CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Introduction

Today tourism is important because it is the world's largest industry. It is the greatest

producer of world gross domestic product and employment, plays a significant role in

promotion of mutual understanding between the people of the world and in

maintenance of peace through people- to- people exchanges, and thus contributors

to the prosperity of many countries and regions. The days when tourism was a

pastime activity of the elite are over. The introduction of package holiday concept by

charter carriers as distinct from scheduled airlines, increasing disposable income and

increased awareness of the world have produced immense opportunities for the

average travellers to travel.

Travel is rooted in the ancient past but tourism is a recent phenomenon of modern

origin. Travel connotes journeys undertaken from one place to another for any

purpose including journeys to work and as a part of employment, as a part of leisure

and to take up residence. All tourism includes some travel but not all travel is

tourism1.

1.2 The Concept of Tourism

The concept of travel generally denotes the movement of people. "It is common

practice to use the words 'travel' and 'tourism' either singly or in combination to

describe three types of concepts

(a) movement of people;

(b) a sector of economy or an industry; and (c) a broad system of interacting

relationship of people, their needs to travel outside their communities, and

services which attempt to respond to their needs". 2 There is a growing trend and

consensus in recent year towards greater use of the word 'tourism' either alone or

1 Burkart, A.J. and Medlik, S. Tourism: Past, Present and Future; (London: Heinemann, 1974), p.311. 2 Ritchie, Brent J.R. and Goldner, C.R. (ed) Travel Tourism and Hospitality Research (Toronto: John

Wiley & Sons, 1984), p. 47.

1

in combination with 'travel' to describe the research conservancies with 'travel'

outside the community of residence.

But Seeking J. 3 refers to 'widespread confusion' (even within travel indus tt-y) over the

meaning of the word "tourist" in contrast to the precise defmitions used in

government and intern~tional bodies (such as defmitions of world Tourism

Organisation). Samul Pegge for the frrst time reported the use of 'tourist' as a new

word for traveller in 1800 and after that England's sporting magazine introduced the

use of word 'tourism' in 1811. According to the Webster's Dictionary, tours means a

journey at which one returns to the starting point, a circular trip usually for business,

pleasure or education during which various places are visited and for which in

itinerary is usually planned.

The research notes of Neil Leiper4 indicate that words 'tourist' and 'tourism' did not

exist before the sixteenth century. 'Tour' was, however, used in French ~ontext to

tower. It is corroborated by the fact that the travel literature of medieval era contains

only the words like 'journeying', travel and its original form 'travel' along with the

terms denoting particular forms of travel such as 'pilgrimage'. An interesting

hypothesis about the etymology of tourism has been quoted by Leiper, who says that,

the young Duke of Burgundy made a commercial treaty with England in 1516. As a

result, there was a sudden upsurge in the number of English traveling across the

Channel. The Duke used the situation to reward some of his supporters. He gave one

family a monopoly in the profitable business of making arrangements of travel and

accommodation on behalf of the visiting English. Soon the English travellers started

talking of 'talking a tour'. In time, it extended to 'tour-ist' and tour-ism'. Tourism was,

thus, evolved from a family name. By the 18th century, the word 'tour' in the sense of

tourism was established in the English language. If the 'de Ra tour' hypothesis is true,

it implies that prearranged packaged tours did exist in those days. However,

3 Seekings, J., "Components of Tourism", in -Witt, S.F. and Mountinho L. (Eds.), Tourism Marketing and Management Handbook, (London: Printice Hall, 1989), p.lO.

4 Leiper, N., Tourism System, Department of Management Systems, (Massey University, New Zealand, 1990), occasional paper- 2.

2

according to the "Oxford English Dictionarf', the word 'tourism' first appeared in

English in the year 1811 from a Greek word 'torn us' used for a tool that was found in

shape. It is often regarded as a pastime and consequently a trivial activity.

But over the year tourism has become a highly complex phenomenon which has wide

ranging economic, social and environmental effect. In recognition of this, the United

Nations General Assembly in 1963 adopted a resolution of which the opening

paragraph reads as follows:

"Convinced that tourism is a basic and most desirable human activity deserving the

praise and encouragement of all people and all governments. Recognises the

fundamental role played by tourism in national economies through the resultant

econom1c benefits to the participating countries whose foreign exchanges are

increased, and whose international trade is stimulated. Fully aware of the social,

education and cultural impact of tourism and of its significant contribution to the

promotion of international good will and understanding and to the preservation of

peace between the people.

In the Sanskrit literature there are three terms of tourism devised from the root

"atna" which means going or leaving home for some other place. The three terms

are:

(a) Paryatna i.e. going out for pleasure and knowledge.

(b) Desatna i.e. going out of the country mainly for economic gains.

(c) Tirthatna i.e. going to place!' of religious monuments. 5

Thus, conceptually, tourism is defined as "the sum of the phenomena and

relationships arising from the travel and stay of non-residents in so far as they do not

lead to permanent residence and are not connected with any earning activity6. This

5 Negi, J.M.S, Tourism Development and Resource Conservation (New Delhi: Metropolitan Books, 1990), pp. I 0.

6 Buskart and Medlik, op.cit., p.40.

3

definition formulated by Professor W. Huuziker and K. Krapf, was accepted by

International Association of Scientific Experts in Tourism (AIEST). Subsequently,

the International Union of official Travel Organisations (IUOTO) broadened the

concept of include various forms of business and vocational travel as well.

A concise summarisation of the defmition and scope of tourism is provided by

Mathieson and Wall,? they state: "Tourism is the temporary movement of people to

destination out-side their normal places of work and residence the activities

undertaken during their stay in these destinations and the facilities created to cater to

their needs. The study of tourism is the study of people away from their usual habitat,

of the establishment which respond to their requirements of the traveller and of the

impacts that they have on the economic, physical and social well being of their hosts.

It involves the motivations and experience of the tourists, the expectations of and

adjustments made by residents of reception areas, and the roles played by the

numerous agencies and institutions which intercede between them."

In v1ew of Jafari8 to Governments, tourism may mean sources of employment,

economic activities, per capita expenditure, multiplier effect, to the industry sectors, it

may suggest promotion, arrivals, length of stay, receipts; while to religions groups, it

brings to mind pilgrimage, spiritual search, Universal brotherhood,· unacceptable

forms of tourist practices. To anthropologists, tourism represents a domain of study

7 Mathieson A and Wall G. Tourism: Economic, Physical and Social Impact, (Harlow, Longman, U. K. 1982), p. 1.

8 Jafari, J., "Structure of Tourism" in Mountinho L. (Eds), Tourism Marketing and Managerial Handbook, (London: Prentice Hall, 1989), pp. 437-442.

4

which includes contacts between the host and the guest, culture change,

commoditisation of heritage, and prudence. Finally to the host destinations, tourism

means American tourists, Japanese tourists, inflation and intrusion, and the tourists

themselves, tourism offers escape from the daily routine, indulgence in leisure

pursuits, rest and relaxation, and education.

Thus tourism can be defined as a human experience, social behaviour, geographical

phenomena, resource, business, industry and by a number of other culture, social and

economic values. Tourism is not only a complex phenomena because o-f its wide

ranging effects, its complexity also lies in the extremely complicated arrangements

that have to be made for international travellers. But it varies from counuy to

country.

Tourism does not exist in isolation. It is a multifaced phenomenon and incorporates a

variety of components. Geographers study the spatial expression of tourism as a

human activity, focusing on both the tourist generating and tourist receiving

(destination) areas, linkages between them, as well as their impact on environment

and culture. From the geographical point of view, tourism consists of three major

components - generating areas, destinations and the travel routes taken between

them.

5

Dynamic Element

Static Element

Consequential element

I

I

FIGURE 1.1: A Conceptual Framework of Tourism

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TOURIST

Duration of Stay

Type of tourist activity

Level of usage

Levels of tourist satisfaction

Socio-economic charactreistics

• I Economic

I

• Finance I

,,.

Demand L ... ~

~ TOURIST: Forms of

tourism

DESTINATION CHARACTERISTICS

,,

I~ Tourist Destination ~ Environmental

processes

Economic structure

,, ... .... I_. Pressure generation ~ Political organisation

,.

Level oftourist development ,,

r--. Carrying capacity +-- Social structure and organisation

,,. ...1 Impact of Tourism I~ I ....

• • I .... I Physical I Social .I .... '"'I I""'

...

I • I Impact Control I i

-• • .. Management Information Engineering

strategies carrying Controls policy capacity

guidelines

,,. , ,,.

6

Source: Mathieson and Wall, Tourism: Economic, Physical and Social Impacts (Harlow-Longman, 1982), p.S.

~

A~

Matheison and Wal}9 offer a conceptual framework of tourism (Figure -1.1) which,

while almost 20 years old, has stood the test of time and serves to illustrate what they

see as the three major elements of tourism: the consequential, the static and the

dynamic.

However, this framework for tourism should not be viewed in isolation. It should be

remembered that tourism is just one part of a global economic system. Hoogvelt10

argues Wallerstein's notion that "Neither the 'development' nor the

underdevelopment of any specific territorial unit can be analyzed or interpreted

without fitting it into the cyclical rhythms and secular trends of the world's economy

as a whole". This 'world system' vtew (attributed to Wallerstein) the

acknowledgement of the complex, inexorable yet unequal links that frame the global

conditions is a key factor in understanding tourism. This can be illustrated, for

example, by the commercial aspirations and marketing of Delta Air Lines, a major US

carrier, which in mid-1993, under the logo 'Global Excellence', was proclaiming a

'global alliance' with Swissair and Singapore Airlines. While the motivation for this is

to enhance business, it is not only the result of advances in information technology,

transportation technology and deregulation, but is also due to changing attitudes to

political barriers and growing consumer awareness of societies and cultures. The

trading environment for a transnational tourism or hospitality corporation is truly

global in magnitude. During the same period, British Airways had a clear corporate

mission to become the world's frrst truly global airline.

These complex issues lead us to the conclusion that we should recognise that, for

purposes of analysis, tourism can be thought of as a sort of traded commodity -

displaying some as the characteristics of the trade in commodities (such as having the

prices set in metropoles and being subject to possible market manipulation, and, to

some extent, only tenuous links between cost of production and selling price). This

9 Mathieson and Wall, op. cit; p.l5 10 Hoogvelt, C. Third world in Global Development (Basingstoke: MacMillian, 1982). p.l91.

7

enables us to recognise that what started as pilgrimage, as education for an elite, or

amusement for the masses has been transformed into a global consumer product in

much the same way that Pepsi Cola, Benetton, McDonald's, etc. have all become

standardised, rationalised global phenomena: as much a part of our so-called 'global

village' (a theme explored by Boniface and Fowler) as the remnants of our

individuality. The determinants of a, standardised international tourism product are

illustrated in Figure - 1.2.

p

u L L

FIGURE 1.2:

The Determinants of a Standardised International Tourism Product

Supply (Destination)

Attractions ...... Natural Built Cultural

Accommodations & other Facilties

INTERNATIONAL TOURISM PRODUCT

Intermediary (Global Electronic

Network)

GLOBAL MEDIA

Demand (Tourism Generating

Countries)

POST INDUSTRIAL SOCIE1Y

Psychological Scoial & Economic Determinants

• Speed of transition of economy

• Level of development of the travel industry

• Level of competing experiences

1.3 Definitions Followed by World Tourism Organisation

~

The World Tourism Organisation (WTO) distinguishes between these basic forms of

tourism:

• Domestic tourism, involving residents of the given country travelling only with

the country;

• Inbound tourism, involving non-residents travelling in another country;

• Outbound tourism, involving residents travelling another country11.

11 WTO, Recommendations on Tourism Statistics, (Madrid, Spain, 1993).

8

Basic definitions of tourism were established at the United Nations (conference on

tourism and International Travel, Rome 1963) and by the United Nations

Commission on Statistics (April, 1968). These definitions were revised and updated at

the world Tourism Organisation (WTO) conference in Ottawa in June 1991 and

certain recommendations were formulated. The WTO's definition of the traveller

moves away from the concept of the 'visitor' and distinguished between the 'tourist'

and the 'excursionist'. Infact, travellers can be categorised in four ways:

• Domestic Visitor • International Visitor • International Tourist • Excursionists

The Domestic Visitor

For statistical purposes, the term 'domestic visitor' describes any person residing in a

country who travels to a place within the country, outside his/her usual environment

for a period not exceeding 12 months and whose main purpose of visit in o~her than

the exercise of an activity remunerated from within the place visited12.

Domestic tourism is very significant in World Tourism as it represents, on an average,

over 80 per cent of all tourism movements. However, it should be noted that if

domestic tourism is particularly important in the industrialised countries of Europe

and North America, it is still limited in many developing countries, generally because

their populations do not have sufficient funds or budgets to travel within their own

country and because few governments in the developing world have introduced social

legislation concerning paid holidays to encourage domestic tourism.

The International Visitor

For statistical purposes, the term international visitor describes any person visiting a

country other that in which he/she has his/her usual place of residence but outside

his/her environment for a period not exceeding 12 months and whose main purpose

12 Ibid.

9

of visit is other than the exercise of an activity remunerated from within the country

visited13.

Two factors differentiate visitors from other international travellers: their country of

residence and their motivation for travel.

The country of residence

Visitors are travellers who do not reside in the country they are visiting. These

include nationals of the visited country living permanently abroad. Certain types of

travellers are excluded from the category of tourists for reasons other than that of

residency. These are:

People travelling for political reasons: refugees;

People travelling for political/professional reasons: migrants, members of the

armed forces, diplomats, embassy staff;

People travelling for professional reasons: nomads, border workers, seasonal

workers, couriers;

People sent abroad by their companies or government. These are considered

residents of the country where they normally live (temporary immigrants);

Transit passengers and permanent immigrants.

The motivation for travel

13 ibid.

People who travel to work in a foreign country and are paid by that country

have different motives for travelling than other visitors to the country. The

WTO has devised a system of classifying international travellers which

separates visitors that should be included in international tourism statistics

from those that should not. But it is often difficult to identify and classify

accurately each traveller in the global movement of people crossing borders.

Are they in transit? Are they in transit for more or less then 24 hours? Are

they remaining in the airport or staying at an airport hotel? Will they visit the

town? And so on.

10

Figure 1.3

WTO's Classification of International Visitors

LEISURE t-- TRAVELLERS I Not included L rl Border RECREATION I mtounsm J workers

AND HOLIDAYS statistics

I VISITING }- lncludedm H Temporary

FRIENDS AND tourism munigrants RELATIVES stat·stics (5)

I BUSINESS AND I Visitors I H

Permanent PROFESSIONAL I I mtmtgrants

(5)

Main purpose of I Visit

HEALTH

I TOURISTS SAME· DAY

h [:!J TREATMENT r-- (ovem1ght VISITORS (5) visitors)

RELIGION/ PILGRIMAGES

OTHERS

Notes: 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

I I l I Non· Crew- Nationals Cruise

c:J Day Transit

nationals members resu:lmg passeng VIsitors - passengers r- (fore1gners) non- abroad ers (4) (6)

residents (2)

I

(!)

t- 11 Refugees (7)

Members of the armed - forces

(8)

Representati on of

r- consulates (8)

~ Diplomats

(8)

Foreign air or ship crews docked or in layover and who use the accommodation establishments of the country visited.

Persons who arrive in a country aboard cruise ships (as defmed by the International Maritime Organisation (IMO, 1965) and who spend the night aboard ship even when disembarking for one or more day visits.

Crews who are not residents of the country visited and who stay in the country for the day.

Visitors who arrive and leave the same day for: leisure, recreation and holidays; visiting friends and relatives; business and professional purposes; health treatment; religion/pilgrimages; and other tourism purposes, including transit day visitors en route to or from their destination countries.

As defmed by the United Nations in the Recommendations on Statistics of International Migration, 1980.

Who do not leave the transit area of the airport or the port, including transfer between airports and ports.

As defined by the United Nations High Comtnissioner for Refugees, 1967.

When they travel from their country of origin to the duty station and vice versa (including household servants and dependants accompanying or joining them).

Source: World Tourism Organisation

11

I

The International Tourist ·

A visitor whose length of stay m a country reaches or exceeds 24 hours, thus

spending at least one night in the visited country, is classified as a tourist. If his length

of stay in the country is less than 24 hours he is categories as a same-day visitor.

International tourists are defined as:

Temporary visitors staying at least 24 hours in a country whose motive for travel can

be described as being either for:

Leisure (Pleasure, holidays, health, study, religion or sport); or for:

Business, family or work assignments14.

This defmition clearly encompasses both business travellers and holiday-makers in

the tourist category. Business travellers include tour guides, commercial travellers and

representatives and artists.

The excursionist or Same-day visitor

The excursionist is a foreign visitor whose stay does not exceed 24 hours. The

economic impact of the international excursionist is very important to small isolated

countries which receive cruise-ship passengers. In fact, visitors spending the night on

board ships are classified as same-day visitors and not touristlS. The excursionist

therefore does not spend the night in the country he is visiting. Excursionist tourism

is particularly important for small insular countries like the Caribbean Islands. A large

proportion of their market is tourist arriving on cruise ships who visit during the day

but are actually accommodated on board.

14 ibid. 15 ibid.

12

Table 1.1

Visitors Included and Excluded in Tourism Statistics

Visitors included in Tourism Statistics

(a) People traveling for pleasure, for family (a) reasons, for health etc. (including nations who live permanently aboard;

(b) People traveling to attend meetings or for (b) assignments (sports, scientific, management). Employees of large organisations on assignments abroad for less than one year are also included;

(c) People traveling for business (employees of (c) commercial or industrial firms who are traveling to install machinery or equipment abroad etc.)

(d) Students and young people at boarding (d) schools or colleges and those who travel or work temporarily during their holidays;

(e) Visitors from cruise ships even if their stay is (e) less than 24 hours. They can be registered in a separate group which does not take into account their place of residence;

(t) Transit passengers who cross the country in (f) more or less than 24 hours;

(g) Foreign airline and ship crews on stopover in (g) a country;

(h) Musicians or artists on tour.

Source : World Tourism Organisation

1.4 Definitions Followed In Indiat6

Visitors excluded in Tourism Statistics

People arriving in a country for work with or without a contract (including service personnel and people accompanying them);

People who emigrate;

People who live or work on an international border including those who live in one country and work in another;

Diplomats, embassy staff, members of armed forces stationed abroad (including their service personnel and people accompanying them);

Refugees;

Nomads;

Transit passengers who do not leave the transit area in the airport or the port.

In relation to the definition provided by the WTO, those followed in India are at

variance in many cases. A comparison of these definitions is given in the following

paragraphs.

16 Govt. of India, Department of Tourism, India Tourist Statistics, Market Research Division, 1997, pp. 113-15.

13

Intemational visitor

An International visitor has been defined a person holding a foreign passport,

visiting the country and the main purpose of whose visit is other than the exercise of

an activity remunerated from within the country or establishment of residence in the

country.

This definition covers two segments of visitors:

'Tourist' and 'Same-day Visitors'

• Foreign Tourist/International Tourist

A foreign tourist is a person visiting India on a foreign passport, staying at least

twenty four house in the country the purpose of whose journey can be classified

under one of the following headings:

(i) Leisure (recreation, holi?ay, health, study, religion, and sport);

(ii) Business, family, mission, meetings.

The following are not regarded as ''foreign tourists":

(i) Persons arriving with or without a contract, to take up an occupation

or engage in activities remunerated from within the country;

(ii) Persons coming to establish residence in the country.

(iii) 'Same-day visitors' i.e. temporary visitor staying less then twenty four

hours in the country (including travellers on cruises).

The following category of travellers are not included in the data series on foreign

tourism:

(i) Nationals of Nepal entering Indian through land routes along Indo­

Nepal border;

(ii) All foreigners entering Indian from Bhutan by land;

(iit) Children aged less than three years.

14

• Excursionist

A visitor in accordance with the foregoing definition and staying less than 24 hours in

the country is treated as 'Same-day visitor'.

Cruise Passengers

A visitor, as defmed above, who arrive in the country abroad cruise ships and do not

spend a night at an accommodation establishment in the country is treated as a cruise

passengers.

All the above definitions stipulate that the traveller must hold a foreign passport for

inclusion in the category of international visitor. The classification is, thus, based on

nationality and not based on residence. The implication is that the Indians settled

abroad but holding Indian Passport will not be counted as an international visitor

when they come to India for recreation, business and other such purposes. However,

according to WTO definition, they should have been included as international visitor.

The basic reason for this deviation is the assumption that the travellers holding

Indian passport will tend to stay with their friends and relatives due to strong family

ties and may not entail any demand on tourism infrastructure particularly hotels and

restaurants. The magnitude of such travellers and validity of the above assumption

have however, never been assessed. It is, therefore, necessary to have a re­

examination of these definitions on an objective lines.

Domestic Tourist

A domestic tourist has been defined as a person who travels within the country to a

place other than his usual place of residence and stays at hotels or other

accommodation establishments run on commercial basis or m

dharamshalas/Sarais/musafirkhanas/agrarhalas/choultries etc. for a duration of not

less than 24 hours or one night and for not more than six months at a time for any

one of the following purposes:

15

(i) Pleasure (holiday, leisure, sport etc.);

(ii) Pilgrimage, religious and social functions;

(iit) Business conferences and meetings; and

(iv) Study and health.

The following are not regarded as domestic tourism:

(i) Persons arriving, with or without a contract to take up an occupation or

engage in activities remunerated from within the State/Centre.

(ii) Persons coming to establish more or less permanent residence m the

State/Centre.

(iit) Persons visiting their hometown or native place on leave or a short visit

for meeting relations and friends, attending social and religious functions

etc., and stay in their own houses or with relatives and friends and not

using any sight seeing facilities as Foreigners resident in India.

1.5 Mountain Tourism

Mountains have attracted man from near and far since the time immemorial. Any

type of tourism activity related to mountain or occurs in mountains can be termed as

mountain tourism. It includes the recreation and use of the mountain area and its

adjoining area. The concept of mountain tourism/ Alpine tourism started from the

Europe, when in 1863 Thomas Cook lead the first package tour to the Switzerland

and, at the same time climbers begin to explore the peaks of the Alps. The situation

started to change during the second half of the 19th century, when the urban elites of

Europe discovered nature and culture in the Alps. Mountain environments, which

had previously been perceived as hostile, were now positively regarded in terms of

their scenic and scientific value. Alpine people and their environment was idealised as

an alternative to the 'unnatural' urban life.

The growth of mountain tourism throughout the world m closely related to the

growth of Intemation tourism. The post world war II phase is often regarded as the

period of boom tourism. This period saw the mass movement of tourist from the

16

developed countries of Europe and US towards the mountain of Alps, Rocky and

Himalayas. From then onwards mountain tourism has growth tremendously.

However during the last 40 years, the geography of mountain tourism has profoundly

changed. The popularity of ( canyoning, hydro speed, bungee - jumping, carving,

hang-gliding, snow- boarding) sport-oriented mountain tourism has gave the new

trend to the mountains. It has spread from traditional locations such as Rocky

Mountains and the Alps to mountain areas that had been largely untouched by such

activities - including parts of Central Asia, the Himalayas/Karaleouram, Caucus,

Andes and even Antarctica.

A major reason for the spread of trend sports is the rapid development of marketing

of new technologies by sport companies. At the same time, the global spread of these

sports is facilitated by the expansion of transport net-work into new locations, by the

use of modem technologies. For instance, helicopters are now used to gain access to

high locations that could previously be reached only by walking for many days or

even weeks. This advantageous not only for those who practice trend sports, but also

for those who wish to climb high mountains or a private or commercial expedition

during few weeks of their vacations.

Tourism as a industry has enormous consequences. It has emerged as an important

instrument for economic development and employment generation, particularly in

remote and backward areas. "It is the world's largest export industry today. The

estimated international tourism receipts during 2000 was about US$ 456 billion. It

was equivalent to about 8 per cent of the world exports of goods and 35 per cent of

total world exports of services"17. In case of India, tourism is presently the third

largest export cum foreign exchange earner after readymade garments and gem and

jewellery, still reflects an area being neglected in its national economic agenda.

In an increasingly urbanised world, mountains are primarily tourist destination not

only because of their beauty and their natural and cultural diversity, but also because

17 World Trade Organisation (WTO's), Tourism Market Trends in Indian Ocean Countries (Madrid, Spain, May, 2001), pp.l.

17

they provide opportunities to escape from the stresses of modem life. Today, with

the growth of population and increasing demand at individual level for various non­

farm items have expanded the demand for goods beyond the traditional technological

practices of hill mountain communities. The lack of adequate linkages with markets

outside has also led to stagnation of farm level activities. This has necessitated the

search for non-farm occupation. Thus, tourism can fill that gap because this sector is

one of the prime sectors that can generate and support more people in the projects

for immediate development of the region.

All the resources needed for mountain tourism development however are readily

available in the form of healthy climate, mountain, valleys, natural scenery and unique

culture of the amiable mountain people. Realising that tourism is a labour intensive

industry and can generate a large scale of employment in mountain region, therefore

analysing, understanding the nature of mountain tourism and utilising this in a proper

way is essential. In addition, many lessons can be learned when we study the Indian

experience and compare it with that of developed countries, specifically from the

Alpine countries of Europe, how they had developed experience and expertise over

produced good results in strengthening mountain economy with minimum

environmental costs.

But in the long term, the diversity and attractiveness of the mountains will depend on

careful, far-sighted policy, planning and sustainable management of their resource. If

this rather the short-term economic benefit- is respected as a basic principle, tourism

can provide significant opportunities to maintain the diversity of mountains and their

role as a living space. The present study is mainly focuses on these perspectives.

1.6 The Study Regions

The Alps

The Alps are the dominant mountain ranges m Europe. The Alpine Arc is a

mountain system with an area of 24000 sq. km, having approximately 1000 kilometers

in length and 130-250 kilometers in width, and encompasses parts of France, Italy,

18

Switzerland, Austria, Germany, Liechtenstien and Slovenia. 18 This is one of the most

important tourist regions not only in Europe but indeed, in the world.

The cove of the Alps range runs almost east-west but they curve southwards at their

western end and drop down towards the sea to form the mountains backing the

France and Italian rivers. At their eastern end they gradually decrease in height until

they are separated from the Carpathians by the widening valley of the Danube. Most

of the Alps fall within Swiss and Austrian territory, but the southern section is

divided between France and Italy, while the northern slopes just overlap into

Germany the far southeast extended into Slovenia. Most of the tourist development

are concentrated in the high Alps, which form the spine of the mountain chain and

seen form, through Switzerland and into Western Austria. (See Mapl). The

landscapes and landforms are the major tourist resource; the flat floored, steep sided

valleys rise to craggy peaks, producing dramatics landsCapes of sometimes 1200

meters relative relief, and steep slopes suitable for ski runs. The mountain climate is

characterized by cloud, sunny winters but, wet and cloudy summers. This climatic

regime enables the region to be developed for winter sports, while summer tourism

place in spite of the less than ideal summer weather. Nevertheless, the volume of

summer tourism is much grater then winter sports trade measured either in terms of

visitor numbers or in tourist nights.

18 Zimmerman, Friedrich M., 'The Alpine Region, Regional Restructuring Opportunities and constrains in a Fragile Environment, in A. Montanari and A. M Williams (eds), Europeans Tourism: Regions, Spaces and Restructuring, (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1995), pp.l9.

19

0

. .

•

MAPl

The Alps

• 0

France

ODD .J_ D

a"P a o • a

• ·"' .. a • • Gennany a .Pa , 0 0 a

M:~IP.ch

a

Croatia a

0

0

0 0 0

a Inhabitants (1000) Italy 20-SO • rank4 a S0-100 rank3

ao 0 100-250 rank2 0 0 250-SOO rank 1 0 >soo a 0 200-lcm

Source: Batzing, W. 'Der Sozio- Okonomische Structurwandd les Alpenracimes in 20 Jahrhundert,' Geographica Bemeria, 1993, 26, Bern, p.4.

20

There is, however, some significant regional variation the nature of tourism and

tourist development through the Alps. In the western Alps the tourist centers and

bigger (some over 40,000 beds), and many (for example in France) are purpose built

high altitude tourist settlements completely separate from the original villages.

While the French resorts cater primarily for their own domestic markets, the tourist

centers in central and eastern Switzerland and in west Austria are generally on a

smaller scale, often consisting of small hotels and other accommodation units

integrated in traditional valley villages. European travelers have significant regional

preferences. Both Austria and Switzerland rely heavily on the German market but for

more Germans visit Austria; the French prefer their own resorts but those who do

cross into Italy, stay in the Alps of west Italy, while German visitors to Italy

congregate in the Alto Adige. Dutch visitors clearly prefer Austria to Switzerland

while Belgians visit the two countries in roughly equal numbers. These patterns of

tourist movement relate as much of historic factors, common languages and road

communication roHtes as well as economic factors.

The Structure and Landscape of the Alps

The High Alps form the core of the mountain chain but they are one of the four

physical regions, each of which has a different landscape character

1. the High Alps

2. the Calcareous

3. the Alpine Foreland and Piedmont; and

4. theJura.

The High Alps

These mountains are made of resistant crystalline rocks which form the

highest peaks, i.e. the Mecdlelihe peaks of the Aguille Rouges (3650m), the

Pytainidal Peak of the Metterhorn (4477m) or sometimes more rounded

summits (i.e. Mount Blank 6087). The slopes are often very steep (frequently

THESIS 910.9143

N3121Ge

1111111111111111111111111111111 TH10013

21 roo tJ

over 40°) and screes readily form. Some of the highest regions (over 2750m)

retain permanent snow and ice and some glacier flow from these ice fields.

The largest glacier is 32km long but most have retreated in the last century,

and global warming, might prolong· this trend. The landscape is deeply

dissected by wide U-Shaped valleys gouged out by glaciers in the last Ice Age.

The flact valley floors are cultivated, while forests clothe the valley sides.

Above the tree line (at about 2000mts) alpine meadow plants can grow and

seasonally grazed. These are classic Alpine meadows that provide a profusion

of flowers such as anemones, gentians, saffrons, crocuses and edelweiss, in the

spring, though the growing reason is short (only 6-13 weeks). Abov~ 2000m it

is too cold for plant growth and the meadows merge into high altitude rocky

wastes.

The landscapes thus have an attractive mixture of farmed and wild landscape

with forest every where an important element. They also have extremely high

relative relief with dramatic and craggy skylines. Sometimes there are small

lakes in the valleys. All these characteristics combine to give an ideal and very

attractive landscape for tourism. In winters the High Alps normally receive

over seven meters of snow, which lies for up to six months. Snowfall is heavy

everywhere above 1375 meters. The region these has the resources for winter

sports too.

'he Calcareous Alps

These limestone mountains flank the High Alps to both north and south. On

the north side they form the Bern ere Oberland (dominated by Jungfrau and

Eiger) which merge eastwards into the northern ranges of the Tyrol, while on

the southern flanks they make up the Dolomites (which run into Italy). The

landscape range from tabular masses with dramatic white cliffs, scarps and

terraced slopes, to frayed skylines with sharp peaks. Where the limestone rock

is particularly soluble the produce the classic last landscapes of Gorger,

22

Caverns, underground nvers and high level, stony, desert~like landscape

devoid of surface drainage. Some of the ranges are high enough to retain ice

fields and glaciers (ie. in the Bernese Oberland ). Again, d1e landscape and

climate provide the ideal resources for both summer and winter tourism.

The Alpine Foreland

This extends to the north of the central core of the mountains, and is made up

of softer rock which creates a varied landscape of relatively low dissected hills

and deeply cut valleys. There are many examples of glacial deposits, i.e. where

the glaciers of the Ice Age spilled out from the High Alps. This region is

fertile farmland, and is more populated then the High Alps. The major

landscape features and tourist resources are the string of 'Piedmont' lakes that

are located at the foot of calcareous Alps (i.e. lakes Geneva and Thun and

Lake Lucerve)

The jura

This mountain range is much lower than the Alps. It lies on the outer (north

westerly) edge of the Alpine foreland. The French /Swiss border follows the

soud1 west-north Eastern trend of the mountain ridges and valleys. The

landscapes is not so dramatic as the Alps, though some of the rivers slow in

deep gores where they have cut across the ridges.

Climate

The characteristics of mountain climates have a continental type (i.e. of cold, dry

winters and unsetded, mild summers) but modified by altitude. A major area of high

pressure builds up over central Europe in winter giving the sunny, dry, still weather

so suitable for winter sports, though fog may form in these conditions over the

Alpine Foreland. In spring the high pressure system breaks down and depressions

crossing the Mediterranean may coalesce with those tracking over Northern Europe

to create an are of low pressure north of the alps. Under these conditions locaJ winds

23

may suddenly develop like warm, dry Flow winds that blows from the south. It is

often funneled along the courses of North -South valleys. It is particularly common

is spring and causes very rapid snow melt and a danger of avalanches. Sometimes the

wind causes violent squalls over the piedmont lakes and the north flanks of the Alps.

The highest rainfall occurs in the summer when afternoon thunderstorms may occur.

Precipitation increases everywhere with altitude but the west facing (wind ward)

slopes get twice as much as leeward slopes at the same height. Same sheltered spot

may be very dry, for example the upper Rhone valley(in Swiss canton of Valais)

which in the rain shadow of the Mont Blanc Messif, and receives only 609 mm

precipitation. It is so dry in summers that crops need irrigation. On the other hand,

exposed west-facing slopes may get over 2450 mm a year. Snow lies longer at the

higher altitudes but this again is modified by aspect the south-facing slopes are

sunnier but snow cover is less prolonged than on the colder north-facing slopes

which are often in deep shadow all day. The valleys in the High Alps experience a

high diurnal range of temperature in winter. The air warms up in the day time, but at

night the heavy cold air drains into the valley bottoms and the temperature drops

sharply. This fact, combined with the effect as aspect on sunshine, has led to valley

settlements (and tourist accommodation) being located on the sides of valleys on

south -facing slopes.

There are some general regional patterns of variations in the climate. The Western

Alps, which are more exposed to depressions from the Atlantic and Mediterranean

are wetter and slightly milder than the eastern end of the mountain chain. The climate

becomes steadily more continental from west to east. In eastern Austria the summers

are quite hot and rainy, while the winters are very cold indeed.

1. 7 The Himalayan Region ..

The Himalayas, of Asia, include the highest mountains in the world, with more than

30 peaks rising to heights of 24, 000 feet (7,300 meters) above sea level. One of these

24

peaks is Mt. Everest, the world's highest, which reaches a height of 29,028 feet. The

great heights of the mountains rise above the line of perpetual snow. The vast

permanent snowfields attracted the attention of the pilgrim mountaineers of ancient

India, who coined the Sanskrit name Himalaya-from hima, "snow," and alaya,

"abode" -for this great mountain system. In modem times, the Himalayas have

constituted the greatest attraction and the greatest challenge to mountaineers

throughout the world.

Forming the northern border of the Indian subcontinent and an almost impossible

barrier between it and the lands to the north, the ranges form part of the great

mountain belt stretching halfway around the world from northern Africa to the east

coast of Asia. The Himalayas themselves stretch uninterruptedly for about 1,550

miles (2,500 Kilometers) from west to east between Nanga Parbat (26,660 feet), in

the disputed state of Jammu and Kashmir, and Namcha Barwa (25,445 feet). In Tibet.

Between these Himalayan kingdoms of Nepal, Sikkim, and Bhutan. The Himalayas

are bordered to the northwest by the mountain ranges of the Hindu Kush and

Karakoram and to the north by the high Plateau of Tibet. The width of the

Himalayas from south to north varies between 125 and 250 miles. Their total area

amounts to about 229,500 square miles (594,400 square kilometers). 19

Though India has sovereignty over most of the Himalayas, apart from Nepal and

Bhutan, Pakistan and China occupy parts of them.

19 The New Encyclopaedia ofBritanica, (Chicago: William Bentom Publisher, 1974), p.882.

25

N D I A

of mounlotn cubvre

Map2

The Himalaya - Location Map

\()()

T B E T • Mt. t:oiiU$

Map3

HIMALAYA lOCATION MAP

100 300

Srohmoj)utro, i.

The Himalaya - Cultural Regions

26

HIMALAYA

CULTURAL REGIONS

:;;-J

' 100

I

Since the Himalaya's origin less then 25 million year ago, it is characterized by a great

diversity in its physical and cultural features. The north has a vast expanse of sagged

topography consisting of series of great mountains ranges, their peaks capped by

eternal snow, offering example of the loftiest prominences of in the word. Those

, inner-twined series of mountain ranges flack depressed longitudinal valleys and

elevated plateau surfaces, display in a vast variety in human life and culture ranging

from the Nagas of the Indo-Burmese Hills (Animest) in north east to the Ladakhis

(fibetean) in North western to Islamic culture in western Himalayas. The Himalaya

link these diverse culture-groups ·in a thread which runs invisibly all along the

mountain range (See map-3).

In tourism front, Himalayan mountain tourism is a relatively new industry that has

seen explosive but (in most areas) uncontrolled, demand-led growth in past three

decades; tourist have simply arrived in areas formally visited only by the occasional

trader or pilgrim, and the regions have reached to meet their needs.

The picture varies, of course from region to region, and the different segments of the

tourism market have led to different types of expansion and brought different types

of changes. Nepal, the most popular Himalayan destination first opened to tourists in

the 1950s and saw a trickle of under 1,000 arrivals a year until the early sixties, it now

registers some 330,000 arrivals, approximately a quarter of whom (a third if measured

in overnight stays) are trekkers and mountains. Ladakh opened its doors in 1974 and

invited in controlled low-cost tourism and trekking: It recorded nearly 30,000 arrivals

in 1988, before figures plummeted on account of the Kashmir troubles. Bhutan

presents the opposite picture: Since it received its first tourist visitors in 1974 it has

followed a strict policy of low-volume, high cost tourism, limiting members in 1995

it reported 4,765 arrivals- and excluding budget tourists through a high levy (US$220

per day in 1996). Sikkim (with 12,000 foreign tourist in 1993) and Arunachal Pradesh

in Northeast India are likewise wary of the dangers of unfettered budget tourism

growth, and are looking to the top and of the home and foreign market. In the

27

Himalayan reg1.0n of India and Pakistan overseas tourism ts m significant beside

domestic tourism. Kashmir had over 700,000 foreign and domestic tourist annually

until tourism was hit by beginning of the militancy in 1989, but pilgrimage tourism is

still an the increase. Himachal Pradesh has a huge domestic tourism market (some 3.5

million in 1993) and its fast becoming a popular destination for foreign tourist

(70,000 overseas arrivals in 1993); like wise Uttar Pradesh has an enormous amount

of domestic tourism, above, all to its pilgrim destinations. The figure for Tibet

autonomous Region have risen steadily from some 1,000 arrivals in 1980 to 30,000 in

1995 (with a significant drop to under 4000 in 199 and 1990 on account of political

upheaval and consequent tourism restrictions); the control of tourism growth here

goes hand in hand with the political tension between the Tibet Autonomous Region

and the Chinese central govemment.zo

The Structure and Landscape of the Himalayas

The Himalayas' most characteristic features are their soaring heights, snowcapped

and steep-sided jagged peaks, valley glaciers often of stupendous size, topography

deeply cut by erosion, seemingly unfathomable river gorges, complex geological

structure, and a rich temperate and alpine vegetation. Viewed from the south, the

Himalayas appear as a gigantic crescent, with it main axis rising above the snow line,

where snowfields feed the valley glaciers and constitute the sources of most of the

Himalayan rivers. The greater part of the Himalayas, however, lies below the snow

line. The mountain-building process that created the range is still active and is

accompanied by erosion by rivers and landslides of great dimension.

From south to north, the Himalayan ranges can be grouped into four parallel,

longitudinal mountain belts of varying width, each having distinct physiographic

features and its own geological history. They are designated as the Outer, or Sub­

Himalayas; the Lesser, or Lower Himalayas; the Great, or Higher, Himalayas; and the

20 Dixit, Kanak Mani, Tourism Trends and Issues Across the Himalaya, in Luger/Inman 1995, pp. 203-222.

28

Tethys, or Tibetan Himalayas. Farther north lie the Trans-Himalayas in Tibet Proper,

eastward continuations of some of the most northerly Himalayan ranges. From west

to east the Himalayas are divided broadly into three mountainous regions: W estero,

Central, and Eastern.

Outer Himalayas

The Outer Himalayas comprise flat-floored structural valleys and the Siwallik Hills,

which border the Himalayan mountain system to the south. Except for small gaps in

the east, the Siwalik run for the entire length of the Himalayas with a maximum width

of 62 miles in the Indian state of Himachal Pradesh. In general, the 900-foot contour

line marks their southern boundary; they rise to another 2,500 feet to the north. The

main Siwallik range has steeper southern slopes facing the Indian plains and descends

gently northward to flat-floored basins, called duns. The best known of these is the

Dehradun, in Uttarakhand, which is in- the mountainous parts of Uttranchal.

The whole range is covered with thick, tropical wet deciduous forests in the east up

to Nepal; the vegetation becomes thinner farther west. The southern slopes of the

range are barren and highly dissected by Chhos in Himachal Pradesh. Except the

duns areas. Landscape of outer Himalayas have less tourism potentials. Although

other features like fossils and wild life based tourism can be promoted here.

Lesser Himalayas

'Northward, the Siwalik Range about against a 50-mile-wide massive mountainous

tract, the Lesser Himalayas, where mountains rising to 15,000 feet and valleys with

altitudes of 3,000 feet run in different directions. There is a general conformity of

altitude among neighbouring summits, which creates the appearance of a highly

dissected plateau. The three principal ranges of the Lesser Himalayas, the Nag Tibba,

the most easterly of the three ranges, is 26,795 feet high near its eastern end, in

Nepal, and forms the watershed between the Ganges and the Yamuna, in the

U ttarakhand.

29

To the west, the picturesque Vale of Kashmir, a structural basin (i.e., and elliptical

basin in which the rock strata are inclined toward a central point), forms an important

section of the Lesser Himalayas. It extends from southeast to northwest for 100

miles, with an average elevation of 5,100 feet, having a width of 50 miles; it is

traversed by the meandering Jhelum River; which runs through the Wular Lake, the

largest freshwater lake in India. The landscape thus have an attractive mixture of

farmed and wild landscape with forest almost every where an important element. All

these characteristics combine to give an ideal and very attractive landscape for

tourism. All the hill resorts of India and Nepal lies in this Zone. In winter the lesser

Himalayas normally receive snowfall in fact have vast potential for winter tourism.

Great Himalayas

The backbone of the Himalayan system is formed by the Great Himalayas, a single

high range rising above the line of perpetual snow.

The Great Himalayan Range rises to its maximum height in Nepal, having in that

section nine of the 14 highest peaks of the world. From west to east they are:

Dhaulagiri (26,810 feet), Annapiirna 1 (26,504 feet), Manaslu (26,760 feet), Kao-seng­

tsan Feng (Gosainthan; 26,291 feet), Cho Oyu (26,750 feet), Mt. Everest (29,028

feet), Makalu (27,824 feet), Lhotse (27,923 feet) and kanchenjunga (28,208 feet).

Father east the range changes from a southeasterly to an easterly direction as it enters

Sikkim. After this, it runs eastward for another 260 miles through Bhutan and the

eastern part of Arunachal Pradesh as far as the peak of Kangto (23,260 feet) and

finally turns northeast, terminating in Namcha Barwa. The great Himalaya or Himadri

Range is snow bound throughout the year and a number of glaciers descend from it

to 2,440 m above mean sea level in Kashmir and 3,960 m in the central and eastern

Himalayas east of Himachal Pradesh. Glaciations is the most important denudation

process accounting for the details of the extremely serrated and jagged topography of

this lofty range. Most of the Himalayan glaciers are 3-5 km in length but there are

some giant sitcoms exceeding 20 km such as the Milam and Gangotari in kamaon

30

and Zemu draining the Kanchenjunga in Sikkim. Besides mountaineering, high

altitude tripping and glacial expeditions in the great Himalayas, provides the great

challenge had attract the mountain lover form overseas.

There is no sharp boundary between the Great Himalayas and the ranges, plateaus

and basins lying to the north of the Great Himalayan Range, generally grouped

together under the name of the Tethys Himalayas and extending far northward into

Tibet. In Kashmir the Tethys are at their widest, forming the Spiti Basin and the

Zaskar Mountains, the highest peaks of which, to the southeast, are Leo Paragil

(22,280 feet), rising north of the Sutlej River opposite Shipki La (pass), and Shilla

(23,050 feet).

The Siachen of the Nubra valley is the longest glacier (over 72 kms). Other important

glacier are Hispar and Batura of the Hunza valley over 57 kms long the Biafo and

Baltaro of the Shigar valley, 60 kms long.

The Karakorams merge into the Pamirknot towards west whereas they continue as

the Kailash Range of Tibet towards south-west. The ladakh plateau, with an average

elevation of 5,300 m, occupies the north-eastern portion of Kashmir. The plateau has

been dissected into a number of plains and mountains designated from north to

south as the Lingzi Tang Plains, Lokzhung Mountain, Aksai chin and the soda plains.

Trans Himalayas present the entirely different landscape from Himalayas due to its

climatic condition have a moderate type of both summer and winter tourism point of

Vlew.

Climate

The Himalayas, as a great climatic divide affecting air-and water-circulation systems.

Exercise a dominating influence upon meteorological conditions in the Indian

subcontinent, to the south, and in· the Central Asian Highland, to the north. By its

situation and stupendous height, the Great Himalayan Range obstructs the passage of

cold continental air from the north into India in winter and also forces the southwest

monsoonal (rain-bearing) winds to give up most of their moisture before crossing the

31

range northward; thus causing a heavy precipitation of rain and snow on the Indian

side but arid conditions in Tibet. The average annual rainfall on the south varies

between 60 inches at Shimla and Mussoorie in the Western Himalayas and 120 inches

at Darjeeling in the Eastern Himalayas. At places such as Skardu, Gilgit, and Leh, in

the Indus Valley, to the north of the Great Himalayan Range, only three to six inches

of rainfall occur.

Local relief and situation determine the meteorological variations experienced not

only in different parts of the Himalayas but even on different slopes of the same

range. Because of its favourable location on top of the Mussoorie Range facing the

Dehra Diin, the town of Mussoorie, at a height of about 6,100 feet, receives 92

inches of rainfall annually, as against 62 inches recorded in the town of Shimla, which

lies behind a series of ridges at a height of 6,6oo feet. The Eastern Himalayas, being

at a lower latitude than the Western Himalayas, are relatively warmer; the lowest

minimum temperature so far recorded was at Simla, in the Western Himalaya, -13° F

(-25°C). The average minimum temperature for the month of May, recorded in

Darjeeling at 6 ,880 feet elevation, is 52° F (11 o C). In the same month, at an altitude

of 16,500 feet in the neighbourhood of Mt. Everest, the minimum temperature is

about 17° F (-8° C); at 19,500 feet it falls to -8° F(-22° C), the lowest minimum being

-21 o F (-29° C). At this time during the day, in areas sheltered form strong winds that

blow at more than 100 miles an hour, the sun is often pleasantly warm, even at that

altitude. There are two periods of wet weather-the winter rains and the rains brought

by the southwest monsoon winds. Winter precipitation is due to the depressions

advancing into India from the west, causing heavy falls of snow. Within the regions

where western disturbances are felt, condensation takes place in upper air levels at a

height of 10,000 feet from the surface; as a result, precipitation is much greater over

the high mountains. It is at this season that snow accumulates around the Himalayan

high peaks and that the Western Himalayas receive more rain than the Eastern

Himalayas. In January, for example, Mussoorie in the west receives almost three

inches, while Darjeeling to the east receives less than an inch. By the end of .May,

32

meteorological conditions are reversed. southwest monsoon currents passing over the

Eastern Himalayas reach heights of 18,000 feet; in June. There fore, Darjeeling

receives about 24 inches, and Mussoorie less than eight inches. The rains cease in

September, after which the finest weather in the Himalayas prevails Until the

beginning of winter in December.

33