Interviewing

“… far from being merely a source of data, theseinterviews are dynamic social interactionswherein multiple dialogues are conducted betweenmultiple selves….. Because interviews areepistemologically ambiguous, morally ambivalentand emotionally charged they cannot be seenas repositories of ‘objective facts’ …. “

(Collins, 1998)

Interviews

RESEARCH METHODS AND PARTICIPANTS

Interviews were conducted in the spring and summer of 1999 with a total of 43 participants. The interviews were one to two hours in length, were semi-structured following an interview guide, were held in participants' offices, were tape-recorded and were later transcribed and coded inductively. Using formal individual informed consent processes interviewees gave their consent to reflect on these issues on tape as a contribution to the research. A draft of the full report was circulated to the interviewees for their feedback.

Interviews

Taken from a research paper on the ethics of interviewing

Source: www.lcc.gc.ca/en/themes/gr/hrish/macdonald/sectionE.asp

Planning strategies

The purpose The agenda Preliminary questions Structuring the interview Planning the setting Anticipating problems Piloting Analysis of the data?

Guiding ethical principles

Respect for: human dignity free and informed consent vulnerable persons privacy and confidentiality justice and inclusiveness

Balancing harms and benefits Minimising harms Maximising benefits

The law

privacy confidentiality intellectual property competence data storage

Regulates the standards and conduct of research involving people in a variety of ways:

Confidentiality

Clearly explain who you are and who you represent. Explain the ‘limits’ to the confidentiality which will be accorded to

any data collected. Ensure the respondent understands fully the extent to which his /

her responses will be ‘published’. Clearly explain objectives in carrying out the research;

What is it for and why you are doing it. Ensure the respondent knows who is sponsoring the research When and where and how it will be disseminated. Do not try to mislead the respondent in any way.

What sort of interview?

Structured interview Survey interview Counselling interview Diary interview Life history interview Ethnographic interview Informal / unstructured interview Conversation Focus group

Face-to-face interviewing

"Interviews.... are appropriate methods when: it is necessary to understand the constructs....and

beliefs about a particular matter one aim is to develop an understanding of the

respondents 'world' .........

they are also useful when: the logic of a situation is not clear the subject matter is highly confidential...... the interviewee may be reluctant to be truthful...."

(Easterby-Smith et al, 1991)

Face-to-face interviewing

"..a two-person conversation initiated by

the interviewer for the specific purpose

of obtaining research relevant information

and focused.... on content specified by research

objectives of systematic description, prediction

or explanation."

Approaches to interview methods

Positivistic Qualitative• standardised questions• facts about the world• beliefs about facts• feelings and motives• present or past behaviour• standards of action• conscious reasons

• exploratory• understanding meanings

- issues- situations in context

• not structured in advance• open up new dimensions• vivid inclusive accounts based on personal experience

Highly disciplined - no realopportunity for freedom of action Highly skilled in the conduct of

interviewing in order to helprespondents explore beliefs

Structured interviews

Researcher comprehends the purpose and goal of each questionNecessarily positivisticPredetermined questionsStandardised Quantitative analytical methodsInterviewer training"Structure from .... unstructured" - a multi-tiered approach

A pollster’s approach……!

Standardised questionsAll questions designed prior to interviewFixed sequenceFixed wordingStandard conditions for interview administrationNon-directiveNon-exploratory

Unstructured interviews

No planned sequence of questionsAim is to 'surface' preliminary issuesIdentify critical topics for more structured approachesBroad, open ended questionsQuestions vary to suit respondent

Assumptions about the respondent

MotivatedIntellectually competentLinguistically competentCapable of resolving 'problems' through non-directive, non-biasing interventions by interviewer

technically competentOf all sources of bias, it is the respondent who poses the greatestthreat to measurement accuracy

Adequacy ultimately relies on respondents goodwill to retainconsensus with the interviewer

Tips for interacting with respondents

Probe only non-directively Volunteer clarification if necessary Repeat the question if necessary Don’t give directive information as to question meaning Don’t give unrelated information Thank the respondent for his / her time and interest

Interviewer-respondent rapport

Make respondent comfortableClarify purpose and invite questionsSeek to generate trust

- confidentiality- neutrality- openness

Clearly explain why respondent was 'chosen'Adopt conducive attitude (sincere, sensitive, non-evaluative)

Interviewer credibility

Relevance and valueProfessionalismKnowledgeSkillsConfidenceEnthusiasm

Questioning Techniques

'Funnelling' - broad to narrow themesUnbiased questionsProbingClarification of issues'Helping' respondent think through issuesTaking notes / tape recording

Probes

Basic probeExplanatory probes

Focused probes

'Silent' probe

Drawing out

Giving ideas or suggestions

Mirroring or reflecting

Use of metaphor

Non-directive probes – open questioning

Anything else?Can you tell me more about it?Can you tell me of any other reason?Can you explain this a little more?Can you be more specific?

Why do you feel that way?Tell me more about your thinking on that?Why is this?Are there any other issues involved?

Dealing with the answers……..

Record what the respondent said Don't answer for him / her

Show an interest in the answers given

Make sure you have understood the

answer adequately

Make sure the answer is adequate

Don’t show approval or censure

Dealing with respondent ‘problems’

Tell ME!!

Repeat question if asked to do soClarify non-directively if asked to do soIf given an inadequate answer or 'half-hearted' refusal, try to obtain adequacy or discuss refusal through;

Accept 'firm' refusal

- non-directive probing

- non-directive clarification

- repeat of question / instruction

Interview Bias

Open questions may help to avoid bias Danger of overtly imposing interviewers frame of reference A problem for structured interviewing

- they are situational- non-participatory- varying levels of trust & rapport- settings vary

Any Questions?