor-ing guided by the particular needs of students and their research goals. This project model offered the most consistent, and likely the most effective mentoring, because of the smaller group size and simpler logistics. It is important to consider, however, that there may be a trade-off between the perceived learning benefi ts
of small group mentoring, and the learning gains engendered by large group competition, camaraderie, and peer mentoring. In contrast to the other two projects, the fi eld research module had a relatively high ratio of 14 students to 2 faculty members (7:1). This necessitated a different approach in which the students worked each day in small teams on the same problem in a com-mon fi eld area. As the student teams moved through the area, the faculty and two teaching assistants would circulate among them to facilitate inquiry and answer questions. The benefi t of this approach was that students could learn through discussion with their fi eld partners and other teams, and the faculty could bring all of the teams together on occasion to address common questions. The fi eld logistics were much simpler than the other large-group project (Keck Summer Research Project), and the overall group safety was enhanced by having all participants in the same area at the same time.
Project Preparation and Follow-UpAll three projects involved both precursory and follow-up
activities to prepare students for fi eldwork and to facilitate data analysis and completion of assignments. These included required group meetings, reading assignments, presentations, and Internet bulletins or discussion. For the Keck Summer Research Project, face-to-face preparatory meetings were impossible due to the wide geographic distribution of participants. In this case, Inter-net communication between students and faculty was essential prior to fi eldwork. The postproject workshop, held at Trinity University six months after fi eldwork (Gardner et al., 1999b), was critical for compiling all of the project data and determining common strategies for data analysis and presentation. Students of the independent fi eld study projects and fi eld research module came mostly from the same institutions, allowing for face-to-face group meetings both before and after fi eldwork. Pretrip meetings were an essential part of preparing students for the fi eld. These meetings allowed faculty to introduce the research context, dis-cuss assignments and expectations, provide logistical and safety information, complete forms and fi nancial transactions, and engender group camaraderie and enthusiasm. Post-trip meetings provided an important opportunity for project debriefi ng, discus-sions of results and data analysis, reminders about assignments and expectations, and celebrations of student achievements.
Project Logistics and Costs
The three project models discussed in this paper varied sig-nifi cantly in logistical complexity and project costs (Table 2). However, because these projects were run in the same general fi eld area, they shared similar logistical challenges and budget-ary structure. The later projects benefi ted greatly from lessons learned during earlier projects. It is important to note that the logistics of larger group projects are exponentially more complex than for smaller groups. This is especially true for international projects due to the challenges of overseas air travel, and of trans-porting, housing, and feeding large groups in a foreign country. It
16 Marshall et al.
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is also important to consider that the average daily cost of inter-national projects is strongly infl uenced by two factors, the cost of airfare and the impact of group rates for lodging and meals. Regardless of project duration, the cost of air travel for a particu-lar project will be the same. Therefore, with air travel included in the total cost, shorter projects have a higher average daily cost per person than longer projects (Table 2). While larger groups introduce more logistical challenges, group rates for lodging and meals can signifi cantly lower the daily cost per person. In addi-tion, travel costs can vary widely depending on the season, travel days, type of facilities used, and longer-term fl uctuations in cur-rency exchange rates and the global economy.
The complex logistics of organizing and executing the month-long Keck Summer Research Project required strong leadership by the project director (Gardner), and careful team-work among the project faculty, the students, and the respective staffs of the Keck Geology Consortium, host-country institution (OVSICORI-UNA), and project lodging facilities. To achieve success, this type of large multi-institutional project required the administrative and fi nancial support of an experienced under-graduate research organization like the Keck Geology Consor-tium (Manduca, 1997; de Wet et al., this volume). It would be diffi cult to organize a project of this magnitude through a single geology department. In addition to logistical and clerical support, the Keck Consortium provided full project funding, including student and faculty stipends. The total cost of the project was high (Table 2), but because of its long duration (1 mo), and the impact of group discounts, the average daily cost per student was low compared to the other two projects. Considering the proj-ect outcomes (Table 3), learning benefi ts, and average daily cost per student, it is clear that the 1998 Costa Rica Keck Summer Research Project was an exceptionally good investment. This was an investment, however, that could only be afforded by a well-funded institution/organization, or by faculty supported by a substantial external grant.
The logistics of the independent fi eld study projects were much simpler than the two large-group projects. Travel arrange-ments and planning for fi eldwork are generally much easier for small groups of four or less people. A more open time frame for these projects allowed for greater fl exibility. In general, the stu-dents and faculty had more time for interaction and one-on-one mentoring. The students took great pride in their projects, and self-confi dence clearly increased. One particular fl aw, however, is that without clear project boundaries and the group compe-tition typical of larger projects, independent research students often become overwhelmed and face challenges in bringing their projects to completion. This is especially true for public university senior thesis students faced with heavy course loads, work responsibilities, and family demands. Overcoming these issues often requires careful mentoring by the faculty advisor. In general, these projects were relatively inexpensive (Table 2) and were funded through a combination of small research grants, travel funds, and student contributions. However, due to the lack of group discounts, and the low student to faculty ratio, the aver-
age daily project cost per student was highest for the independent fi eld study projects compared to the other two models.
The daily logistics of the fi eld research module were eas-ier to manage than the other large-group project (Keck Sum-mer Research Project), but they were still more complex than the small-group projects (independent fi eld study projects). Orchestrating the travel logistics for 18 participants required a signifi cant investment of time and energy by the project director (Marshall). Because of its short duration, this project required careful advance planning and knowledge of the fi eld area to ensure effi cient use of time. A short fi eld course of this type is more affordable and manageable for a small geology department in a fi nancially limited public university. However, without the support of an undergraduate research consortium or university study abroad program, the project logistics, fi nancial management, and liability issues became the sole responsibil-ity of the project faculty. In this case, the prior Keck Summer Research Project provided a useful model for project design and planning. In addition, the project director had also led two prior large-group fi eld trips in this area, a study trip in 2000 for students of Franklin and Marshall College, and a preconference fi eld trip for the 2001 National Science Foundation MARGINS Program Central America workshop (Marshall et al., 2001). One advantage of a short-duration project like the fi eld research module is that it requires less time commitment by students. This is especially important for a public commuter university like Cal Poly Pomona, where many students have jobs and fam-ilies. This project was particularly attractive to students because the bulk of costs were covered by a college grant to the project director. With careful budgeting and project planning, the total costs were low (Table 2), while the student learning benefi ts were high. The average daily cost per student for this project was nearly double that of the Keck Summer Research Project but less than the independent fi eld study projects.
Student Learning Outcomes
While no formal assessments of student learning outcomes were conducted for the three Costa Rica fi eld projects, their overall success can be evaluated using several qualitative indica-tors. These include: (1) student enthusiasm and engagement, (2) advances in technical and cognitive fi eld skills, (3) productivity and quality of student-authored publications, reports, and presen-tations, and (4) impacts on student self-confi dence and profes-sional identity.
Student Enthusiasm and EngagementThe high level of student enthusiasm and commitment dur-
ing each of these projects provides a fi rst-order indication of their success in engaging participants in the fi eld learning process. Based on faculty observations and interactions with participat-ing students, all three of the Costa Rica fi eld projects generated an exceptional level of student enthusiasm relative to traditional fi eld activities at their home institutions. A fundamental difference
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between international fi eld experiences and typical fi eldwork in the United States is the excitement of total immersion in a new physical and cultural environment, including unique landscapes, climate, wildlife, language, food, and culture. Costa Rica is espe-cially attractive to undergraduate students because of its global reputation as a premiere destination for ecotourism and adven-ture travel. The heightened excitement of a study abroad expe-rience tended to amplify student enthusiasm for fi eldwork and scientifi c inquiry. Their research engagement was also piqued by interaction with Costa Rican scientists, and by the obvious impli-cations of their studies toward understanding the natural hazards threatening the local people they encountered during fi eldwork.
Technical and Cognitive Field SkillsAnother indication of student learning during these projects
was the observed advances made in technical fi eld skills and higher-order integrative thinking. In nearly all cases, the students participating in these projects had prior fi eld experience through regular coursework, fi eld methods courses, fi eld modules, sum-mer fi eld camps, and other research experiences. This prepara-tion allowed most of the students to quickly engage in project activities without need for remedial fi eld training. Less pre-pared students generally had the opportunity to learn from those with more experience. The daily intensity of living and work-ing together in a rural Costa Rican landscape engendered strong group camaraderie and peer mentoring relationships. In most cases, the students quickly recognized that the quality of their own learning experience was dependent on the success of the entire group. This led to a situation in which few students were ever “left behind,” and the students worked cohesively to develop the skills and thought processes needed to tackle their common research problems. Unfortunately, we did not have the foresight to conduct pre– and post–fi eldwork learning assessments. How-ever, the authors all agree that we observed an exceptional level of student advancement in technical skills and critical thinking during these international fi eld projects compared to similar domestic projects in the United States. Other faculty mentors have reported similar benefi ts associated with international fi eld-work (e.g., Mankiewicz, 2005; McLaughlin and Johnson, 2006). Research on learning indicates that the unfamiliar setting of study abroad experiences stimulates student awareness and cognition, and motivates them to engage in their studies with exceptional focus and intensity (e.g., Citron and Kline, 2001).
During each of the three Costa Rica projects, the students learned practical fi eld skills, new applications of fi eld instruments, and valuable lessons in project design, teamwork, and time man-agement. The Keck Summer Research Project and independent fi eld study projects immersed students in a high-intensity inte-grated research experience that mimicked the reality of graduate school and academia. The students participated in every aspect of research, from initial formation of ideas and hypotheses, to plan-ning and execution of fi eldwork, to data analysis and synthesis, and fi nally, communication of results through writing, presen-tations, and publication. The independent fi eld study projects,
however, were less infl uenced by peer competition and required more self-motivation. These projects provided excellent train-ing for students headed to graduate school, or seeking project-level employment in the consulting industry. The fi eld research module offered a much more compact, yet still intense learning experience that emphasized fi eld techniques, data collection, and concise interpretation of results from focused problems. This learning strategy is valuable for building student confi dence in their ability to conduct fi eldwork and solve problems.
Student Publications, Reports, and PresentationsAn additional measure of learning outcomes for the Costa
Rica fi eld projects is the overall productivity in generating student-authored research reports, publications, and conference presentations (Table 3). The Keck Summer Research Project was highly successful in generating individual senior theses (10) and short papers (12) for the Keck Research Symposium (Gardner et al., 1999a). These outcomes were an integral part of the initial project goals, and students were acutely aware throughout that their success at fi eldwork would determine the quality of these fi nal products. The level of expectations and friendly competition were high among these students, resulting in exceptional quality in their fi nal papers. This success was also facilitated by thought-ful project planning, a fruitful midyear workshop, advising by home-campus faculty sponsors, and prior academic training at well-funded, small, liberal arts colleges. The most signifi cant product of the Keck Summer Research Project was a student-coauthored paper published in the journal Geology (Gardner et al., 2001). This also had been part of the original project goals and design (Gardner, 1999). Much of the midyear workshop (Gard-ner et al., 1999b) was focused on compiling and standardizing student data for this publication, and for a preliminary poster pre-sentation at a national conference (Gardner et al., 1999c). Engag-ing undergraduate students in the process of publishing a journal article was one of the most benefi cial learning outcomes of this project. Interestingly, only three of the project’s 12 students also presented individual posters or talks at professional meetings outside of the Keck Research Symposium (Table 3). This may refl ect that the bulk of their attention was focused on completing senior theses, symposium presentations, and the journal article.
Publication productivity and quality were also quite high among students of the independent fi eld study projects (Table 3). Unlike the Keck project, the requirements for project reports and presentations varied among the independent study students. Four of the Cal Poly Pomona students were expected to complete a written senior thesis, thesis defense, and professional conference presentation. Two additional Cal Poly Pomona students partici-pated in the projects for fi eld credits, but they were only expected to prepare conference abstracts and presentations. All fi ve of the Trinity University students were required to complete short fi eld reports for independent study credits. The one participating stu-dent from the Universidad de Costa Rica was conducting fi eld-work for a professional license thesis (“Licenciatura”). In total, the independent fi eld study projects thus far have generated 14
18 Marshall et al.
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student-coauthored abstracts and presentations for professional conferences, fi ve fi eld research reports, and one complete senior thesis, with three additional theses pending (Table 3). Four of the Cal Poly Pomona student researchers have been lead authors on fi ve abstracts for poster presentations at professional meetings. All six of the Cal Poly Pomona students have attended profes-sional conferences and participated in the preparation and presen-tation of posters and talks. Two of these students have attended conferences in Costa Rica, where they interacted with researchers from the international community. Both faculty advisors (Mar-shall and Gardner) are currently working on student-coauthored journal articles that will present a summary of research results from the independent fi eld study projects. One unique fl aw of these projects, due to their open-ended time frame, is the ten-dency of senior thesis students to gain employment before fi nish-ing their thesis and degree. Despite their success in completing the research and professional presentations, two of these students have not yet completed their written thesis due to current work responsibilities. An important strategy for mitigating this prob-lem is to establish a rigid schedule for student progress listing specifi c attainable short-term goals.
In contrast to the other two projects, the fi eld research mod-ule was not intended to generate publishable research results or student professional presentations. Instead, the students were required to submit a single research report summarizing the results of their three fi eld projects (Table 3). The fi eldwork from these projects did, however, generate new data and observations that will infl uence research interpretations and future publica-tions by the project faculty. Over two-thirds (10) of the partici-pating students generated written project reports and illustrations that showed a strong level of learning and comprehension (grade ≥ A–). The other third (4) submitted acceptable reports that dem-onstrated only a basic level of understanding (grade ≤ B). The lesser motivation of this latter group likely resulted from the lack of a long-term commitment to the project. The students were aware that they would receive a passing grade if they submitted a complete report. The fact that the fi eld research module was not linked to a larger academic outcome (e.g., a senior thesis) led some students to complete marginally acceptable work. The majority of students, however, turned in reports and illustrations that showed substantial learning, and that demonstrated the over-all success of this project.
Student Self-Confi dence and Professional IdentityA fi nal indicator of learning outcomes for these projects was
an apparent enhancement of student self-confi dence and profes-sional identity. Conversations with student participants revealed a common perception that these projects had a signifi cant impact on developing their identity as geoscientists. A number of students indicated that the experiential learning approach allowed them to build the self-confi dence necessary to tackle complex fi eld problems. Students participating in the Keck Summer Research Project and independent fi eld study projects, in particular, have suggested that these research experiences confi rmed their career
choice and reinforced their motivation to pursue graduate stud-ies and professional geosciences careers. Nine of the 12 students from the Keck Summer Research Project went on to graduate schools for M.S. and/or Ph.D. degrees. At least four are currently university faculty members or postdoctoral researchers, three are employed as geoscientists for government agencies or energy companies, and one is a schoolteacher. Half of the 14 students from the fi eld research module have recently graduated, and fi ve are now in graduate school, while three have accepted consult-ing jobs. Of the 12 students who completed independent fi eld study projects, four continued on to graduate studies, and at least three are working as geoscientists for consulting fi rms. One of the independent study students who entered graduate school has continued researching Nicoya Peninsula tectonics for his M.S. thesis. This same student served as a teaching assistant for the fi eld research module and as a fi eld advisor for a current indepen-dent study student. Such mentoring relationships are one of the benefi ts of the independent fi eld study projects as new students build on the research of prior participants.
CONCLUSION
International fi eld experiences offer exceptional opportuni-ties for effective student learning in the geosciences. This paper examined three project models for undergraduate fi eld research in Costa Rica, Central America: (1) a month-long summer research project (Keck Geology Consortium, 1998), (2) a series of 1 to 2 wk independent fi eld study projects (Cal Poly Pomona University and Trinity University, 2003–2008), and (3) a week-long fi eld research module (Cal Poly Pomona University, 2008). These three project models shared a common research theme (active tectonics), fi eld area (Nicoya Peninsula), and overarching pedagogy (experiential learning), allowing for easy comparison of teaching methods, logistics, and learning outcomes. Each proj-ect model has unique pedagogical benefi ts and challenges and is therefore better suited for a different range of group size, student to faculty ratio, duration of fi eldwork, and project budget. With thoughtful consideration of these factors and careful project plan-ning, each of these teaching models can have substantial positive impacts on student learning.
The Keck Summer Research Project classifi es as a “research apprenticeship” (Seymour et al., 2004), in which the primary goal was to engage students in a comprehensive fi eld research expe-rience, including post–fi eldwork analysis, interpretation, report writing, and conference presentations. With 12 students, fi ve proj-ect faculty members, and four visiting faculty sponsors (Table 1), this project maintained a low student to faculty ratio (~2:1). The teaching strategy consisted of the faculty mentoring individual students who were working at multiple fi eld sites on a range of related research problems. This strategy required careful logisti-cal planning to integrate all of the research efforts and to manage rotating teams of fi eld partners and faculty mentors. This proj-ect generated multiple student-authored publications (Table 3), including symposium short papers, conference abstracts, senior
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theses, and a major journal article. Of the three project models, the Keck Summer Research Project had the highest total cost (Table 2), but it also had the lowest average daily cost per student because of its longer duration and large group size. The success of this complex project was largely dependent on fi ve factors: (1) the low student to faculty ratio, (2) the extended duration of fi eldwork (1 mo), (3) careful planning and management by the project director and faculty, (4) post–fi eldwork advising by fac-ulty sponsors, and (5) substantial funding and logistical support provided by the Keck Geology Consortium and the host-country institution, OVSICORI-UNA.
Like the Keck project, the Cal Poly Pomona and Trinity inde-pendent fi eld study projects classify as “research apprenticeships” (Seymour et al., 2004). The primary goal of these projects was to engage individual students in comprehensive research leading to the completion of a research report, thesis, and/or professional conference presentations. The teaching strategy consisted of intensive inquiry-based fi eld mentoring of small student groups (1–3). A distinct advantage of this model was the fl exibility to tai-lor projects to the specifi c academic needs and interests of indi-vidual students. Because these projects involved only a few par-ticipants (Table 1) and short fi eld seasons (1–2 wk), the logistics were relatively simple, and project plans could be easily adjusted at any time if needed. These projects generated a large number of student co-authored professional presentations and abstracts (Table 3), and two major journal articles are planned. The total cost per fi eld season was signifi cantly lower than the large group projects (Table 2), allowing for funding through small university travel grants. The average daily cost per student, however, was the highest among the three project models because of the short duration of fi eldwork and lack of group discounts.
The Cal Poly Pomona fi eld research module classifi es as a “research-based learning course” (Seymour et al., 2004), in which the primary goal was to develop specifi c technical and cognitive fi eld skills within a narrower research context. The teaching strat-egy for this project differed signifi cantly from the other large-group (Keck) project due to its shorter duration (1 wk) and higher student to faculty ratio (7:1) (Table 1). This project was based around a series of short group exercises in which all 14 students, two faculty, and two fi eld assistants worked together in the same fi eld area. Publications were not one of the project goals, but stu-dents were required to present their results and interpretations in a fi nal fi eld report (Table 3). While fi eld logistics were less complex, the success of this short-duration large-group project required substantial advance planning and knowledge of the fi eld area to ensure effi cient use of time. The total project cost was less than the Keck project (Table 2), but the average daily cost per student was nearly twice as high, due to the short duration. This project was funded by a moderate university grant to the project director supplemented by student contributions.
The learning outcomes of the three Costa Rica fi eld projects were substantial, as indicated by high levels of student engage-ment and enthusiasm, observed gains in technical and cognitive fi eld skills, and exceptional productivity of student-authored
publications, reports, and presentations. Anecdotal evidence sug-gests that many students viewed these projects as instrumental in shaping their professional identity as geoscientists. By plac-ing students beyond the comfort of their home learning envi-ronment, the Costa Rica fi eld projects piqued student curiosity, sharpened awareness and comprehension, and amplifi ed the desire to learn. The intensity of living and working in an exotic international fi eld setting engendered strong group camaraderie and productive mentoring relationships among students and fac-ulty. Throughout these projects, experiential learning pedagogy played a critical role in enhancing the learning effectiveness of fi eldwork. The students were encouraged to defi ne their own research agenda, and to engage in hands-on problem solving through critical thinking, inquiry, and refl ection. Through this approach, students developed the self-confi dence and reasoning skills needed to solve multifaceted geologic problems. This blend of international fi eld research and experiential learning pedagogy creates a powerful synergy that captures student imagination and motivates learning. This potent combination of fi eld education strategies provides exceptional training for graduate school and professional careers in the geosciences.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Funding for our Costa Rica fi eld projects was provided by the Keck Geology Consortium, National Science Foundation (Tectonics Program), Trinity University (Tinker Fund), and Cal Poly Pomona University (Research, Scholarship, and Creative Activity Program, College of Science Quality Learning Fund, and Provost’s Teacher-Scholar Program). We greatly appreciate the fi eldwork and student advising of Keck Geology Consor-tium “Project Faculty” D. Merritts and E. Beutner, and “Fac-ulty Sponsors” D. Bice, D. Harbor, T. Harms, E. Leonard, B. Panuska, K. Pogue, and L. Reinen. We thank the fi eld module teaching assistants, R. Ellis and E. LaFromboise, for their efforts. We also acknowledge the contributions of D. Fisher, P. Sak, K. Morrell, M. Cupper, and G. Simila. We especially thank the Costa Rican Volcanologic and Seismologic Observatory, Uni-versidad Nacional (OVSICORI-UNA), and the Central Ameri-can School of Geology, Universidad de Costa Rica (ECG-UCR) for their continued support of our fi eld projects. We are grate-ful to the kindhearted residents of the Nicoya Peninsula who have welcomed us onto their properties and into their homes. We also appreciate the hard work and critical support of the owners and employees of Costa Rican hotels and restaurants, including Nature Lodge Finca los Caballos (Cobano), Villas Kalimba (Playa Sámara), Hotel Giada (Playa Sámara), Hotel Iguanazul (Playa Junquillal), Hotel Río Tempisque (Nicoya), and Apartotel La Sabana (San José). We especially thank Bar-bara MacGregor and Christian Klein of Nature Lodge Finca los Caballos for providing a comfortable and safe home base for our two large-group projects. We thank M. Swanson, S. Whit-meyer, and an anonymous reviewer for helpful comments on an earlier version of this manuscript.
20 Marshall et al.
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