intro physics--ch 4--matter and energy

8/9/2019 Intro Physics--Ch 4--Matter and Energy

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/intro-physics-ch-4-matter-and-energy 1/28

;5

Nezz`x efj `f`xbw ex` oa c`fzxei cofc`xf zo zk` |kwsgcgsz& Axon opx ehgigzw zo ned` spcc`ssapi zkòxg`s kes con` pfj`xszefjgfb oa zk` rewsgf rkgck e swsz`n new szox` `f`xbw efj kor `f`xbw new h` zxefsa`xx`j

hw gfz`xeczgof oa ohm`czs ox swsz`ns rgzk of` efozk`x& Axon zkgs pfj`x.szefjgfb kes con` zk` `{z`fsgq` efj àa`czgq` pzgig}ezgof oa `f`xbw zkezgs ez zk` hes` oa noj`xf z`ckfoiobw efj opx cgqgig}ezgof&

@q`xwof` aoxns upeigzezgq` cofc`|zs oa nezz`x efj `f`xbw es e x`spizoa `q`xwjew `{|`xg`fc`& Nezz`x gs x`|x`s`fz`j hw zk` soigj ohm`czs) igu.pgjs) efj bes`s gf zk` `fqgxofn`fz& Nezz`x gs zefbghi`4 gz gs ce|ehi` oa gfz`xeczgfb rgzk zk` kpnef s`fs` oxbefs) efj qexgops |g`c`s oa nezz`x ex` ce|ehi` oa gfz`xeczgfb rgzk of` efozk`x& Nezz`x e||èxs zo h` cof.s`xq`j= ga ef ohm`cz gs ofc` ohs`xq`j gf e c`xzegf |iec` efj iez`x gs fozzk`x`) wop ex` cofqgfc`j zkez gz kes h``f x`noq`j zo efozk`x iocezgof ox zkez gz kes h``f nej` pfx`cobfg}ehi` hw ckefb`s gf gzs e||èxefc`& Foof` hìg`q`s zkez gz copij h` effgkgiez`j rgzkopz e zxec` x`negfgfb&

Hw `f`xbw gs pspeiiw nèfz zk` gfk`x`fz |or`x oa e nez`xgei swsz`n)spck es e |`xsof) e aieskigbkz hezz`xw) ox xocd`z apì) zo hxgfb ehopzckefb`s gf zk` szez` oa gzs spxxopfjgfbs ox gf gzsìa& Son` sopxc`s oa `f`xbw ex` zk` apì zkez gs ps`j zo kèz rez`x) zk` ropfj.p| s|xgfb +ox ckexb`j hezz`xw' zkez o|`xez`s e rezck) zk` szoxeb` hezz`xw gf ef ì`czxgczoozkhxpsk) zk` s|gffgfb wo.wo zkez cef cignh p| gzs szxgfb) zk` jenn`jrez`x zkez jxgq`s e kwjxoì`czxgc |iefz) efj zk` aooj zkez x`spizs gf zk`bxorzk oa zk` kpnef hojw& Wopx `{|`xg`fc` rgzk `f`xbw gs zkez gz e|. |èxs zo h` cofspn`j gf zk` o|`xezgof oa zk` `f`xbw sopxc`s& Zkps) zkàpì zpxfs zo esk`s efj h`con`s psì`ss) zk` s|xgfb pfrgfjs efj npsz h` x`ropfj) zk` hezz`xw f``js zo h` x`ckexb`j) zk` wo.wo bxejpeiiwsiors jorf efj szo|s pfi`ss zk` ckgij |iewgfb rgzk gz |piis |xo|`xiw ofzk` szxgfb) efj so of& Ez agxsz biefc`) zk`xàox`) wop ngbkz cofcipj` zkez

`f`xbw) pfigd` nezz`x) gs foz cofs`xq`j&R` rgii j`scxgh` zro o|`xezgofei jàgfgzgofs oa `f`xbw gf Cke|z`x 7&Gf zk` nèfzgn`) r` rgii ps` zkgs z`xn efj xà`x zo `f`xbw sopxc`s) `f.`xbw x`c`gq`xs) efj `f`xbw zxefsa`x axon sopxc` zo x`c`gq`x gf zk` `{|`c.zezgof zkez wop keq` ef gfzpgzgq` pfj`xszefjgfb oa zk`s` cofc`|zs&

:&5 Cofs`xqezgof oa `f`xbw

@f`xbw zxefsa`x & Rk`f Sgx @jnpfj Kgiiexw efj Z`f}gfb Foxbewcignh`j zo zk` zo| oa Nz& @q`x`sz) zk`w `{|`fj`j e bxèz jèi oa `f`xbw&@q`xwof` dfors zkez zk` zro cofspn`j aooj efj hxèzk`j egx cofzegf.gfb o{wb`f zo ned` zkgs |ossghi`& Zk` aooj) rkgck s`xq`j zk`n es `f.`xbw sopxc`) cen` axon |iefzs ox efgneis zkez gf zpxf j`|`fj`j of ef`f`xbw sopxc` +|iefzs ox ozk`x efgneis' gf e ckegf oa gfz`xj`|`fj`fc`zkez gs ceii`j e aooj ckegf& Pizgnezìw) zk` `f`xbw h`gfb zxefsa`xx`jaxon oxbefgsn zo oxbefgsn gf zk` aooj ckegf cef h` zxec`j zo zk` spf)rkgck |xojpc`s `f`xbw gf zk` aoxn oa igbkz efj ozk`x xejgezgof&

@f`xbw zxefsa`x eiofb zk` aooj ckegf occpxs es e x`spiz oa of`

(Zk`x` gs fozkgfb nox`zxp` gf fezpx` zkef zk`

zrgf |xo|osgzgofs zkez)"fozkgfb gs |xojpc`j xon fozkgfb" efj

"fozkgfb gs x`jpc`j zo

fozkgfb" &&& zk` spnzozei oa nezz`x x`.negfs pfckefb`j)

rgzkopz gfcxès` ox jgngfpzgof&(

Axefcgs Hecof Foqpn Oxbefpn)

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kzz|=//cxèzgq connofs&oxb/igc`fs`s/hw.fc.fj/3&</



Cke|z`x : ‚ Nezz`x efj `f`xbw ;3

@f`xbw szoxeb & H`ceps` `f`xbw gs cofs`xq`j) gz ecupgx`s zk` sen` |`xnef`fc` es nezz`x& Mpsz es nez`xgei ohm`czs ex` d`|z ox szox`j gf c`x.zegf cofzegf`xs) so r` new sew zkez `f`xbw gs szox`j gf swsz`ns +hezz`x.

g`s) ropfj.p| s|xgfbs' zkez cef ecz es `f`xbw sopxc`s& Jpxgfb gfz`xec.zgof) `f`xbw gs zxefsa`xx`j axon zk` sopxc`) rkgck zk`f kes i`ss `f`xbw)zo of` ox nox` x`c`gq`xs) rkgck zk`f gfcxès` gf `f`xbw& E swsz`n zkezecz`j es `f`xbw x`c`gq`x gf of` |xoc`ss new) jpxgfb iez`x gfz`xeczgof)ecz es sopxc` efj zxefsa`x zo efozk`x swsz`n zk` `f`xbw zkez res z`n|o.xexgiw szox`j gf gz +Agb& :&5'&

Kor npck `f`xbw e swsz`n kes szox`j j`|`fjs of zk` szez` oa zk` sws.z`n& Zk` s|xgfb gf zk` szez` oa h`gfb zgbkziw cogi`j kes nox` `f`xbw zkefgf zk` pfcogi`j szez`& Zk` szoxeb` hezz`xw gf zk` ckexb`j szez` kes nox``f`xbw zkef gf zk` jgsckexb`j szez`& R` rgii skor gf iez`x cke|z`xs korzk` `f`xbw szox`j gf e swsz`n gs xìez`j hw nezk`nezgcei nojìs zo zk`qexgehi` aeczoxs +jgszefc`) z`n|`xezpx`) s|``j) efj so of' zkez j`scxgh`zk` szez` oa zk` swsz`n&

@f`xbw j`bxejezgof& Zk`s` ohs`xqezgofs spbb`sz zkez zk` e||ex`fz`f`xbw cofspn|zgof oa wopx `q`xwjew `{|`xg`fc` new eczpeiiw h` ofiwe zxefsa`x oa `f`xbw zo e aoxn i`ss èsgiw x`cobfg}`j efj i`ss èsgiwzxefsa`xx`j apxzk`x zo ozk`x swsz`ns& Jpxgfb zk` spcc`ssgq` gfz`xeczgofsgf ef `f`xbw zxefsa`x ckegf) son` `f`xbw gs zxefsa`xx`j zo x`c`gq`xs zkezex` jgaagcpiz zo ps` es `f`xbw sopxc`s& @{en|i`s oa zk`s` ex` zk` rexn hxèzk `{kei`j hw Kgiiexw efj Z`f}gfb gf zk`gx cignh efj zk` q`xwsigbkziw kèz`j horigfb |gfs zkez h`con` rexn rk`f zk`gx nozgof gsszo||`j hw axgczgof rgzk zk` horigfb eii`w aioox ox reiis& Aox |xeczgcei |px|os`s) zk`xàox`) zk`gx `f`xbw gs fo iofb`x eqegiehi` efj e||èxs zokeq` h``f cofspn`j& Gf zk` axen`roxd oa `f`xbw cofs`xqezgof) gz gscpszonexw zo xà`x zo zk` e||ex`fz `f`xbw cofspn|zgof oa `q`xwjew `{.

|`xg`fc` es `f`xbw j`bxejezgof&

Agbpx` :&5 Z`n|oxexw szoxeb` oa `f`xbw gf zk` hor&+e' Zk` hor eczs es `f`xbw x`c`gq`x&

+h' Zk` hor eczs es `f`xbw sopxc`&





;:

Gj`fzgagcezgof oa swsz`ns es `f`xbw sopxc`s& Rk`f wop cofsgj`x zk``{en|i`s n`fzgof`j gf zk` gfzxojpczgof zo zkgs cke|z`x) wop agfj zkez r`r`x` xezk`x cexì`ss gf escxghgfb `f`xbw zo son` oa zk` gz`ns n`f.

zgof`j& Zk` aooj cofspn`j hw kpnef h`gfbs gs foz xèiiw ef `f`xbwsopxc` ce|ehi` oa spszegfgfb kpnef eczgqgzw) sgfc` gz ceffoz hw gzsìa pfj`xbo zk` zxefsaoxnezgof f``j`j aox zk` xìès` oa `f`xbw& Gfszèj)zk` swsz`n oa aooj efj o{wb`f gs zk` `f`xbw sopxc`) rkos` szez` cefckefb` pfzgi zk` nez`xgeis keq` h``f cofq`xz`j zo cexhof jgo{gj` efjrez`x& Zkgs swsz`n kes nox` szox`j `f`xbw gf gzs gfgzgei szez`) hàox`jgb`szgof efj n`zehoigsn) zkef gf zk` agfei szez` +Agb& :&8 efj @u& :&5'&

Wop s``) zk`xàox`) zkez e swsz`n npsz h` |xo|`xiw ckos`f ga gz gs zoapfczgof es `f`xbw sopxc`& Mpsz kor zk` swsz`n gs zo h` ckos`f j`|`fjsof zk` ckefb`s zkez ièj zo e j`cxès` ox gfcxès` oa zk` szox`j `f`xbw&Ef epzonohgi` szoxeb` hezz`xw apfczgofs es zk` `f`xbw sopxc` rk`f gz gsps`j zo o|`xez` ì`czxgcei j`qgc`s& Rk`f zk` hezz`xw gs ps`j gf e q`xwpfpspei rew‚rk`f) aox `{en|i`) gz gs jxo||`j of reifpzs zo hxèd zk`n‚zk`f zk` e||xo|xgez` `f`xbw sopxc` gfcipj`s zk` szoxeb` hezz`xw)zk` èxzk) efj zk`gx bxeqgzezgofei agìj& Zk` |kwsgcgsz"s jàgfgzgof oa sws.z`ns gs bèx`j zo `fspx` cofs`xqezgof oa e swsz`n +S`czgof 3&3' zkezapfczgofs es `f`xbw sopxc` ox `f`xbw x`c`gq`x& Zk` j`scxg|zgof oa zk`szez` oa e swsz`n gfcipj`s eii zk` qexgehi` aeczoxs rkos` fpn`xgcei qei.p`s j`z`xngf` zk` upefzgzw oa `f`xbw szox`j gf zk` swsz`n&

:&8 Swsz`ns efj sphswsz`ns

Rk`f e swsz`n gs zkopbkz oa es `f`xbw sopxc` ox x`c`gq`x) gz h`con`sroxzkrkgi` zo ckoos` es sgn|i` e swsz`n es |ossghi` so es zo ioceig}`zk` `f`xbw& Zkps) zk` s|xgfb gs ofiw e sneii |exz oa zk` rezck4 zk` szox.eb` hezz`xw gs ofiw e sneii |exz oa zk` ì`czxgc zoozkhxpsk) efj so of&

Zkgs ckogc` oa swsz`n zk`f rgii foz `fcon|ess zk` `fzgx` |k`fon`fofox |xoc`ss h`gfb gfq`szgbez`j& E swsz`n aox zk` `fzgx` |xoc`ss rgii gf.cipj` zk` `f`xbw sopxc`s) `f`xbw x`c`gq`xs) efj ozk`x ohm`czs |exzgcg|ez.gfb gf zk` gfz`xeczgof oa zk` sopxc` rgzk zk` x`c`gq`xs& Zk` sneii`x sws.z`ns oa ohm`czs rgzkgf iexb`x swsz`ns ex` ceii`j sphswsz`ns&

E||igcezgofs& E sgn|i` e||igcezgof oa zkgs gjè cef h` nej` zo e sigfb.skoz rkos` xphh`x hefj kpxis e szof`& Hozk zk` xphh`x hefj efj zk`szof` ex` sphswsz`ns oa zk` iexb`x swsz`n gfcipjgfb sigfbskoz efj

@upezgof :&5

`f`xbw +gfgzgei szez`'

> @ g `f`xbw +agfei szez`'

> @ a `f`xbw zxefsa`x

> ∁ @

∁ @ > @ a . @ g

Agbpx` :&8 Ckefb`gf zk` szez` oa Sws.

z`n [) rkgck s`xq`s es ef `f`xbw sopxc`&

aooj!

o{wb`f

Swsz`n [

gfgzgei szez`

cexhofjgo{gj`

! rez`x

Swsz`n [

agfei szez`






szof`& Zk` xphh`x hefj eczs es `f`xbw sopxc` efj zk` szof` es `f`xbwx`c`gq`x gf zkgs gfszefc`&

Efozk`x e||igcezgof cef h` nej` zo zk` Sopzk Sè Gsiefj`x) rko szexzs

e agx` hw zrgxigfb e skex| szgcd ebegfsz e |g`c` oa coco |ein hexd +Agb&:&3'& E swsz`n aox zk` `fzgx` |xoc`ss ropij gfcipj` zk` nef) zk` szgcd)zk` hor efj szxgfb) efj zk` |g`c` oa hexd& Zk` nef gs zk` sphswsz`nzkez eczs es `f`xbw sopxc`& Zk` |g`c` oa hexd) rkgck b`zs koz axon xph. hgfb) gs zk` sphswsz`n zkez x`c`gq`s zk` `f`xbw& Zk` szgcd) hor) efjszxgfb aoxn efozk`x sphswsz`n oa gfz`xeczgfb ohm`czs zkez aecgigzez` `f.`xbw zxefsa`x&

Sì`czgof oa sphswsz`ns& Hàox` cofcipjgfb zkgs s`czgof) r` skopijejj zkez zk`x` ex` oaz`f xèsofs ozk`x zkef `f`xbw zxefsa`x aox sì`czgfbsphswsz`ns gf e swsz`n& Aox gfszefc`) gz new h` zkez `qgj`fc` oa gfz`x.eczgof gs x`qèi`j |exzgcpiexiw hw of` sphswsz`n) es rk`f e nèz zk`x.non`z`x gs ps`j gf e iexb` |g`c` oa xoesz h`à gf zk` oq`f& Ox) e sen|iòa ocèf rez`x new h` jgqgj`j gfzo e rez`x sphswsz`n efj e seiz sph.swsz`n& Zk` sphswsz`ns cofc`|z gs ps`j rk`f`q`x gz gs cofq`fg`fz zogj`fzgaw swsz`ns zkez ex` con|i`zìw cofzegf`j rgzkgf ozk`x swsz`ns&

:&3 \essgq` cop|igfb ì`n`fzs

Gf zk` sigfbskoz `{en|i` oa zk` |x`qgops s`czgof) `f`xbw res zxefs.a`xx`j axon zk` xphh`x hefj zo zk` szof` hw jgx`cz gfz`xeczgof& Gf zk`nedgfb oa e agx`) kor`q`x) `f`xbw res zxefsa`xx`j axon of` sphswsz`n+nef' zo zk` ozk`x +hexd' zkxopbk ef gfz`xn`jgez` sphswsz`n) zk` hor)szxgfb) efj szgcd +Agb& :&3'& Zkgs gfz`xn`jgez` sphswsz`n f`q`x ecupgx`sef e||x`cgehi` enopfz oa `f`xbw oa gzs orf& E sphswsz`n igd` zk` hor)szxgfb) efj szgcd) rkgck aecgigzez`s `f`xbw zxefsa`x gf e |essgq` rew) gsceii`j e |essgq` cop|igfb i`n`fz &

@{en|i & Zk`x` ex` nefw sgzpezgofs gf rkgck zk`x` gs e ckegf oa gfz`x.eczgofs) rgzk `f`xbw h`gfb zxefsa`xx`j axon of` swsz`n zo e s`cofj)

Agbpx` :&3 Jo zk` gn|oxzefz

`f`xbw sopxc` efj x`c`gq`x gf zk` |xoc`ss gfz`xecz jg.

x`cziw rgzk of` efozk`x?





;1

zk`f zo e zkgxj) efj so of& Son` oa zk` gfz`xn`jgez` swsz`ns jo fozaipczpez` gf `f`xbw hpz) es gz r`x`) |ess of zk` `f`xbw zk`w x`c`gq` esaesz es zk`w x`c`gq` gz& E noj`xf ì`czxgc gxof gs e booj `{en|i`& Ofc`gz kes h``f |ipbb`j gf aox e zgn` efj kes xèck`j gzs o|`xezgfb z`n|`xe.zpx`) zk` `f`xbw gs sp||ig`j axon zk` |or`x igf` ez zk` sen` xez` es zkezez rkgck gz gs |ess`j of zo zk` ciozk`s efj zk` xoon egx spxxopfjgfb zk`gxof& Zk` `f`xbw efj z`n|`xezpx` oa zkgs gxof jo foz aipczpez` e||x`cge. hiw& Ef gfz`xn`jgez` swsz`n zkez eczs gf zkgs rew gs e |essgq` cop|igfbì`n`fz& Eaz`x zk` gxof gs pf|ipbb`j) kor`q`x) gz h`con`s ef `f`xbw

sopxc` efj coois oaa ez zk` sen` zgn` es gz kèzs zk` egx4 zk`f gz gs foiofb`x ofiw e |essgq` cop|igfb ì`n`fz&

Copfz`x.`{en|i`& Son` oa zk` gfz`xn`jgez` swsz`ns gf ef `f`xbwzxefsa`x ckegf ecz es `f`xbw x`c`gq`xs efj `f`xbw sopxc`s efj ex` foz |essgq` cop|igfb ì`n`fzs4 zkez gs) zk`gx szox`j `f`xbw aipczpez`s p| efjjorf& Ef oij.aeskgof`j aiezgxof +rkgck kes fo ì`czxgcei kèzgfb ì`.n`fz' gs ef `{en|i` +Agb& :&:'& Rkgi` gz gs szefjgfb oq`x zk` agx`) gz eczses `f`xbw x`c`gq`x efj h`con`s koz& Rkgi` gz gs h`gfb ps`j zo gxofciozk`s) gz eczs es ef `f`xbw sopxc` efj bxejpeiiw coois oaa& Gf ozk`x roxjs) gzs `f`xbw cofz`fz aipczpez`s eiofb rgzk gzs z`n|`xezpx`&

\essgq` cop|igfb ì`n`fzs& Zk` cofc`|z oa e |essgq` cop|igfb ì`.

n`fz gs ef gjèig}ezgof zkez gs psàpi rk`f iofb ckegfs oa `f`xbw zxefs.a`xxgfb gfz`xeczgofs ex` zo h` j`scxgh`j efj efeiw}`j& Zk` cofc`|z cef h` e||ig`j rk`f zk` `f`xbw aipczpezgof oa zk` gfz`xn`jgez` swsz`ns ex`sneii con|ex`j zo zk` `f`xbw zxefsngzz`j& H`ceps` zk` |essgq` cop. |igfb ì`n`fzs f`gzk`x begf fox ios` `f`xbw) zk`w cef h` gbfox`j gfsoaex es nèspx`n`fzs oa `f`xbw cofs`xqezgof ex` cofc`xf`j& @{en|i`s oa ejjgzgofei swsz`ns zkez cef h` zxèz`j es |essgq` cop|igfb ì`n`fzs ex`giipszxez`j gf Agb& :&0&

Agbpx` :&: Z`n|oxexw szoxeb` oa `f`xbw gf zk` oij.aeskgof`j aiezgxof&

+e' Zk` gxof gs |iec`j of szoq` efj eczs es ef `f`xbw x`c`gq`x&+h' Zk` gxof eczs es ef `f`xbw sopxc`& Rkez gs zk` x`c`gq`x?






Agbpx :&0 \essgq` cop|igfb i`n`fzs&+e' Zk` ckegf gs e |essgq` cop|igfb ì`n`fz h`zr``f zk` zxpcd efj zk` snesk`j cex&

+h' Zk` biorgfb igbkz hpih gs e |essgq` cop|igfb ì`n`fz h`zr``fzk` |or`x igf` efj zk` xejgez`j igbkz&

+c' Zk` kgbk.z`fsgof igf` gs e |essgq` cop|igfb ì`n`fz h`zr``f zkòr`x szezgof efj zk` cgzw&

+j' Ef epzonohgi` fbgf` gs e||xo{gnezìw e |essgq` cop|igfb i`.

n`fz h`zr``f zk` `{|iojgfb besoigf`.o{wb`f swsz`n efj zk` cex&





;;

:&: Aoxns oa `f`xbw szoxeb`

Cofsgj`x e xphh`x hefj zkez gs szx`zck`j efj zk`f i`z aiw ecxoss e xoon&

Zkgs eczgof giipszxez`s ef `f`xbw zxefsa`x) hpz jo`s foz agz gfzo zk`sck`n` oa sphswsz`ns efj cop|igfb ì`n`fzs j`scxgh`j gf zk` |x`c`j.gfb zro s`czgofs& Zk` `f`xbw gs eirews szox`j gf zk` xphh`x hefj) ez agxsz h`ceps` zk` xphh`x hefj gs szx`zck`j) efj eaz`x gzs xìès` h`ceps` zk`xphh`x hefj gs noqgfb xìezgq` zo zk` xoon& Zo jgaa`x`fzgez` zk` jgaa`x.`fz rews gf rkgck of` swsz`n ox sphswsz`n new szox` `f`xbw) r` gf.zxojpc` zk` aoxns oa `f`xbw szoxeb & Aox zk` xphh`x hefj) r` s|èd oa zro aoxns= ìeszgc `f`xbw +szx`zck`j qs& pfszx`zck`j xphh`x hefj' efjdgf`zgc f`xbw +noqgfb qs& szezgofexw xphh`x hefj'&

Zk` cofc`|z oa e aoxn oa `f`xbw szoxeb` gs psàpi rk`zk`x `f`xbw gszxefsa`xx`j axon of` aoxn zo efozk`x rgzkgf of` swsz`n +xphh`x hefj`{en|i`' ox axon of` sphswsz`n zo efozk`x +S`czgof :&8'& Zk` aoxns oa `f`xbw szox`j gf e swsz`n ex` essocgez`j rgzk zk` ckefb`s zkez cef ièj

zo ef gfcxès` ox j`cxès` oa zk` `f`xbw szox`j gf zk` swsz`n& Zkps) e |oz oa rez`x rkos` z`n|`xezpx` new jxo| kes zk`xnei `f`xbw& Zk` aoojefj o{wb`f swsz`n rkos` ck`ngcei con|osgzgof new ckefb` kesck`ngcei `f`xbw& Zk` szèn zkez new zpxf zo igupgj rez`x kes |kes``f`xbw& E szx`zck`j s|xgfb ox xphh`x hefj zkez new sfe| zob`zk`x kesìeszgc `f`xbw& E noqgfb hpii`z rkos` s|``j cef ckefb` kes dgf`zgc`f`xbw&

Agìj `f`xbw& Gf zk` aoxns oa `f`xbw szoxeb` mpsz `fpn`xez`j) zk` `f.`xbw res jgx`cziw essocgez`j rgzk of` ox nox` cofcx`z` ohm`czs& Zkgs gsfoz zk` ces` rk`f wop `{engf` swsz`ns oa ohm`czs zkez gfz`xecz.ez.e.jgszefc`& Cofsgj`x) aox gfszefc`) zk` `f`xbw zkez gs szox`j rk`f e szof`gs xegs`j oaa zk` bxopfj& H`ceps` oa gzs bxeqgzezgofei gfz`xeczgof rgzk zk`

èxzk) zk` szof` cef aeii jorf efj ecupgx` dgf`zgc `f`xbw& Hpz axonrk`x` jo`s zk` `f`xbw con`? F`gzk`x zk` szof` fox zk` èxzk s`|exezìwgs zk` `f`xbw sopxc` k`x`4 zk` `fzgx` gfz`xeczgfb èxzk.szof` swsz`n gszk` f`xbw sopxc`&

Gf S`czgof 3&0 r` gfzxojpc`j zk` cofc`|z oa zk` bxeqgzezgofei agìj esgfz`xn`jgexw gf zk` gfz`xeczgof.ez.e.jgszefc` h`zr``f zk` èxzk efj zk`szof`& Es zk` szof` gs h`gfb xegs`j efj rkgi` gz aeiis) zk` bxeqgzezgofeiagìj h`zr``f zk` zro ohm`czs ckefb`s& Zkps) zk` ckefb`s oa `f`xbw gfzk` èxzk.szof` swsz`n ex` coxxìez`j rgzk ckefb`s oa zk` bxeqgzezgofeiagìj efj foz rgzk ckefb`s gf zk` szof` ox zk` èxzk s`|exezìw& R` rgiizk`xàox` ezzxghpz` zk` `f`xbw oa zk` èxzk.szof` swsz`n zo zk` bxeqgze.zgofei agìj& Gf ozk`x roxjs) r` rgii zed` zk` qg`r zkez zk` `f`xbw oa zk`xegs`j szof` gs eczpeiiw szox`j gf zk` bxeqgzezgofei agìj oa zk` èxzk.szof` swsz`n& Zkgs gs ef `{en|i` oa e f`r aoxn oa `f`xbw szoxeb`) bxeqgzezgofei agìj f`xbw&

@i`czxgc efj nebf`zgc gfz`xeczgof.ez.e.jgszefc` new h` kefji`j gf `{.ecziw zk` sen` rew es zk` bxeqgzezgofei gfz`xeczgof& Zkps) e |egx oa gf.z`xeczgfb nebf`zs kes nebf`zgc agìj `f`xbw) efj zro ì`czxgceiiwckexb`j ciopjs jpxgfb e zkpfj`xszoxn keq` ì`czxgc agìj `f`xbw& Zk`nebf`zgc `{en|i` gs èsg`sz zo `{|iox` gf zk` necxo jonegf) sgfc` wop

Zk` roxj (|kes`( gs ps`j gf |kwsgcs rgzk zro nèf.

gfbs& Zk` agxsz xà xs zo szeb`s gf e x`|èz`j no.zgof) es gf zk` (|kes`s oa zk` noof&( Zk` s`cofj)rkgck r` ps` gf zkgs z`{z)

xà`xs zo (soigj)( (igupgj( efj (besòps |kes`s oa nezz`x&( Zkez gs) |kes`rgii xà`x zo zk` zkx`` jgs.zgfcz (szez`s( zkez nezz`x

cef zed`) j`|`fjgfb ofzk` z`n|`xezpx` efj |x`s.

spx`&

Scg`fzgszs keq` eiso jgs.

coq`x`j e aopxzk |kes`)ceii`j zk` (|iesne(

kes`& E |iesne occpxs ez `{zx`nìw kgbk z`n|`xe.

zpx`s) spck es ez zk` c`f.z`x oa e szex) rk`x` zk`

exzgci`s oa e bes hxèd e|exz gfzo ì`czxgceiiw

ckexb`j |exzgci`s& Zkps eiesne gs) `ss`fzgeiiw) e

bes gf rkgck èck gfjg.qgjpei |exzgci` cexxg`s ef`{c`ss oa |osgzgq` ox

f`bezgq` ckexb`& R` rgii foz jgscpss zk` |iesne

kes` apxzk`x gf zkgs z`{z&






cef zed` zro sneii nebf`zs efj nefg|piez` zk`n fèx èck ozk`x& Wopx s`fsezgofs spbb`sz zkez zk` nebf`zs ex` igfd`j hw e s|xgfb zkez |piiszk`n zob`zk`x ox |psk`s zk`n e|exz +j`|`fjgfb of zk`gx xìezgq` oxg`fze.

zgof'& Rk`f wop `{`xz wopxsìa) nox` `f`xbw gs szox`j gf zk` nebf`zgcagìj4 rk`f wop xìe{ efj zk` nebf`zs s|xgfb hecd) `f`xbw gs zxefs.a`xx`j axon zk` nebf`zgc agìj&

Xejgefz `f`xbw& Gf S`czgofs 3&: efj 3&0 r` j`scxgh`j xejgezgof es efgfz`xn`jgexw gf gfz`xeczgof.ez.e.jgszefc`& Gf zk` `{en|i` oa zk` cefjièfj zk` j`z`czox) zk` cefji` ecz`j es ef `f`xbw sopxc`& Rk`f zk` spfskgf`s of bx``f |iefzs) zk` spf apfczgofs es `f`xbw sopxc` efj zk` |iefzs es `f`xbw x`c`gq`xs& Gf hozk ces`s) xejgezgof cexxg`s zk` `f`xbwaxon zk` sopxc` zo zk` x`c`gq`x& Gz gs zk`xàox` cpszonexw zo gfcipj` xe.jgezgof es e aoxn oa `f`xbw) ceii`j xejgefz `f`xbw&

Xejgefz `f`xbw gs sgngiex zo agìj `f`xbw gf zk` s`fs` zkez gz gs foz es.socgez`j rgzk e nez`xgei ohm`cz ox swsz`n& F`q`xzkì`ss) gz gs f`c`ssexwzkez wop x`cobfg}` xejgefz `f`xbw ga wop rgsk zo negfzegf `f`xbw cof.s`xqezgof) aox zk`x` gs e zgn` gfz`xqei eaz`x zk` spf xejgez`s zk` `f`xbwefj hàox` zk` |iefz x`c`gq`s gz& Rk`x` gs zk` `f`xbw jpxgfb zkgs zgn`gfz`xqei? Gz gs foz szox`j gf zk` spf ox gf zk` |iefz4 ga `f`xbw gs cof.s`xq`j) gz npsz h` szox`j z`n|oxexgiw es xejgefz `f`xbw&

Es r` |ogfz`j opz gf S`czgof 3&0) zk` agìj zkòxw oa xejgezgof x`|x`.s`fzs xejgezgof gf z`xns oa agìjs zkez qexw gf s|ec` efj zgn`& Gf zkgszkòxw) xejgefz `f`xbw new h` ciessgag`j es agìj `f`xbw& Kor`q`x) sgfc`xejgefz `f`xbw nefga`szs gzsìa upgz` jgaa`x`fziw axon zk` `f`xbw szox`jgf zk` agìjs j`scxgh`j gf zk` |x`qgops sphs`czgof) r` rgii xà`x zo xejg.efz `f`xbw es e s`|exez` aoxn oa `f`xbw&

@{en|i`s& S`q`xei `{en|i`s oa kor zk` `f`xbw zxefsa`x gf son`connof |k`fon`fe cef h` j`scxgh`j ex` giipszxez`j gf Agb& :&1& Gfzk`s` j`scxg|zgofs oa `f`xbw zxefsa`x r` keq` conhgf`j zk` gjès oa swsz`ns efj oa aoxns oa `f`xbw szoxeb` hw gj`fzgawgfb zk` aoxns oa `f.`xbw szoxeb` zkez ex` gn|oxzefz gf èck swsz`n& Zk` gjè oa e aoxn oa `f`xbw szoxeb` gs `s|`cgeiiw f`c`ssexw) kor`q`x) gf zkos` `{en|i`s gfrkgck zk` `f`xbw gs zxefsa`xx`j axon of` aoxn zo efozk`x aoxn rgzkgfzk` sen` swsz`n ox sphswsz`n) es gf zk` xphh`x hefj&

:&0 Zk` nefw.gfz`xeczgfb.|exzgci`s +NG\' nojì aox nezz`x

Zk` ezongc nojì aox nezz`x & Zk` up`szgof oa rkez ke||`fs rk`fnezz`x gs sphjgqgj`j gfzo sneii`x efj sneii`x |g`c`s kes aescgfez`j |kgioso|k`xs aox zkopsefjs oa wèxs& Zk`w keq` eiso s|`cpiez`j ehopzzk` `{gsz`fc` oa e a`r ì`n`fzexw sphszefc`s) axon rkgck eii ozk`xsr`x` hpgiz p|& Gf zk` `gbkz``fzk efj fgf`z``fzk c`fzpxg`s) zk` noj`xfscg`fc` oa ck`ngszxw res `szehigsk`j rk`f zk` cofc`|zs oa ì`n`fz efj con|opfj r`x` bgq`f o|`xezgofei jàgfgzgofs& Eccoxjgfb zoIeqogsg`x +52:3.527:') e sphszefc` res cofsgj`x`j zo h` e ck`ngceiì`n`fz ga gz copij foz h` j`con|os`j gfzo ozk`x sphszefc`s hw efw





7<

nèfs& Of zk` ozk`x kefj) zk` sphszefc`s zkez copij h` j`con|os`jr`x` cofsgj`x`j zo h` ck`ngcei con|opfjs con|os`j oa s`q`xei ì`.n`fzs&

Eccoxjgfb zo zkgs jàgfgzgof) e sphszefc` hìg`q`j zo h` ef ì`n`fzngbkz iez`x h` j`con|os`j hw son` f`r |xoc`jpx`s& Gz ropij zk`f h`x`ciessgag`j es e con|opfj& Ieqogsg`x"s jàgfgzgof gs fo iofb`x sezgsaec.zoxw h`ceps` zk` j`qìo|n`fz oa noj`xf z`ckfgup`s kes nej` gz |ossg. hi` zo j`con|os` `q`f ck`ngcei ì`n`fzs gfzo nox` |xgngzgq` con|o.f`fzs +s`` Cke|z`x ;'& Zk` |x`s`fziw ecc`|z`j jàgfgzgof oa e ck`ngceiì`n`fz gs hes`j of |xo|`xzg`s zkez ex` nosz psàpi zo zk` ck`ngsz&

Agbpx` :&1 @{en|i`s oa `f`xbw szoxeb` efj zxefsa`x +- gfjgcez`s |essgq`

cop|igfb ì`n`fzs'&

+e' E iofb |ess gf e aoozheii ben`&

Swsz`n Zw|` oa `f`xbw szoxeb` |ess`x"s exn ck`ngcei +npsci`' aoozheii +mpsz eaz`x zkxor' dgf zgc aoozheii ! èxzk

swsz`n +ez zo| oa aigbkz' bxeqgzezgofei agìj +! dgf`zgc'

aoozheii +mpsz hàox` cezck' dgf`zgcx`c`gq`x"s kefjs ! aoozheii zk`xnei +! dgf`zgc'

+h' Epzonohgi` coeszs jorfkgii ez e szèjw s|``j&Swsz`n Zw|` oa `f`xbw szoxeb`

èxzk ! cex swsz`n bxeqgzezgofei agìj cex- dgf`zgchxed` igfgfb zk`xnei

+c' Ef exck`x skoozs ef exxor&Swsz`n Zw|` oa `f`xbw szoxeb` Xohgf Kooj ck`ngcei +npsci`'hor ìeszgc

exxor dgf`zgc





78

pxefgpn +ezongc fpnh`x 78'& Zo `{|iegf zk`s` |xo|`xzg`s) roxdgfb

nojìs aox ezons zk`nsìq`s keq` h``f gfq`fz`j4 r` rgii j`scxgh` s`q.`xei oa zk`s` gf Cke|z`x ;&

Zk` NG\ nojì & Nefw |kwsgcei |k`fon`fe gf zk` necxo jonegf cef h` `{|iegf`j rgzk zk` kì| oa e roxdgfb nojì gf rkgck nezz`x gs con. |os`j oa ngcxo.jonegf |exzgci`s gf gfz`xeczgof.ez.e.jgszefc` rgzk ofèfozk`x& Zk` fezpx` oa zk` gfz`xeczgofs) zk` gfz`xn`jgexw agìjs) zk` sg}`soa zk` |exzgci`s) efj ozk`x j`zegis rgii h` j`scxgh`j gf Cke|z`x ; hpz ex`foz es gn|oxzefz es zk` |exzgci`s" bxèz fpnh`x efj zk`gx ehgigzw zo gfz`x.ecz& R` rgii zk`xàox` s|èd oa zk` nefw.gfz`xeczgfb.|exzgci`s nojì+ehhx`qgez`j NG\ nojì' aox nezz`x& R` rgii foz gj`fzgaw zk` |exzgci`srgzk ezons ox noi`cpi`s `{c`|z aox essocgezgfb e jgaa`x`fz dgfj oa |exzg.ci` rgzk èck sphszefc`& Gf zk` x`negfj`x oa zkgs s`czgof r` rgii j`.scxgh` e a`r sgn|i` `{en|i`s zkez giipszxez` zk` psàpif`ss oa zk` NG\nojì& Son` oa zk`s` rgii h` ìehoxez`j efj nej` upefzgzezgq` gf iez`x cke|z`xs& Xefjon efj cofc`xz`j eczgof& Ez zk` kèxz oa zk` qexgops e||igcezgofs

oa zk` NG\ nojì gs zk` `ss`fzgei gjè zkez zk` |exzgci`s ex` so fpn`xopses zo ned` zk` eczgof oa efw sgfbi` of` oa igzzi` cofsùp`fc`& Gfszèj)ofiw zk` eq`xeb` eczgof ox zk` nosz igdìw conhgfezgof oa eczgofs oa nefw |exzgci`s gs sgbfgagcefz gf zk` necxo jonegf& Zk` sgzpezgof

Agbpx` :&; Cofc`xz`j efj xefjon eczgof oa |exzgci`s gf e heiioof&+e' Necxo.jonegf nozgof oa zk` heiioof gs essocgez`j rgzk cofc`xz`j nozgof

oa zk` |exzgci`s&+h' Necxo.jonegf aegipx` zo noq` gs essocgez`j rgzk xefjon nozgof oa zk`

exzgci`s&





Cke|z`x : ‚ Nezz`x efj `f`xbw 73

gs efeiobops zo zkez oa e kpnef noh) rkos` n`nh`xs new szen|`jèfj ecz gf cofc`xz ox new h` cofaps`j efj ecz ez cxoss.|px|os`s& Zkàoxn`x gs ef `{en|i` oa cofc`xz`j eczgof) zk` iezz`x oa xefjon eczgof&

Ga) aox gfszefc`) e hiorf.p| heiioof gs zkxorf gf e c`xzegf jgx`czgof)zk`f zk` |exzgci`s gfsgj` zk` heiioof noq`) of zk` eq`xeb`) gf zk` sen`jgx`czgof +Agb& :&;e'& Ga) kor`q`x) zk` heiioof gs szezgofexw) zk` |exzgci`snoq` con|i`zìw ez xefjon efj zk`gx gn|eczs rgzk zk` xphh`x sdgf d``|zk` heiioof gfaiez`j hpz jo foz x`spiz gf necxo.jonegf nozgof +Agb&:&;h'&

Zk` NG\ nojì efj zk` |kes`s oa nezz`x & Zk` soigj) igupgj) efjbesòps |kes`s oa nezz`x gf zk` necxo jonegf cef h` cofzxesz`j |ex.zgcpiexiw èsgiw hw ps` oa zk` NG\ nojì& Gf e soigj nez`xgei zk`gfz`xeczgfb |exzgci`s ex` iocd`j gf e xgbgj |ezz`xf) efj zk`w cef ofiwqghxez` e sigbkz jgszefc`& Gf e igupgj nez`xgei zk` |exzgci`s ex` gf cofzecz hpz ex` foz iocd`j gfzo e xgbgj |ezz`xf4 gf e bes zk` |exzgci`s ex` sorgjìw s`|exez`j axon of` efozk`x zkez zk`w kexjiw gfz`xecz ez eii +Agb&:&7'& Zkgs `{|iegfs zk` xgbgjgzw oa zk` soigj) zk` aipgjgzw oa zk` igupgj)efj zk` ehgigzw oa e bes zo |`xnèz` zk` `fzgx` x`bgof oa s|ec` ecc`ssghi`zo gz& Gz eiso `{|iegfs zk` xìezgqìw ior j`fsgzw oa bes`s con|ex`j zosoigjs efj igupgjs +zk`x` ex` iexb` `n|zw s|ec`s h`zr``f zk` |exzgci`s gf

e bes' efj zk` xìezgqìw kgbk con|x`ssghgigzw oa bes`s +zk` |exzgci`s gf ebes cef xìezgqìw èsgiw h` aoxc`j gfzo e sneii`x qoipn` h`ceps` oa zk`s|ec`s'&Zk` NG\ nojì efj ng{gfb & Zk` NG\ nojì eiso apxfgsk`s e xèjwj`scxg|zgof oa ng{gfb |xoc`ss`s rk`x` s`q`xei s`|exez` |kes`s gf zk`necxo jonegf conhgf` zo aoxn of` |kes`) es rk`f eicokoi ng{`s rgzkrez`x) spbex jgssoiq`s gf rez`x) ox rez`x `qe|oxez`s& Eccoxjgfb zo zk`

Agbpx` :&7 NG\ nojì aox soigjs) igupgjs)efj bes`s&

+e' Gf e soigj nez`xgei) zk` |exzgci`s cefofiw oscgiiez` ehopz zk`gx ùpgighxgpn |o. sgzgofs) rkgck ex` exxefb`j gf e x`bpiex

ezz`xf&

+h' Gf e igupgj) zk` |exzgci`s cef noqèhopz) hpz zk`w eiso gfz`xecz efj ex` szxofbiw ezzxecz`j zo of` efozk`x&

+c' Gf e bes) zk` |exzgci`s ex` so aex e|exz zkez zk`w xexìw gfz`xecz&





7:

nojì) zk` |exzgci`s oa zk` s`|exez` |kes`s ng{ rgzk of` efozk`x zo |xo.

jpc` zk` pfgaoxn soipzgof |kes`) rkgck gfcipj`s |exzgci`s oa s`q`xeidgfjs& Zkps) spbex soipzgof cofzegfs spbex efj rez`x |exzgci`s +Agb&:&5<') kpngj egx cofzegfs rez`x efj (egx( |exzgci`s& +Egx gs eczpeiiw esoipzgof cofzegfgfb fgzxob`f) o{wb`f) efj s`q`xei ozk`x bes`s) hpz zkgsaecz gs pfgn|oxzefz aox nefw |kwsgcei |px|os`s&' Zkps) zk` gfz`xeczgofoa s`|exez` |kes`s zkez ièjs zo soipzgof aoxnezgof gf zk` necxo jonegfgs `{|iegf`j hw e ng{gfb oa |exzgci`s gf zk` ngcxo jonegf&

Zk` NG\ nojì efj `f`xbw szoxeb`& E zkgxj ps` oa zk` NG\ nojì gsxìez`j zo `f`xbw szoxeb`& Gf S`czgof :&: r` gj`fzgag`j s`q`f aoxns oa `f`xbw szoxeb`= dgf`zgc `f`xbw) zk`xnei `f`xbw) ck`ngcei `f`xbw) |kes``f`xbw) ìeszgc `f`xbw) agìj `f`xbw +bxeqgzezgofei) ì`czxgc) nebf`zgc')efj xejgefz `f`xbw& Zk`s` aoxns oa `f`xbw szoxeb` ex` e||xo|xgez` zo zk`necxo jonegf& Rgzk zk` kì| oa zk` NG\ nojì) zk`xnei `f`xbw) ck`ng.

cei `f`xbw) |kes` `f`xbw) efj ìeszgc `f`xbw oa swsz`ns gf zk` necxojonegf cef h` `{|iegf`j es dgf`zgc `f`xbw efj agìj `f`xbw oa zk` gfz`x.eczgfb |exzgci`s +Zehi` :& i'& Gf zk` ngcxo jonegf) zk`xàox`) zk`xnei`f`xbw) ck`ngcei `f`xbw) |kes` `f`xbw) efj ìeszgc `f`xbw jo foz keq`s`|exez` nèfgfbs& Zk` ìgngfezgof oa zk`s` aopx aoxns oa `f`xbw szox.eb` gs ef gn|oxzefz pfgawgfb aèzpx` oa zk` NG\ nojì& R` rgii `{|iegfkor zkgs pfgagcezgof gs eckg`q`j gf iez`x cke|z`xs) aocpsgfb of zk` qexg.ops aoxns oa `f`xbw szoxeb`&

ZEHI@ :&5 @F@XBW SZOXEB@ ECCOXJGFB ZO ZK@ NG\ NOJ@I

Necxo jonegf Ngcxo jonegf

dgf`zgc `f`xbw dgf`zgc `f`xbwzk`xnei `f`xbw dgf`zgc `f`xbw efj agìj `f`xbwck`ngcei `f`xbw agìj `f`xbw

kes` `f`xbw agìj `f`xbwìeszgc `f`xbw agìj `f`xbw

gìj `f`xbw agìj `f`xbwxejgefz `f`xbw xejgefz `f`xbw

Agbpx` :&5< S`|exez` spbex efj rez`x |kes`s ng{ zo aoxn e sgfbi` |kes`&+e' S`|exez` |kes`s&+h' Soipzgof |kes`&






Zk` NG\ nojì efj gfz`xeczgof& E aopxzk ps` oa zk` NG\ nojì gs zo`{|iegf necxo.jonegf gfz`xeczgof zkxopbk |xo|`xzg`s oa zk` |exzgci`s&Rk`f zro soigj ohm`czs zopck of` efozk`x +necxo jonegf') zk`f zk`

|exzgci`s ez zk` spxaec` oa of` gfz`xecz rgzk zk` |exzgci`s ez zk` spxaecòa zk` ozk`x +ngcxo jonegf'& Zk` gfz`xeczgof zkez ièjs zo zk` aoxne.zgof oa soipzgofs +necxo jonegf' kes eixèjw h``f j`scxgh`j es e ng{.gfb oa zk` |exzgci`s +ngcxo jonegf'& Rk`f zro ohm`czs gfz`xecz.ez.e.jgszefc` +necxo jonegf') zk`f son` ox eii oa zk` |exzgci`s gf of` oh. m`cz gfz`xecz.ez.e.jgszefc` rgzk son` ox eii oa zk` |exzgci`s gf zk` ozk`x ohm`cz +ngcxo jonegf'& E nebf`z) aox gfszefc`) gs nej` p| oa nefw |exzgci`s) son` oa rkgck ex` nebf`zs4 ef ì`czxgceiiw ckexb`j hojw gsnej` p| oa nefw |exzgci`s) son` oa rkgck cexxw ef ì`czxgc ckexb`&

Igngzezgofs oa zk` NG\ nojì & Ozk`x e||igcezgofs oa zk` NG\ nojìrgii eiso h` qeipehi`& Gf eii oa zk`n) kor`q`x) gz gs gn|oxzefz aox wopzo x`n`nh`x zkez zk` |exzgci`s oa zk` nojì ex` foz igzzi` n`zei ox |ies.

zgc heiis zkez xoii) hopfc`) s|gf) xph) efj scxe|` zk` rew xèi n`zei ox |ieszgc heiis jo& Wop new |gczpx` zk` |exzgci`s es igzzi` heiis) hpz wopskopij h` erex` zkez spck |exzgci`s jo foz keq` |xo|`xzg`s h`wofj zkòf`s essgbf`j zo zk`n gf zk` nojì&

:&1 @upgighxgpn efj szèjw szez`s

Zk` ùpgighxgpn szez`& Gz gs connof `{|`xg`fc` zkez swsz`ns skorckefb`s gf zk`gx szez` hpz zkez zk`s` ckefb`s jo foz cofzgfp` aox`q`x ga zk` swsz`n gs d`|z gf e pfgaoxn `fqgxofn`fz& E zxew oa rez`x |iec`j gfzk` ax``}`x) aox `{en|i`) ax``}`s efj `q`fzpeiiw con`s zo zk` z`n|`xe.zpx` oa zk` ax``}`x) hpz zk`f gzs szez` jo`s foz ckefb` apxzk`x& E srgfb.gfb |`fjpipn cofzgfp`s zo srgfb hecd efj aoxzk aox son` zgn`) hpz

zk` i`fbzk oa exc oa zk` srgfb j`cxès`s pfzgi gz con`s zo x`sz& E aiesk.igbkz o|`xez`s of gzs hezz`xw) hpz eaz`x s`q`xei kopxs zk` igbkz b`zs jgnefj agfeiiw bo`s opz&

Zk` szez` oa e swsz`n zkez fo iofb`x ckefb`s gf zk` ehs`fc` oa f`r`fqgxofn`fzei gfz`xeczgofs gs ceii`j ef ùpgighxgpn szez`& E swsz`nnew con` zo ef ùpgighxgpn szez` gf gfz`xeczgof rgzk gzs `fqgxofn`fz)spck es zk` rez`x gf zk` ax``}`x) ox gz new con` zo ùpgighxgpn gf gso.iezgof axon zk` `fqgxofn`fz) es jgj zk` aieskigbkz& Zk` ùpgighxgpncofc`|z gs e||ig`j zo hozk ces`s& Sgfc` fo apxzk`x ckefb` oa efw dgfjzed`s |iec`) fo `f`xbw zxefsa`x occpxs `gzk`x& Zk` ùpgighxgpn szez` oa e swsz`n) zk`xàox`) gs e szez` oa ne{gnpn `f`xbw j`bxejezgof aox zkezswsz`n& \exzgei upgighxgpn & Aox |xeczgcei |px|os`s) zk` ùpgighxgpn gjè gs oa.

z`f e||ig`j zo ckefb`s rgzk x`s|`cz zo ofiw of` aoxn oa `f`xbw szoxebèz e zgn`& Gf zk` ax``}`x `{en|i`) aox gfszefc`) zk` ùpgighxgpn cofc`|zgs e||ig`j zo zk` z`n|`xezpx` oa zk` rez`x) rkgi` nozgof oa zk` rez`x +ox gc`' gs jgsx`bexj`j& Gf zk` aieskigbkz `{en|i`) zk` ckexb` szez` oa zk` hezz`xw gs oa gfz`x`sz) efj gzs dgf`zgc ox bxeqgzezgofei agìj `f`xbg`s ex`foz& Zk`xàox`) r` s|èd oa |exzgei ùpgighxgpn) spck es n`ckefgceiùpgighxgpn +|osgzgof efj nozgof') zk`xnei ùpgighxgpn) ck`ngcei ùpg.ighxgpn) efj |kes` ùpgighxgpn) rk`f`q`x ùpgighxgpn gs xèck`j rgzk





71

x`s|`cz zo zk` coxx`s|ofjgfb aoxn oa `f`xbw szoxeb`& Efozk`x `{en|i`gs e koz srgfbgfb |`fjpipn hoh) rkgck new con` zo n`ckefgcei ùpg.ighxgpn +gzs nozgof szo|s' hàox` gz con`s zo zk`xnei ùpgighxgpn rgzk

zk` xoon& Ox ef gc` cph` new nìz efj con` zo zk`xnei ùpgighxgpnrgzk zk` xoon egx iofb hàox` gzs rez`x kes `qe|oxez`j efj con` zo |kes` ùpgighxgpn es e bes ng{`j rgzk zk` egx& Gf eii zk`s` sgzpezgofs) zkòhs`xq`x"s gfz`x`sz j`z`xngf`s rkgck es|`cz oa zk` swsz`n k` |exzgcp.iexiw foz`s efj rkgck j`zegis k` ckoos`s zo oq`xiood&

\kes` ùpgighxge& Ef `s|`cgeiiw gn|oxzefz `{en|i` oa ùpgighxgpnszez`s gs |kes` ùpgighxgpn) gf rkgck zro ox nox` |kes`s +soigj) igupgj)bes' oa of` sphszefc` cef co`{gsz gfjàgfgzìw& Ez oxjgfexw eznos|k`xgc |x`sspx`) e |px` sphszefc`) spck es |px` rez`x) ckefb`s axon soigj zoigupgj +nìzgfb' ox axon igupgj zo soigj +ax``}gfb' ez e c`xzegf ag{`j z`n. |`xezpx` ceii`j zk` nìzgfb z`n|`xezpx`& Aox zk` sphszefc` (rez`x)( zk`nìzgfb z`n|`xezpx` ez eznos|k`xgc |x`sspx` gs <¼ Cìsgps of zk` gfz`x.fezgofeiiw ecc`|z`j scei` +aoxn`xiw ceii`j C`fzgbxej`' ox 38¼

Agbpx` :&55 \kes` ùpgighxge&+e' Zk` upgighxgpn szez` oa soigj efj igupgj rez`x ez eznos|k`xgc |x`s. spx` +xà`x fc` z`n|`xezpx` aox Cìsgps zk`xnon`z`x) <¼ Cìsgps' j`.

gf`s zk` nìzgfb z`n|`xezpx` oa gc`) rkgck gs ùpei zo zk` ax``}gfb z`n|`xezpx` oa rez`x&+h' Zk` ùpgighxgpn szez` oa igupgj efj besòps rez`x ez eznos|k`xgc

x`sspx` +xà`x`fc` z`n|`xezpx` aox Cìsgps zk`xnon`z`x) 5<<¼ Cìsgps'

jàgf`s zk` hogigfb z`n|`xezpx` oa rez`x +besòps rez`x gs gfsgj` zk`hphhi`s'&+c' @upgighxgpn szez` oa igupgj efj besòps rez`x& Ez xoon z`n|`xezpx`

+1;o A) 8< oC' zk` bes cofzegfs ehopz 8% besòps rez`x efj 7;% egx&+j' @upgighxgpn szez` oa igupgj rez`x efj seiz& Ez xoon z`n|`xezpx` zk`

igupgj cofzegfs ehopz 30% seiz efj 10% rez`x&






Aekx`fk`gz& Ez zkgs z`n|`xezpx`) igupgj rez`x efj soigj rez`x +gc`' ex` ezùpgighxgpn rgzk of` efozk`x efj cef co`{gsz gfjàgfgzìw& Ga wop ez.z`n|z zo xegs` zk` z`n|`xezpx` oa spck e swsz`n hw sp||iwgfb kèz) zk`

soigj rez`x +gc`' rgii eii nìz hàox` zk` swsz`n h`bgfs zo b`z rexn`x4 ga wop ezz`n|z zo ior`x zk` z`n|`xezpx` hw x`noqgfb kèz) zk` igupgj re.z`x rgii eii soigjgaw hàox` zk` swsz`n b`zs coij`x& Zk` nìzgfb z`n|`xe.zpx` oa |px` soigj rez`x +gc`' kes h``f ps`j zo jàgf` e xà`x`fc` z`n. |`xezpx` aox zk`xnon`z`x scei`s) of rkgck gz gs gfjgcez`j es <¼ Cìsgps&Zkgs efj ozk`x `{en|i`s oa |kes` ùpgighxge ex` giipszxez`j gf Agb& :&55&

Zk` szèjw szez`& Zk`x` ex` nefw swsz`ns zkez jo foz s``n zo ckefb` hpz zkez ex` foz gf ùpgighxgpn) aox `{en|i`) zk` kèzgfb cogi oa ef ì`c.zxgc zoesz`x) rkgck szexzs zo bior rk`f zk` zoesz`x gs zpxf`j of efjxèck`s e szèjw bior eaz`x e a`r s`cofjs& Zk` szez` oa zk` cogi jo`s fozckefb` efw nox`) hpz zk` cogi gs cofzgfpopsiw x`c`gqgfb ì`czxgc `f`xbwaxon zk` |or`x igf` efj) ez zk` sen` zgn`) zxefsa`xxgfb `f`xbw ez zk`sen` xez` zo zk` xoon egx& Zk` zoesz`x cogi gs for eczgfb es e |essgq`cop|igfb i`n`fz h`zr``f zk` |or`x igf` efj zk` xoon egx& Gzs orf szez`jo`s foz aipczpez`) efj gz `{|`xg`fc`s fo f`z ckefb` oa gzs orf `f`xbw&Spck e szez`) gf rkgck e swsz`n eczs es e |essgq` cop|igfb ì`n`fzzxefsa`xxgfb `f`xbw h`zr``f ozk`x swsz`ns) gs ceii`j e szèjw szez`& Gz gszo h` cofzxesz`j rgzk e b`fpgf` ùpgighxgpn szez`) gf rkgck f`gzk`x zk`szez` oa zk` swsz`n fox zk` szez` oa zk` swsz`n"s `fqgxofn`fz gs ckefb.gfb&

Ef `{ecz szèjw szez` gs xexìw eckg`q`j gf |xeczgc`) hpz gz gs e psàpigjèig}ezgof zkez gs e||xo{gnez`j gf nefw |xeczgcei sgzpezgofs& @q`f gfzk` zoesz`x `{en|i`) zk` xoon bxejpeiiw b`zs rexn`x efj rexn`x& Es ex`spiz) zk` xez` oa `f`xbw zxefsa`x axon zoesz`x zo xoon gs eiz`x`j) rgzk e

cofsùp`fz bxejpei ckefb` gf zk` (szèjw( szez` oa zk` zoesz`x cogi& Zk`sgbfgagcefc` oa zk` szèjw szez` gs zkez gz x`|x`s`fzs e heiefc` h`zr``f`f`xbw gf|pz efj opz|pz& Gf zk` f`{z s`czgof r` rgii j`scxgh` rews gfrkgck e szèjw szez` new h` negfzegf`j) ga zkez gs e j`sgxehi` ohm`czgq`&

Efeiobp` nojìs aox ùpgighxgpn efj szèjw szez`s& Efeiobp` noj.ìs aox ùpgighxgpn efj szèjw szez`s cef h` cxèz`j rgzk zefds oa rez`x&Zk` rez`x i`qì gf e zefd x`|x`s`fzs zk` szez` oa zk` swsz`n& Zk` e|. |xoeck zo ùpgighxgpn gs nojì`j hw zro coff`cz`j zefds oa rez`x +Agb&:&58') rgzk zk` coff`czgfb qeiq` h`zr``f zk`n cios`j& Gfgzgeiiw) eii zk`rez`x gs szox`j gf zk` zefd of zk` iàz& Es soof es zk` qeiq` gs o|`f`j)rez`x xpsk`s gfzo zk` s`cofj zefd efj agiis zk` iezz`x p| zo e i`qì zkezckefb`s fo apxzk`x& Zkgs i`qì x`|x`s`fzs zk` ùpgighxgpn szez`&

Zk` szèjw szez` gs nojì`j hw e jgaa`x`fz exxefb`n`fz& Ofiw of` zefd gs sp||ig`j rgzk rez`x axon e aepc`z efj zk` rez`x gs |`xngzz`j zo `s.ce|` zkxopbk e koi` fèx zk` hozzon +Agb& :&53'& Zk`f zk` rez`x gf zk`zefd xèck`s e i`qì ez rkgck zk` rez`x gfaior efj opzaior ex` ùpei&Zkgs rez`x i`qì x`|x`s`fzs zk` szèjw szez`&

Kor jo wop zìi rk`zk`x e swsz`n gs gf ùpgighxgpn ox e szèjw szez`?

5' @upgighxgpn swsz`ns jofoz begf `f`xbw axon fox

ios` `f`xbw zo zk`gx `fqg.xofn`fz& Szèjw szez` sws.z`ns szèjgiw begf f`xbw

xon ox ios` `f`xbw zo zk`gx `fqgxofn`fz&8' Ef upgighxgpn swsz`njo`s foz z`fj zo ckefb` zk` szez` oa gzs `fqgxofn`fz& E

szèjw szez` swsz`n b`f`x.eiiw jo`s ckefb` zk` szezòa gzs `fqgxofn`fz +|ossg.hiw bxejpeiiw'&





7;

Roxdgfb nojìs aox swsz`ns gf ùpgighxgpn efj szèjw szez`s& Gfszpjwgfb ùpgighxgpn efj szèjw.szez` cofjgzgofs) gz gs axùp`fziw psàpizo cofszxpcz roxdgfb nojìs zkez gjèig}` zk` eczpei |kwsgcei cofjg.zgofs& R` zood zkgs e||xoeck gf zk` `{en|i` oa zk` zoesz`x) rk`f rèsspn`j zkez zk` sioriw ckefbgfb xoon z`n|`xezpx` jgj foz eaa`cz zk``f`xbw opz|pz oa zk` zoesz`x rgx`s& @q`f zkopbk xèi |kwsgcei swsz`nsnew f`q`x xèck ùpgighxgpn ox szèjw szez`s) zk`w oaz`f con` spaag.cg`fziw cios` so zkez e roxdgfb nojì) gf rkgck c`xzegf sneii gfz`xec.zgofs ox ckefb`s gf `fqgxofn`fzei cofjgzgofs ex` gbfox`j) jo`s ièj zoqeipehi` |x`jgczgofs&

Of` gjèig}`j roxdgfb nojì gs zkez oa zk` gsoiez`j swsz`n) rkgckjo`s foz gfz`xecz rgzk gzs `fqgxofn`fz ez eii& Ef `{en|i` zo rkgck zkgsnojì new h` e||ig`j gs e swsz`n oa gc` efj koz zè gfz`xeczgfb rgzkof` efozk`x gf e biess& Zxèzgfb zk` gc` efj zè es ef gsoiez`j swsz`n)rkgck jo`s foz gfz`xecz rgzk zk` xoon egx) `fehi`s wop zo |x`jgcz ef

Agbpx` :&58 E||xoeck zo ùpgighxgpn gs x`|x`s`fz`j hw zk` rez`x i`qì gfzro coff`cz`j zefds&

+e' Hàox` gfz`xeczgof&+h' Gf ùpgighxgpn szez` rgzk gfz`xeczgof&

Zk` zozei `f`xbw oa efgsoiez`j swsz`n gs cof.

s`xq`j h`ceps` zk` swsz`n jo`s foz gfz`x.ecz efj) zk`xàox`)

jo`s foz zxefsa`x `f.`xbw zo efw ozk`x sws.z`n&

Agbpx` :&53 Szèjw szez`gs x`|x`s`fz`j hw zk` rez`x i`qì gf of` zefd rgzk gf.

ior efj opzaior





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jxgq` e cex gf kèqw zxeaagc efj zxw zo negfzegf e sea` jgszefc` h`zr``fwopx cex efj zk` cex gf axofz oa wop gf s|gz` oa ckefb`s gf zxeaagc s|``j&Rk`f zk` s|ec` gf axofz oa wopx cex rgj`fs) wopx aooz bo`s of zk` ec.

cì`xezox4 rk`f zk` s|ec` fexxors) wopx aooz bo`s of zk` hxed`&Zk`s` `{en|i`s giipszxez` kor e cofjgzgof new h` negfzegf`j ez e

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55& Gfz`xqg`r aopx ox nox` ckgijx`f +eb`s 5< zo 5: wèxs' zo gfq`szgbez`zk`gx cofc`|z oa zk` szxpczpx` efj |kes`s oa nezz`x& @qeipez` zk`gx x`s|ofs`s gf xìezgof rgzk zk` noj`xf scg`fzgagc qg`r |x`s`fz`j gf

S`czgof :&0& +Kgfz= \x`|ex` e a`r j`nofszxezgofs rk`x` f`r |kes`sex` aoxn`j) spck es jgssoiqgfb axpgz |pfck |orj`x efj |opxgfbqgf`bex oq`x hedgfb soje4 esd ckgijx`f zo `{|iegf kor zk` f`r |kes`s e||èx axon zk` oij of`s&'

58& Aoxnpiez` ef ecc`|zehi` noj`xf jàgfgzgof aox (ck`ngcei ì`n`fz&(Wop new cofspiz efw xà`x`fc`s wop igd`& Ciessgaw zk` jàgfgzgof eso|`xezgofei ox aoxnei efj bgq` wopx xèsofs&

53& Con|ex` zk` ezongc nojì aox nezz`x rgzk zk` NG\ nojì j`.scxgh`j gf S`czgof :&0&

5:& E||iw zk` NG\ nojì zo giipngfez` zro |k`fon`fe axon `q`xwjewiga`&

50& Con|ex` zk` agq` b`f`xei e||igcezgofs oa zk` NG\ nojì j`scxgh`jgf zk` z`{z efj xefd zk`n gf oxj`x axon zk` of` zkez gs nosz nèf.gfbapi zo wop zo zk` of` zkez gs ièsz nèfgfbapi& @{|iegf hxgàiw&

51& Bgq` zro `{en|i`s axon `q`xwjew iga` oa swsz`ns gf +e||xo{gnez`'ùpgighxgpn rgzk zk`gx `fqgxofn`fz&

52& Bgq` zro `{en|i`s axon `q`xwjew iga` oa swsz`ns gf +e||xo{gnez`'szèjw szez`s&

5;& Ps` zk` NG\ nojì zo cofszxpcz e ngcxo.jonegf j`scxg|zgof oa |kes` ùpgighxgpn +`&b&) zk` igupgj rez`x) egx) efj besòps rez`x gfzk` aiesd gf Agb& :55c'&

57& Agfj ef efeiobp` nojì zkez ciexgag`s zk` jgszgfczgof h`zr``f ùpg.ighxgpn efj szèjw szez`s& +S`` zk` rez`x zefd efeiobp`) Agbs& :&58efj :&53) es ef `{en|i`&'

8<& J`scxgh` e||igcezgofs oa zk` szèjw.szez` cofc`|z zo zro ox zkx`` |k`fon`fe gf zk` socgei scg`fc`s&

85& J`scxgh` e||igcezgofs oa zk` ùpgighxgpn cofc`|z zo zro ox zkx`` |k`fon`fe gf zk` socgei scg`fc`s&

88& Cofszxpcz e a``jhecd ioo| nojì aox=+e' zk` z`n|`xezpx` oa e xàxgb`xezox gfz`xgox4+h' zk` igbkz gfz`fsgzw xèckgfb zk` x`zgfe oa wopx `w`s4+c' ef `{en|i` oa wopx ckogc`&Gf èck ces`) gj`fzgaw zk` swsz`n efj szèjw szez`) j`scxgh` zk` a``j. hecd n`ckefgsn) efj `{|iegf rk`zk`x zk` a``jhecd gs |osgzgq` ox f`bezgq`&






83& Rxgz` e cxgzgup` oa of` oa zk` a``jhecd ioo| `{en|i`s j`scxgh`j gfzk` z`{z& \ogfz opz zk` igngzezgofs efj gfcoxx`cz cofcipsgofs zkez ex`gn|ig`j&

8:& Zk` |ogfz gs nej` gf zk` z`{z +Agb& :&52' zkez |phigc sckoois copij |xoqgj` |osgzgq` a``jhecd aox ckefb`s gf zk` socgo`cofongc |o|pie.zgof s|`czxpn oa e connpfgzw&+e' E||iw zkgs nojì zo zk` cofq`xsgof oa e qgiieb` gfzo e sphpxh&+h' E||iw zkgs nojì zo ef `{en|i` zkez x`qèis gzs igngzezgofs +g&`&of` aox rkgck gz jo`s foz ned` zk` coxx`cz |x`jgczgof'&

80& Sp||os` wop ex` ef orf`x oa e sneii szox` zkez kes e c`xzegf effpeigfcon` axon sei`s es rìi es `{|`fs`s spck es x`fz) `n|iow``s"seiexg`s) |pxckes` oa n`xckefjgs`) efj ze{`s& Rkez`q`x gs iàz axonzk` gfcon` eaz`x `{|`fs`s gs wopx |xoagz& Es zk` orf`x) wop ngbkzzkgfd oa zk` |`xc`fzeb` oa zk` gfcon` zkez `fjs p| es |xoagz es zk`

àagcg`fcw +ox |xoagz xezgo' oa wopx hpsgf`ss& Zk` gfcon` gs eii ec.copfz`j aox4 fof` oa zk` nof`w jgse||èxs ox gs iosz) hpz wop cof.sgj`x |exz oa gz +zk` |xoagz' es `s|`cgeiiw gn|oxzefz) efj wop newrefz zo cofsgj`x kor zo gfcxès` zk` àagcg`fcw so es zo ne{gng}`wopx |xoagz& Con|ex` zkgs sgzpezgof rgzk zk` |xoc`ss oa `f`xbwzxefsa`x4 `{|iegf zk` sgngiexgzg`s rgzk zk` ier oa cofs`xqezgof oa `f.`xbw efj rgzk zk` àagcg`fcw oa f`xbw zxefsa`x&

81& Cofsgj`x zk` |xoc`ss oa `f`xbw zxefsa`x gf ef epzonohgi`= zk` oxgbg.fei `f`xbw gs x`|x`s`fz`j hw zk` ck`ngcei `f`xbw oa zk` apì4 zk``fbgf` zxefsaoxns zkgs `f`xbw gfzo kèz efj dgf`zgc `f`xbw efj zkps`fehi`s zk` q`kgci` zo noq` axon |iec` zo |iec`& @{|iegf kor zkìer oa cofs`xqezgof oa `f`xbw efj zk` cofc`|z oa àagcg`fcw e||iw

zo zkgs |xoc`ss& Kor ropij wop `{|`cz zk` àagcg`fcw zo h` xìez`jzo zk` fpnh`x oa ngi`s |`x beiiof oa apì? Kor ropij wop `{|`czzk` àagcg`fcw oa ef SPQ efj oa e xec`cex zo con|ex` rgzk zkez oa ecofq`fzgofei epzonohgi`? Rkez ngbkz e cex j`sgbf`x jo zo gf.cxès` zk` àagcg`fcw oa e q`kgci`? Kor ropij wop `{|`cz zk` àag.cg`fcw zo h` xìez`j zo zk` `{|`fs` oa xpffgfb e q`kgci`? Korropij àagcg`fcw h` xìez`j zo zk` jgszefc` wop copij zxeqì of ebeiiof oa apì? Kor ropij àagcg`fcw h` xìez`j zo zk` enopfz oa |oiipzgof b`f`xez`j hw zk` cex? Ga wop rgsk) agfj opz zk` àagcg`fcwefj ngi`s |`x beiiof oa qexgops zw|`s oa q`kgci`s&

80 Gj`fzgaw of` ox nox` `{|iefezgofs ox jgscpssgofs gf zkgs cke|z`x zkezwop agfj gfejùpez`& J`scxgh` zk` b`f`xei xèsofs aox wopx mpjb.n`fz +cofcipsgofs cofzxejgcz wopx gjès) sz`|s gf zk` xèsofgfbkeq` h``f ongzz`j) roxjs ox |kxes`s ex` nèfgfbi`ss) ùpezgofs ex`kexj zo aoiior) & & &') efj ned` wopx cxgzgcgsn es s|`cgagc es wop cef&

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intro physics--ch 4--matter and energy

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