intro to scientific research methods in geography chapter 2: fundamental research concepts

Intro to Scientific Research Methods in Geography

Chapter 2: Fundamental Research Concepts

Idea Concepts & Empirical ConceptsWhat are the basic scientific concepts fundamental to conducting and interpreting scientific research?

Idea Concepts

Theory Hypothesis Causality

Cause / Effect Probabilistic (Stochastic) / Deterministic Necessary / Sufficient Mechanistic / Functional

Model Construct

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Theory

Idea or conjecture about a causal relationship that answers “why” something is the way it is

Application - see handout

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Hypothesis

Idea or conjecture about a pattern of observations of the world


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Causality

Concept that the occurrence of one state or event can bring about another state or event


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Causality

Cause Antecedent state or event that brings

about an effect Effect

Subsequent state or event brought about by a cause


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Causality

Probabilistic (Stochastic) Causal processes that sometimes bring

about effects Deterministic

Causal processes that necessarily bring about effects


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Causality

Necessary Cause that must be in place for the efect

to occur, but by itself may not be enough to make the effect occur

Sufficient Cause that by itself will make the effect

occur, but may not need to be in place for the effect to occur


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Causality

Mechanistic Idea that causes move forward “densely”

in space and time, with continuously connected causes and effects

Functional Idea that causes can follow effects,

providing goal states for the effects (heuristic vs. literal use)


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Model

Simplified representation of a portion of reality, expressed in conceptual, physical, graphical, or computational form


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Construct

Concept that is a piece of the idealized world comprising the subject matter of theories; the hypothetical entities that we attempt to measure when we perform our systematic empirical observations


Empirical Concepts

Case Constants Variables▪ Dichotomous / Discrete / Continuous▪ Latent / Manifest

Measurement▪ Data▪ Measurement Level (Nominal / Ordinal / Interval /

Ratio)▪ Accuracy▪ Precision

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Case

The thing or entity a scientists studies


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Constant

Attributes or properties of cases that researchers measure and study; value does not vary from case to case


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Variable

Attributes or properties of cases that researchers measure and study; value varies from case to case


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Variable

Dichotomous Simplest; takes only two values across

cases Discrete

Takes on only a limited set of distinct possible values

Continuous Takes on an infinite number of possible

values Application - see handout

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Variable

Latent Hypothetical entity that we attempt to

measure; synonym of construct Manifest

Actual entity expressed by our measurements; synonym of measured variable


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Measurement

Assigning numbers or other symbols to cases to reflect their values on a variable


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Measurement

Data Values obtained by measurement

Accuracy Correctness of values measured

Precision Sharpness or highest resolution of values

measured Application - see handout

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Measurement

Nominal Classification or naming; not quantitative

Ordinal Rank order

Interval Distance between scale values; no absolute

zero Ratio

Distance between scale values and absolute zero


Concept of ScaleWhat are the implications of scale to geographic research?

What is Scale?

Size Relative Absolute

Spatial / Temporal / Thematic Categories

Phenomenon Scale Analysis Scale Cartographic Scale

Hierarchy of Scales

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Scale

Concept that concerns size, either relative or absolute Spatial Temporal Thematic


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Scale

Hierarch of scales Fact that geographic phenomena at

diferent scales often interact, existing in nested and nesting relationships to one another


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Scale

Phenomenon Scale Size at which some human or physical

earth structure or process actually exists Analysis Scale

Size of the unit at which some problem is analyzed

Cartographic Scale Depicted size of a feature on a map

relative to its actual size in the world Application - see handout

Research IdeasWhat are ways to (1) generate and (2) develop good research ideas?

Generating Research Ideas

Non-systematic Creativity / Intuition / Experience

Systematic Intensive case study Paradoxical incident Analogical extension Practitioner’s rule of thumb Account for conflicting results Reduce complexity to simpler components Account for exceptions to general findings


Non-systematic Creativity / Intuition / Experience



Systematic Intensive case study Paradoxical incident Analogical extension Practitioner’s rule of thumb Account for conflicting results Reduce complexity to simpler components Account for exceptions to general findings


Developing research ideas

Find a research area Generate research ideas

Your own ideas first Avoid groupthink / staleness

Link with other knowledge Your own Experts / Literature

Formulate your idea as specific hypotheses Design research to address your

hypotheses

Developing research ideas

Application - see handout Find a research area Generate research ideas Link with other knowledge▪ Your own▪ Experts / Literature

Formulate your idea as specific hypotheses

Design research to address your hypotheses

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ConclusionFundamental research concepts MATTER...!!

intro to scientific research methods in geography chapter 2: fundamental research concepts

Documents

properties of cases

effecteffectsubsequent

scientific research

study value

connected causes

effect occursufficientcause

effects heuristic

scientists studiesapplication