Observation, Int

erviews and

Checklist

Syarifah Nazurah Abd Khalib

(2011909417)

Wani Nurfahani Mohd Sapuan

(2011918621)

Rashidah Robani

(2011725353)

Observation

Meriam – Webster dictionary (2012) defines

observe as „to watch carefully especially with

attention to details or behaviour for the

purpose of arriving at a judgment.

Observation as the best way to answer some

research questions – observing how people act

and how things look.

Roles of a Researcher

Participant Observation

Overt Participant Observer

Covert Participant Observer

Nonparticipant observation

Participant-as-observer

Observer-as-participant

Figure 1 : Variations in Approaches to Observation

(Frankael, Wallen & Hyun (2012)

Naturalistic Observation

• It involves observing individuals in their natural

setting.

• No effort is required to manipulate variables or to

control activities, but simply observes and records

what happens.

• Example of naturalistic observer – Jean Piaget.

Simulations

• You are a primary teacher and a student of yours has been away from school for more than two weeks. What do you say to him when he suddenly appears at school?

Individual Role

Playing

•The district is having an action song competition and your school never participate in the competition. As new English teachers, all of you are required to discuss on the reasons why the school did not participate in that competition before. What will be the outcome?

Team Role Playing

Observer Effect

• “ The presence of an observer can have a

considerable impact on the behaviour of those being

observed and hence, on the outcomes of the study”.

• Bernard (n.d), as cited in Frankel, Wallen and Hyun

(2012) suggests that “eventually, people just get plain

tired of trying to manage your impression and they

act naturally. In research, the trick is to catch a

glimpse of people in their natural activities before

they see you coming on the scene – before they have

the chance to modify the behaviour.

Curiosity aroused, resulted in a lack of attention to the

task at hand, thus producing other-than-

normal-behaviour.

The behaviour of those who are being observed

might be influenced by the researcher‟s purpose

If an observer is unexpected

Observer bias and

expectations• Observer bias refers to the possibility that certain

characteristics or ideas of observers may bias what

they „see‟.

•This is influenced to some degree by past

experiences; how we see the world and the people

within it.

•Observer expectations refers to if the researchers

may expect a certain type of behaviour which may

not be how the subjects normally behave.

Coding Observational Data

• The coding scheme is a set of categories that an observer uses to

record the frequency of a person‟s or group‟s behaviour.

Figure 2 : The Amidon/ Flanders Scheme for Coding Categories of Interactions in the

Classrooms

(Amidon & Hough ,1967)

The Use of Technology

• Recording the behaviour of people using video or digital recording

devices permits the researcher to repeatedly view the behaviour of an

individual or a group and then decide how to code it at a later, usually

more relaxed and convenient time.

• To record observation perfectly

• Observation can be reviewed several times

• Experts or interested others can view and share insights

• Permanent record of certain kinds of behaviours is obtained for comparison with later or different samples

• Good video requires some training and prior experiences

• Several microphones can distort the participant behaviour

• Prolonged recording can be expensive

• Audio – record only verbal behaviour

• Noise is difficult to distinguish specific speakers and sometimes interferes with the understanding of the content

The second method for qualitative research.

The most important data collection technique a qualitative researcher possesses (Fetterman)

The purposes:

* to discover the views, opinions and thought of the samples

(Patton)

* to discover the overlooked things during the observation

* to check the accuracy of data collection.

INTERVIEWING

INTERVIEWING

There are FOUR (4) types

of interviews that can be used in a qualitative

research;

Structured

Semi structured

Informal

TYPES OF INTERVIEWS

* verbal questionnaires

* are conducted in a formal manner.

* are best conducted toward the end of the study

* effective in testing the hypothesis of the research.

* the most common type of interview

* no certain guidelines of asking the questions.

* less formal/casual manner.

* the objective is to gain the views, thoughts and opinions of the samples.

* issues of ethics – too personal?

* applicable in various forms;

* structured, semi-structured or informal.

* the least favourable type of the interview

* requires the samples to recall and reconstruct of something that happened in the past.

* there is a possibility that the data is not accurate thus unreliable for the research.

Structured

Semi structured

Informal

Informal Conversational Interview

1

Interview Guide

Approach2

Standardized Open-Ended

Interview3

Closed, Fixed-Response Interview.

4

INTERVIEW STRATEGIES

There are FOUR (4) major

interview strategies

INTERVIEW STRATEGIES

Informal Conversational Interview

Characteristics:

* the questions are not planned

* they are asked in accordance to the

situation.

Strengths:

* Individuality

- the questions & the interview

Weaknesses:

* vast different responses from one sample to

another

* the data could not be easy to analyse

Interview Guide Approach

Characteristics:

* The topics and issues are outlined in

advance.

* The questions and sequence will be

determined during the interview.

Strengths:

* systematic data collection

* The outline acts as a guidance

Weaknesses:

* different responses from one sample to

another due to the flexibility in

developing the questions.

* the data could not be easy to analyse

1 2

INTERVIEW STRATEGIES

Standardize Open-ended InterviewCharacteristics:

* The questions and sequence are planned

before the interview.

* The samples are asked the same questions

by the researcher.

* The questions are in open-ended format.Strengths:

*the data could be easy to analyse

Weaknesses:

*limits the naturalness and relevance of the

questions to the samples.

Closed, Fixed-response Interview

Characteristics:

* The categories for the questions and

responses are already prepared in advance.

* Responses are fixed.

Strengths:

*The data becomes simpler and clearer to

be analysed and compared.

*Less time consuming

Weaknesses:

*Respondents might face difficulties in

responding to the questions

*Limited choice of responses

3 4

KEY-ACTOR INTERVIEWS

The term „key actor‟ derives from the term „key informant‟.

Definitions:

Key informant

the individuals who know their culture and history and are able to articulate better than others.

Key actor

The individuals who are knowledgeable and informative.

Excellent source of knowledge

In a research context, researchers should take some time to identify and build rapport with the key actors of a population.

Background questions

Experience questions

Knowledge questions

Opinion questions

Feeling questions

Sensory questions

TYPES OF INTERVIEW

QUESTIONSThere are SIX (6) types of

basic questions

which

are;

TYPES OF INTERVIEW

QUESTIONS-Demographic questions

-feature questions related to respondents

-For example; education level, age, income etc.

-feature questions related to the facts that the respondents know

-The information of the school , the graduation requirements, etc.

-For example;

What is the graduation requirement in this school?

-Behaviour questions

-To discover the respondents‟ experience, behaviour or activities that could not be observed due to

several reasons such as;

*The researcher was not there

*It was happening in the past

-For example;

If I were to follow you through a typical day here at your school,

what experiences would I likely to see you having?

Background questions

Knowledge questions

Experience questions

TYPES OF INTERVIEW

QUESTIONS

-Values questions

-Concern on the respondents‟ views, opinions and thoughts

-For example;

What do you think about ________________?

-Related to how respondents feel on certain things

-For example;

How do you feel about _____________?

-Rely on the five senses;

-What is seen, heard, tasted, smelled and

touched by the respondents.

-For example;

When you enter your classroom, what do you see?

Opinion questions

Feeling questions

Sensory questions

INTERVIEWING

BEHAVIOURThere are a set of expectations of how the

researchers should behave during the interview.

The researcher

should;

be natural

build rapport with the respondents

etc

respect the respondents and

their culture

FOCUS GROUP

INTERVIEW• a group of small people

• they are seated together and asked a series of questions to think

of.

• the objective is to identify what this group of people think

about the questions asked.

• not a discussion, problem-solving or

decision-making session.

Facilitator

Roles

Characteristics

FOCUS GROUP

INTERVIEW

Facilitating interaction

Drawing out differing perspectives

Keeping sessions focused

Challenge participants in bringing out

differing

opinions about a topic

Probe for more details

knowledgeable

FOCUS GROUP

INTERVIEW• There are 3 parts;

Closing

Middle

Opening

facilitator/moderator

•thanking and debriefing

participants

•giving them opportunity for

further input.

facilitator/moderator

•welcomes members

•explains purpose,

context and rules

participants answer main research

questions

RECORDING DATA

•Advantages:

To keep track the conscious and unconscious response of the respondents.

Facilitate later analysis, including locating important quotations from the

recording device

Indicate to respondents that what have been said was of importance.

involves

ETHICS IN INTERVIEWING:

the necessity for informed consent.

• It is preferable to

request participants to

sign an informed

consent form.

• to preserve the rights

of both interviewers

and participants

• to avoid misunderstanding of any issues regarding the

interview.

CHECKLISTS I

Comprehensive list of important or relevant actions, or steps to be taken in

a specific order.

(http:/www. businessdictionary.com)

A type of informational job aid used toreduce failure by compensating forpotential limits of human memory andattention. It helps to ensure consistencyand completeness in carrying out a task.

(Wikipedia)

A list of items to be noted, checked and remembered.

(The American Heritage@Dictionary of the English Language)

A list of things you need to do or consider.

(MacMillan)

General Definitions

CHECKLISTS II

Generally, it is as a tool or instrument for data collection

It consists of a prepared list of

items pertinent to an object or

a particular task

The simplest of all the devices

for data collection

May be used as an independent

tool or as a part of a

schedule/questionnaire

Ensures a more complete

consideration of all aspects of

the object, act or task.

Presence or absence of each

item may be indicated by

checking „yes‟ or „no‟ or

multipoint scale

Contain terms, which the

respondent understands

Performance Checklists

most frequently used of all measuring instruments

Consists of a list of behaviours that make up a certain type of performance.

Self – checklists

List of several characteristics or activities presented to the subjects of a study

Individuals place a mark opposite the characteristics they possess or the activities they have engaged for a particular length of time.

CATEGORIES

Checklist is divided in TWO (2) categories ;

Often used when

researchers want

students to diagnose or

to appraise their own

performance

To determine whether an

individual behaves in a certain

way when asked to complete a

particular task

If particular behavior is present,

a check mark is placed

No

subjective

judgments

THE PURPOSES

Outline necessary content for research proposals involving human

participants, and learning activities are intended to build application

skills

As a guide to build skills in

writing research proposals that

involve human participants

Communicate important

course content

Enhance quality of research

proposals

Provide formative evaluation for

the success in the summative

evaluation process

To guide evaluative feedback As a guide to evaluate previous

proposals, thus produces clear

understanding of the criteria and

standards

FUNDAMENTAL

P1

• Explain Intentions Clearly is a guiding principle when distributing checklists. Checklist clearly communicates performance expectations in terms of criteria and standards.

P2

• Improve Clarity in Instructions – checklist specifically identifies what needs to be included in a proposal or what parts of a proposal may need revision.

P3

• Sort Out Causes of Resistance – use of checklist at intervals help researchers build confidence in their ability to develop a high-quality proposal that meets criteria and standards.

P4

• Conduct Regular Formative Evaluation – in the form of troubleshooting, private feedback, buddy system, small group feedback sessions

P5

• Overcome Fear in Public – checklists build confidence and eliminates errors before presenting a proposal, creating “success” experience.

Brookfield‟s 5 Principles