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TRANSCRIPT
INTRODUCTION
This instructor's manual was developed as a companion to the textbook, Introduction to
Industrial/Organizational Psychology (6th edition), which describes a broad, comprehensive
body of major issues of interest in the scientific study of human work behavior. The text
delineates the major theories, applications, and research findings concerning personnel issues,
worker issues, organizational issues, and work environment issues investigated in
industrial/organizational psychology. The first chapter provides a brief history of early research
and historical events that served as forces for the development of industrial/organizational
psychology as a major subdiscipline in the study of human behavior, as well as a description of
worker and organizational issues that are of interest to I/O psychologists in the future. The
ubiquitous chapter on research methods is also included (chapter 2) because an understanding of
social scientific research methods is required in the development of a firm knowledge base for
any social science. Knowledge of social science research methods is of particular importance to
a thorough and scientifically-based understanding of industrial/organizational psychology
because of the field’s extensive reliance on the use of various types of measurement instruments
and techniques. Personnel issues are examined in Chapters 3 through 7, which cover the topics
of job analysis, employee selection and screening, the evaluation of employee performance, and
employee training. Chapters 8, 9, and 10 examine worker issues, including worker motivation,
job satisfaction and organizational commitment, stress, and positive and negative employee
attitudes and behaviors. Finally, Chapters 11 through 15 examine organizational issues,
including workplace communication, group processes at work, leadership, influence, power, and
politics, and the structure and development of organizations. The chapters of this companion
parallel those found in the book, and the various features contained in each were developed and
constructed with detail and comprehensiveness in mind.
The textbook is the most extensively referenced introductory I/O text available, an indication of
the reliance on research findings for the understanding of phenomena. Exercises for students and
lecture suggestions were designed to stimulate critical evaluations of theories and research
investigations. The use of the text by the student and its companion by the instructor will
hopefully aid the interested and dedicated student in the development of an in-depth and
scientific understanding of the psychology of work.
In addition to the regular chapter features, two special features are included. The first is a brief
section on how to construct a syllabus for the course that utilizes the text. This is a standard
feature that is included in most available instructor's manuals. The second is a description of
Reciprocal Peer Tutoring (RPT), a student-to-student study process designed and investigated by
Ron Riggio and colleagues. Professor Riggio presents the basic structure of RPT as well as the
research findings supporting its effectiveness as a student study aid. The method is highly
recommended as a method of student instruction, as well as an experience that provides an
opportunity for student interaction and getting to know classmates. The student exercises
provided in this manual include exercises for use in the Reciprocal Peer Tutoring process.
We would like to invite the instructor to enthusiastically tear apart the structure of this manual.
The features of it were designed to be versatile, with each being appropriate for various uses.
These alternative uses will be enumerated, however the instructor may obviously use this manual
and its features in any preferred manner. This companion was specifically designed to acquaint
instructors with the text and to facilitate the effective use of the text in the classroom. It was
composed both for the instructor with an in-depth knowledge of I/O psychology and for those
with a more limited range of knowledge. We hope that it serves as a valuable tool in your role as
a teacher, and that it enables you to accomplish your teaching goals efficiently.
The following are descriptions of the regular chapter features, including their proposed uses.
Part I: Chapter Outline
Each chapter contains a chapter outline which is identical to that contained in the
text. Providing such an outline allows the instructor to review the major topics
and organization of each chapter without the necessity of referring back and forth
from the manual to the text.
Part II: Chapter Summary
Each chapter contains a chapter summary that is identical to that contained in the
text at the end of each chapter. These summaries are comprehensive enough to
serve as a brief review of the material contained in each chapter.
Part III: Learning Objectives
Each chapter contains a brief roster of objectives for student learning. These objectives
are merely broad guidelines for possible teaching goals; the instructor may choose
to focus more or less on certain chapters in the text, and on certain sections in
each chapter.
Part IV: Lecture Features
A. Suggestions for Lecture
Each chapter contains a listing of possible lecture and discussion topics for each major
issue in the text chapter, as well as a list of all bold-print definitions in the chapter. These
suggestions require knowledge of text information, and they focus extensively on the
complex relationships among variables of interest. They include suggestions for drawing
students into active class discussions.
B. Additional Lecture Topics This section provides a narrative summary of two research investigations
concerning major concepts in the chapter, along with references that can be used
to assist in the development of a topic-specific lecture. This section may be
particularly useful to the instructor who is attempting to present a detailed lecture
on a particular chapter, or who wants to present material not contained in the text
to students.
Part V: Student and Classroom Exercises
Each chapter contains five student exercises, each of which requires a thorough
knowledge of text material. These exercises may be used as homework or in-class
assignments. Three of the exercises are designed for use by the individual student,
although they of course may also be used as student-pair or group assignments. The
fourth exercise was specifically designed as a group classroom activity. The fifth student
exercise in each chapter is a Reciprocal Peer Tutoring exercise, created specifically as an
added assignment for peer tutor partners. These exercises do not have to be used in
sequence, and the instructor is free to use all, some, or none of them. It is recommended
that they not be used as essay questions on examinations, because they do not tap learned
knowledge to an extensive degree as they typically require the student to use personal,
subjective experience to some extent.
Part VI: Film and Video References From three to five current videos on the topic of the chapter are presented along
with the running time, the distributor, and the item number. Each video is briefly
described to help the instructor in selecting the one that he or she thinks would
best compliment classroom lecture. Contact information for each film/video
distributor is listed before the test bank in this manual.
Part VII: Test Bank 40 to 85 multiple choice, true/false, and essay questions are provided for each
chapter. These questions cover all aspects of the material presented in the chapter.
Each multiple choice question has four (or infrequently five) alternative answers.
Each correct answer to multiple choice and true/false items is provided, as well as
the page number where the item may be found in the text.
Transparency Masters:
The final portion of the Instructor’s Manual is a set of transparency masters of
selected figures in the textbook.
We sincerely believe this manual will be a valuable tool to instructors of introductory
courses in Industrial/Organizational Psychology. Your comments and questions
regarding this manual are solicited and will be appreciated. You may address your
comments/questions to Ron Riggio, Department of Psychology, Claremont McKenna
College, 850 Columbia Avenue, Claremont, CA 91711-6420
([email protected]), or Heidi Riggio, Department of Psychology,
California State University, Los Angeles, 5151 State University Drive, Los Angeles, CA
90032 ([email protected]).
WEB SITES IN TEXT Chapter 1 Chapter 13 www.apa.org research.mckenna.edu/kli/ www.siop.org www.ila-net.org/ www.psychologicalscience.org www.onetcenter.org Chapter 14 www.influenceatwork.com Chapter 2 www.apa.org/ethics/code/index.aspx Chapter 3 www.onetcenter.org www.onetcenter.org /occupations.html www.mynextmove.org Chapter 5 www.wonderlic.com www.cpp.com www.siop.org/workplace/employment% 20testing/testtypes.aspx Chapter 7 www.eeoc.gov Chapter 9 http://www.bgsu.edu/departments/psych/io/jdi/ Chapter 12 www.has.vcu.edu/group/gdynamic.htm
Reciprocal Peer Tutoring:
An Easy, Effective Approach for Enhancing Student Learning
Ron Riggio, Ph.D.
During the past several years, I have become an advocate of a classroom learning strategy known
as Reciprocal Peer Tutoring (RPT) - a technique developed by my friend John Fantuzzo at the
University of Pennsylvania. The technique takes advantage of the fact that the best way to learn
something is to be obligated to teach it to another (the literature shows that tutors achieve higher
cognitive gains in course material than the students they tutor). The RPT technique that I have
implemented in many of my lecture courses requires students to alternately play the role of tutor
and student. In this way, students realize the benefits associated with both roles.
How to Use RPT
Students are randomly paired at the beginning of the course (this prevents “leftover” students
after others have selected their friends as partners) and work together throughout the term. The
course is divided into several units (I have used from three to five). Each unit culminates in an
exam. Before each unit exam, student pairs are required to meet, inside and/or outside of class,
and complete certain structured assignments. Each student must prepare a multiple-choice
“practice” exam (10-20 items) and administer the exam to the partner during the meeting.
Students also prepare an answer sheet with the right answer for each test item, along with a brief
explanation of why the answer is correct. Partners meet, take each others’ exams, and review
and discuss the correct responses. Students are also required to prepare outlines of answers to
some general, essay-type questions on the unit material (devised themselves or assigned by the
instructor), and they are expected to have a brief study session, using their materials to guide the
session. Finally, students write a brief, constructive “critique” of their partner’s exam (confusing
items? too difficult? etc.). All of these materials - completed practice exams, answer sheets,
essay/discussion question outlines, test critiques - are handed in to the instructor on the day of
the unit exam. Credit is given for completion of these materials (I do not grade them entirely on
quality, but generally give full credit for completed assignments. I do however, make comments
on the quality of the materials with suggestions for improvement, noting whether assignment
quality is indeed improving over time).
The Payoffs Are there benefits of using this RPT technique. Yes, and they can be dramatic. Research
indicates that student academic performance is enhanced substantially. In controlled
experiments comparing the RPT technique with other formats (included students who worked on
similar assignments alone, students assigned to unstructured discussion groups, and students
exposed to course-related films in lieu of the RPT assignment), students in the RPT conditions
earned an average 83% on unit exams compared to an average of about 70% for students in the
other conditions (Fantuzzo, Dimeff, & Fox, 1989; Fantuzzo, Riggio, Connelly, & Dimeff, 1989).
The RPT technique not only enhances academic performance, but also has possible
psychological benefits. All students in these studies were administered various measures of
psychological well-being (scales assessing student anxiety, depression, and distress over being
evaluated) both at the beginning and end of the term. Students in the RPT conditions showed
significant increases in well-being over the term, while the well-being of students in other
learning conditions showed no change, or ins some cases, increases in anxiety and depression
(Fantuzzo, Riggio, Connelly, & Dimeff, 1989; Riggio, Fantuzzo, Connelly, & Dimeff, 1991).
Finally, students like the RPT strategy. In fact, student course evaluations typically rise after
introducing RPT. My colleagues and I compared RPT with traditional cooperative learning
groups in I/O courses. Although RPT and cooperative learning students made equivalent
cognitive gains, the RPT students liked their learning strategy significantly more that did
students in the cooperative learning groups (Riggio, Whatley, & Neale, 1994). Informal student
comments indicated that they appreciated the “partnering,” particularly some of the evening and
part-time students, who mentioned that being assigned a partner “forces” them to get to know at
least one person in the class. Also, students have an assigned “study buddy” who they can rely
on for lecture notes in the case of absences.
Here is the best part - the RPT technique is relatively simple to implement in almost any course
and it is extremely cost- and time-efficient. The technique requires no additional resources, and
a minimal degree of extra effort on the part of the instructor. It really is a great technique and I
hope you give it a try. If you have any questions, or want additional information, please contact
me at the Department of Psychology, Claremont McKenna College, Claremont, CA 91711
ronald_riggio @mckenna.edu.
Fantuzzo, J.W., Dimeff, L.A., & Fox, S.L. (1989). Reciprocal peer tutoring: A
multimodal assessment of effectiveness with college students. Teaching of Psychology, 16, 133-
135.
Fantuzzo, J.W., Riggio, R.E., Connelly, S., & Dimeff, L.A. (1989). Effects of reciprocal
peer tutoring on academic achievement and psychological adjustment: A component analysis.
Journal of Educational Psychology, 81, 173-177.
Riggio, R.E., Fantuzzo, J.W., Connelly, S., & Dimeff, L.A. (1991). Reciprocal peer
tutoring: A classroom strategy for promoting academic and social integration in undergraduate
students. Journal of Social Behavior and Personality, 6, 387-396.
Riggio, R.E., Whatley, M.A., & Neale, P. (1994). Effects of student academic ability on
cognitive gains using reciprocal peer tutoring. Journal of Social Behavior and Personality, 9,
529-542.
CONSTRUCTING YOUR CLASS SYLLABUS AND
READING SCHEDULE
PSY ###-### Instructor's Name
Industrial/Organizational Psychology Office: Room ###
Fall/Spring Term, 20## Phone: ###-####
Office Hours: As posted
I. Course Prerequisites
Psychology 101: Introduction to Psychology
II. Course Description
This course offers a broad description and examination of the psychology of behavior at
work, including the major theories, their applications in the work place, and research
investigations of both. The course will examine job analysis, employee screening and selection,
employee training, the performance appraisal process, worker motivation, job satisfaction,
worker stress, communication in the workplace, group processes in the workplace, leadership
and power, and organizational structure and development. A thorough understanding of social
scientific research methods and current psychological research findings are emphasized.
III. Required Text
Riggio, R.E. (2013). Introduction to Industrial/Organizational Psychology (6th edition).
Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
IV. Reading and Lecture Schedule for the 15-Week Semester
Week Text Chapter Topic
1 Chapters 1 Introduction, History, and Research Methods
2 Chapters 2 Research Methods
3 Chapter 3 Job Analysis
4 Chapter 4 Employee Selection
5 Chapter 5 Employee Screening
6 Chapter 6 Evaluating Employee Performance
7 Chapter 7 Employee Training and Development
8 Chapter 8 Motivation
9 Chapter 9 Positive Employee Attitudes
10 Chapter 10 Negative Employee Attitudes
11 Chapter 11 Communication in the Workplace
12 Chapter 12 Group Processes in Work Organizations
13 Chapter 13 Leadership
14 Chapter 14 Influence, Power, and Politics Organizational
15 Chapter 15 Structure, Culture, and Development
Reading and Lecture Schedule for the 10-Week Semester/Quarter
Week Text Chapter Number Topic
1 Chapters 1 and 2 Introduction, History, and Research Methods
2 Chapters 3 and 4 Job Analysis and Employee Selection
3 Chapter 5 and 6 Employee Screening and Evaluating Performance
4 Chapter 7 Employee Training and Development
5 Chapter 8 Motivation
6 Chapters 9 and 10 Job Satisfaction, Worker Stress, & Attitudes
7 Chapters 11 and 12 Communication and Group Processes at Work
8 Chapters 13 and 14 Leadership, Power, and Politics at Work
9 Chapter 15 Structure, Culture, and Development
10 Review
CHAPTER 1
Introduction: Definitions and History
BRIEF CHAPTER OUTLINE
What is Industrial/Organizational Psychology?
The Science and Practice of Industrial/Organizational Psychology
The Roots and Early History of Industrial/Organizational Psychology
The Beginnings
World War I and the 1920s
The Great Depression Years and World War II
The Postwar Years and the Modern Era
Industrial/Organizational Psychology Today and in the Future
First trend: The changing nature of work
Second trend: Expanding focus on human resources
Third trend: Increasing diversity of the workforce
Fourth trend: Increasing globalization of business
Summary
CHAPTER 1
Introduction: Definitions and History
CHAPTER SUMMARY
Industrial/organizational psychology is the branch of psychology that deals with the study of
work behavior. I/O psychologists are concerned with both the science and practice of
industrial/organizational psychology. The scientific goal is to increase our knowledge and
understanding of work behavior, while the practical goal is to use that knowledge to improve the
psychological well-being of workers. The study of work behavior is a multidisciplinary,
cooperative venture. Because I/O psychologists are not the only professionals who study work
behavior, they combine their research with that of other social sciences.
Important historical contributions that led to the development of the field of I/O psychology
include the work of Frederick Taylor, who founded the school of scientific management, which
held that work behavior could be studied by systematically breaking down a job into its
components and recording the time needed to perform each. The application of such
time-and-motion studies increased the efficiency of many manual labor jobs. During both World
War I and World War II, psychologists became involved in the psychological testing of military
recruits to determine work assignments. This first large scale testing program was the beginning
of formalized personnel testing, which is still an important part of I/O Psychology. Elton Mayo
and his human relations movement emphasized the role that social factors play in determining
worker behavior. Through a series of studies he demonstrated the importance of worker morale
or satisfaction in determining performance. Mayo also discovered the Hawthorne effect, Or the
notion that subjects' behavior could be affected by the mere fact that they knew they were being
observed and by the expectations they associated with being subjects in an experiment.
Following World War II, there was tremendous growth and specialization in I/O psychology,
including specialties within the field that focus on how work groups and organizations function,
and on how technology and workers interface.
Today, industrial/organizational psychology is a rapidly growing field. Several important trends
present challenges to I/O psychology and represent cutting-edge areas of research in the field.
These include: The changing nature of work, and the rapidly expanding nature of jobs, partly
caused by a reduction in workforce due to organizational downsizing for efficiency; an
expanding focus on human resources; increasing diversity in the workforce that presents both
challenges and opportunities; and the increasing globalization of business. Finally, I/O
psychologists are having a bigger impact on shaping policies and practices regarding the
workplace and issues regarding workers and the workforce.
CHAPTER 1
Introduction: Definitions and History
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After reading and studying Chapter 1, students should be able to:
Define industrial/organizational psychology and discuss its various areas of interest.
Describe the scientist-practitioner model as it is utilized in I/O psychology.
Generally describe the history and development of I/O psychology, including the work of Taylor
and scientific management, and the work of Mayo and the human relations movement.
Describe the current and future research and application trends in I/O psychology.
CHAPTER 1
Introduction: Definitions and History
SUGGESTIONS FOR LECTURE
Definitions
1. Psychology is the study of behavior and mental processes.
2. Industrial/organizational (I/O) psychology is the branch of psychology that is concerned
with the study of behavior in work settings and the application of psychology principles to
change work behavior.
3. Time-and-motion studies are procedures in which work tasks are broken down into simple
component movements timed to develop a more efficient method for performing the tasks.
4. Scientific management, a movement started by Frederick Taylor, was a method of using
scientific principles to improve the efficiency and productivity of jobs.
5. The Hawthorne effect refers to changes in behavior occurring as a function of participants’
knowledge that they are being observed and their expectations concerning their role as research
participants.
6. The human relations movement was a movement based on the studies of Elton Mayo that
emphasizes the importance of social factors in influencing work performance.
7. Organizational downsizing refers to the strategy of reducing an organization’s workforce to
improve organizational efficiency and/or competitiveness.
The Science and Practice of Industrial/Organizational Psychology
1. Discuss the scientist-practitioner model.
2. Discuss the multidisciplinary nature of I/O psychology. Ask students how various disciplines
may be interested in the study of work behavior.
3. Ask students how the results of studies of work behavior could be applied to actual work
settings.
4. Discuss the case studies of I/O psychologists described in the chapter (Table 1.1) in terms of
the I/O psychologist as practitioner. Discuss the research journals listed in the chapter
in terms of the role of the I/O psychologist as scientist.
The Roots and Early History of I/O Psychology
1. Discuss Frederick Taylor, scientific management, and time-and-motion studies.
2. Involve students in a discussion of how different jobs could be broken down into
component parts. Ask students about their own jobs and how their jobs could or
could not be broken down.
3. Discuss Elton Mayo and the Hawthorne studies. Ask students how the results of these
studies could have come about.
4. Discuss the human relations movement and its basic principles.
5. Discuss the importance of using scientific research methods in the study of work
behavior.
6. Involve students in a discussion of different motivations for workers. Ask students
what motivates them in their own jobs.
7. Discuss the work of I/O and other psychologists in the developments of testing and
assessment during the two World Wars.
8. Discuss the Civil Rights Act of 1964. Ask students how this legislation could have
affected the work of I/O psychologists.
I/O Psychology Today and in the Future
1. Discuss the dwindling supply of workers. Ask students how they think I/O
psychologists may become involved in this situation.
2. Discuss the increasing globalization of business and the role of I/O psychology.
3. Discuss the increasing diversity of the workforce. Ask students to discuss the
implications of such increased diversity.
4. Define organizational downsizing. Ask students to come up with reasons why organizations
may need to reduce their workforce.
CHAPTER 1
Introduction: Definitions and History
ADDITIONAL LECTURE TOPICS
The Interdisciplinary Nature of Industrial/Organizational Psychology
Since the science of psychology is largely multidisciplinary, I/O psychology research articles
may be found in a variety of the most widely published scientific journals. For example, the
February 1993 issue of the Journal of Applied Psychology contains articles that cover topics
ranging from the competence of jurors in civil cases to differences in ratings of performance
between individuals and groups. Eight of the 14 articles in this particular journal issue involve
I/O psychology research. As another example, the February 1995 issue of the Journal of Applied
Psychology contains articles on topics ranging from differences in adolescent behavior across
cultures to an examination of the length of time it takes workers to recover from varying work
shifts. A closer look at some I/O related articles reveals the multidisciplinary nature of I/O
psychology.
First, a study by Barrick and Mount (1993) combined personality and I/O psychology by
investigating the conditions under which personality may be related to performance in
management jobs. Second, a study by Harrison and McLaughlin (1993) draws from cognitive
and I/O psychology by investigating the cognitive processes that generate responses to self-
report measures, such as job satisfaction questionnaires. According to the researchers, the
context in which the item is presented (e.g., whether it is worded in a positive or negative
manner) can influence how the worker interprets the question, retrieves information from
memory, makes a judgment about the retrieved information, and ultimately responds to the
question. The importance of this study to I/O psychology is that such cognitive processes can
influence the measurement of worker job satisfaction.
A third study (Driskell, Olmstead, & Salas, 1993) uses findings from research in social
psychology to show that interdependence among group members can, in some cases, lead to
conflict between work groups. Such conflict can in turn have negative effects on group
performance. Such findings are important to managers who are attempting to build effective
work groups.
As these examples indicate, research in I/O psychology builds upon and contributes to findings
in other areas of psychology and in many other social science disciplines. For this reason, the
student or practitioner of I/O psychology must become as interdisciplinary as the field itself.
Barrick, M. R., & Mount, M. K. (1993). Autonomy as a moderator of the relationship between
the big five personality dimensions and job performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 78,
111-118.
Driskell, J. E., Olmstead, B., & Salas, E. (1993). Task cues, dominance cues, and influence in
task groups. Journal of Applied Psychology, 78, 51-60.
Harrison, D. A., & McLaughlin, M. E. (1993). Cognitive processes in self-report responses:
Tests of item context effects in work attitude measures. Journal of Applied Psychology, 78, 129-
140.
The History of I/O Psychology
Katzell and Austin (1992) offer a very current, detailed accounting and interpretation of the
history of I/O psychology in the United States. This article is ideal for the instructor who is
interested in a more in-depth accounting of the field’s history in an opening lecture. Covering
several distinct historical time periods, the authors review the subject matter, methods of study,
roles enacted by I/O consultants, and salient aspects of the contemporary intellectual, social, and
political environment. The article’s coverage spans from the turn of the century to the present
day.
The review begins with salient historical accounts of ancient I/O psychology activities, including
Plato’s recommendations for managerial selection and development outlined in The Republic.
Other ancient occurrences include the use of multiple-hurdle selection systems for bureaucrats in
ancient China, and Jethro as the first I/O consultant, who advised his son-in-law Moses on how
to staff and organize the ancient Israelites.
I/O psychology began to emerge in the U.S. around the turn of the century with the work of
Taylor (see Chapter 1) and others. Some of the earliest I/O studies dealt with the acquisition of
such skills as telegraphy and typing. Personnel selection based on individual differences was
another popular research topic, including examinations of salespeople and streetcar motormen. In
these pre-World War I days, nearly all psychologists were trained in general experimental
psychology and were primarily employed in academic settings.
Major occurrences in I/O psychology during the World Wars focused on employee selection and
ability measurement (see Chapter 1). The Hawthorne studies by Mayo and colleagues also
occurred during the war era. The review continues into the present day, and provides a very up-
to-date summary of modern foci in I/O psychology. Several tables presenting current topics in
Industrial and Organizational Psychology are also provided.
Katzell, R. A., & Austin, J. T. (1992). From then to now: The development of industrial-
organizational psychology in the United States. Journal of Applied Psychology, 77, 803-835.
CHAPTER 1
Introduction: Definitions and History
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES
Instructor tip: Any one of the following exercises may be adapted for use as a classroom or
group activity. Interesting variations in group discussions occur when different groups are
assigned a task with regard to particular occupations, especially the students’ own jobs. 1. Discuss the work of Taylor and scientific management. Describe how your own job could be
broken down into component parts. Discuss methods you have developed to improve the
efficiency of your work performance.
2. Discuss the Hawthorne studies conducted by Mayo, and the results of those studies. Consider
and describe strategies which may have eliminated the occurrence of the Hawthorne effect.
Discuss how these results apply to the direct supervision and performance appraisal of workers.
3. Discuss the increasing focus on international business as a trend in industrial/organizational
psychology. Identify specific organizational needs which may arise as a result of this trend,
including personnel needs, leadership needs, and training needs. Discuss how I/O psychologists
could help organizations to meet these needs.
Exercise 4: Classroom Activity
Divide the class into two large debating teams. Have one side promote the advantages of
increasing diversity in the workforce, and have the other side discuss the difficulties associated
with an increasingly diverse workforce. Together the entire class may develop possible programs
to manage workplace diversity to maximize strengths.
Exercise 5: Reciprocal Peer Tutoring Exercise
Specialties of I/O Psychologists
1. Together with your peer tutor, discuss some of the areas of specialization of I/O
psychologists.
2. Discuss the specific tasks that may be involved in the various subspecialties for the I/O
psychologist as a scientist and as a practitioner.
3. Evaluate and discuss the importance of training in scientific research methods and data
analysis procedures for the professional I/O psychologist.
CHAPTER 1
Introduction: Definitions and History
FILM AND VIDEO REFERENCES
“All Together: Organization Behavior”
Explaining that each organization has its own unique culture, this program looks at
organizational behavior. It introduces the ideas of Frederick Taylor, discusses the principles of
scientific management, defines corporate culture, and considers the pitfalls of bureaucracy.
Insight Media #MTS3943 30 minutes
CHAPTER 2
Research Methods in Industrial/Organizational Psychology
BRIEF CHAPTER OUTLINE
Social Scientific Research Methods
Goals of Social Scientific Research Methods
Steps in the Research Process
Formulation of the problem or issue
Generation of hypotheses
Selecting the research design
Collection of data
Analyses of research data
Interpretation of research results
Major Research Designs
The Experimental Method
Two examples of the experimental method: A laboratory and a field experiment
Quasi-Experiments
The Correlational Method
Two examples of the correlational method
Meta-Analysis
The Case Study Method
Measurement of Variables
Observational Techniques
Self-Report Techniques
Key Issues in Measuring Variables: Reliability and Validity
Measuring Work Outcomes: The Bottom Line
Interpreting and Using Research Results
Ethical Issues in Research and Practice in I/O Psychology
Summary
Appendix: Statistical Analyses of Research Data
Descriptive Statistics
Inferential Statistics
Statistical Analysis of Experimental Method Data
Statistical Analysis of Correlational Method Data
Appendix Summary
CHAPTER 2
Research Methods in Industrial/Organizational Psychology
CHAPTER SUMMARY
The goals of I/O psychology are to describe, explain, predict and then alter work behavior. Research
methods are important tools for I/O psychologists because they provide a systematic means for
investigating and changing work behavior. Objectivity is the overriding theme of the social scientific
method used to study work behavior.
The first step in conducting research involves the formulation of the problem or issue. The second
step is the generation of hypotheses, which are simply statements about the supposed relationships
among variables. It is through the systematic collection of observations of behavior that a researcher
may develop a set of hypotheses into a more general theory, or model, which are ways of
representing the complex relationships among a number of variables related to actual work behavior.
The third step in conducting research is choosing a particular design to guide the actual collection of
data (the fourth step). The data collection stage includes sampling, the methods by which
participants are selected for study. The final steps in the process are the analyses of research data and
the interpretation of research results.
I/O psychologists use two basic types of research designs. In the experimental method, the researcher
manipulates one variable, labeled the independent variable, and measures its effect on the dependent
variable. In an experimental design, any change in the dependent variable is presumed to be caused
by the manipulation of the independent variable. Typically, the experimental method involves the
use of a treatment group and a control group. The treatment group is subjected to the manipulation
of the independent variable, while the control group serves as a comparison by not receiving the
treatment. Variables that are not of principal concern to the researchers, but which may affect the
results of the research are termed extraneous variables. In the experimental method, the researcher
attempts to control for extraneous variables through the random assignment of participants to the
treatment and control groups, in order to ensure that any extraneous variables will be distributed
evenly between the groups. The strength of the experimental method is the high level of control that
the researcher has over the setting, which allows the investigator to determine cause-and-effect
relationships. The weakness of the method is that the controlled conditions may be artificial and may
not generalize to actual, uncontrolled work settings. Quasi-experiments are often conducted when
the researcher does not have the ability to randomly assign participants to different conditions. The
other type of research method, the correlational method (sometimes called the observational
method), looks at the relationships among measured variables as they naturally occur, without the
intervention of the experimenter and without strict experimental controls. The strength of this design
is that it may be more easily conducted in actual settings. However, the correlational method does
not allow the specification of cause-and-effect relationships.
Meta-analysis is a method that allows the results of a number of studies to be combined and
analyzed together to draw an overall summary or conclusion. Meta-analysis may also be used to
determine if the results of different studies of the same factors are significantly different from each
other.
The case study is a commonly used descriptive investigation that lacks the controls and repeated
observations of the experimental and correlational methodologies. The case study can provide
important information, but does not allow the testing of hypotheses.
An important part of the research process involves the measurement of variables. The term
operationalization refers to the process of defining variables so that they can be measured for
research purposes. A variety of measurement techniques are used by I/O psychology researchers.
Researchers may measure variables through the direct obtrusive or unobtrusive observation of
behavior. In obtrusive observation, the researcher is visible to the research participants, who know
that they are being studied. Unobtrusive observation involves observing participants' behavior
without their knowledge. Another measurement strategy is self-report techniques, which yield
information about participants' behavior from their own reports. One of the most widely used
self-report techniques is the survey.
When interpreting research results, a researcher should consider the limitations of the findings. One
concern is the extent to which the researcher is confident that changes in the dependent variable were
actually caused by the independent variable, as opposed to extraneous variables. This is called
internal validity. Attention must also be given to the external validity of the findings, that is, whether
they will generalize to other settings. A critical concern to I/O psychologists is the interrelation of
the science and practice of industrial/organizational psychology.
The American Psychological Association lists several core principles that should guide the ethical
conduct of research in psychology, including I/O psychology. One key element in working with
human participants is obtaining informed consent. With informed consent, a research participant is
fully informed of the nature of the experiment and has the right to not participate in the research.
CHAPTER 2
Research Methods in I/O Psychology
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After reading and studying Chapter 2, students should be able to:
Explain why social scientific research methods are important, and describe the four goals of this
method in I/O Psychology.
Describe the six steps in the research process.
Explain the role of a dependent variable in I/O research, and give examples of dependent
variables commonly examined in I/O.
Explain and distinguish between the major research designs, and give examples of when each is
appropriate or desirable.
Explain the usefulness of meta-analysis in social science research.
Define operationalization of variables, and describe various ways to measure variables.
Explain why external validity is important in the interpretation and use of research results.
After reading and studying the Appendix in Chapter 2, students should be able to:
Understand the difference between descriptive and inferential statistics and be able to give
examples of each.
Understand the different statistical analyses involved in the experimental and correlational
methods.
CHAPTER 2
Research Methods in Industrial/Organizational Psychology
SUGGESTIONS FOR LECTURE
Definitions
1. Objectivity is the unbiased approach to observation and interpretations of behavior.
2. Variables are the elements measured in research investigations.
3. Hypotheses are statements about the supposed relationships between or among
variables.
4. A theory or model is an organization of beliefs into a representation of the factors
that affect behavior.
5. Sampling is the selection of a representative group from a larger population for
study. Random sampling refers to the selection of research participants from a
population so that each individual has an equal probability of being chosen.
Stratified sampling is the selection of research participants based on categories
representing important distinguishing characteristics of a population.
6. The experimental method is a research design characterized by a high degree of
control over the research setting to allow for the determination of cause-and-effect
relationships among variables.
7. Independent variables are variables that are manipulated by the researcher using the
experimental method, while dependent variables are the variables that are acted
upon by the independent variable(s) (also known as the outcome variable).
8. The treatment group is the group in an experimental investigation that is subjected
to the change in the independent variable, while the control group is the group that
receives no treatment.
9. Extraneous variables are variables other than the independent variable that may
influence the dependent variable.
10. Random assignment is a method of assigning subjects to groups to control for the
effects of extraneous variables.
11. Quasi-experiment follows the experimental design but lacks random assignment
and/or manipulation of the independent variable.
12. The correlational method is a research method that examines the relationship among
or between variables as they occur naturally.
13. Multiple regression design examines the relationship between a particular outcome
variable and multiple predictors.
14. Meta-analysis is a technique that allows results from several different research
studies to be combined and summarized. Meta-analyses typically rely on indicators of
effect size, or estimates of the magnitude of the relationship or effect found in a
research investigation.
15. The case study is a descriptive investigation that involves a one-time assessment of
behavior.
16. Research variables that are operationalized are clearly defined so that they may be
concretely measured.
17. Obtrusive observation is research observation in which the presence of the observer
is known to the participants. In contrast, unobtrusive observation is observation in
which the presence of the observer is not known to the participants.
18. Self-report techniques are measurement methods that rely on research participants’
reports of their own behaviors or attitudes. Surveys are a common self-report
measure in which participants are asked to report on their attitudes, beliefs, and/or
behaviors.
19. Reliability refers to the stability or consistency of a measurement over time.
20. Validity refers to the accuracy of inferences drawn from a measurement.
21. Internal validity is the extent to which extraneous or confounding variables are
removed.
22. External validity refers to whether research results obtained in one setting will apply
to another setting.
23. Informed consent refers to when a research participant is fully informed of the
nature of the experiment and has the right to no participate.
Social Scientific Research Methods
1. Define objectivity as the unbiased approach to observation and interpretations of
behavior. Ask students why objectivity is necessary in the study of human behavior.
2. Discuss the various steps in the research process.
Major Research Designs
1. Describe the experimental method in detail, including the importance of experimental
control.
2. Define independent and dependent variables. Ask students to think about what factors or
behaviors may be examined as independent and dependent variables in the study of work
behavior.
3. Discuss why correlational methods must be used in the examination of certain variables.
4. Compare and contrast the two main research designs, including their respective
advantages and disadvantages.
5. Ask students how the two methods may be used in the study of work behavior.
6. Discuss meta-analyses, their particular purposes, and their usefulness in integrating
research.
7. Discuss the case study method. Ask students why the case study is not a preferred
method. Ask students how the case study could be used in the study of work behavior.
Measurement of Variables
1. Discuss the operationalization of variables. Ask students how work-related variables of
interest could be operationalized, including worker stress, motivation, job satisfaction,
and productivity.
2. Discuss the different observational techniques and when they are necessary. Include
discussion of the Hawthorne effect.
3. Discuss self-report techniques. Ask students why self-report techniques may not be
completely accurate measurement tools.
Key Issues in Measuring Variables: Reliability and Validity
1. Discuss how measurement instruments used in I/O psychology different from others (e.g.,
a thermometer).
2. Compare reliability to validity. Ask students to come up with examples of measures that
might be highly reliable but only valid in certain contexts.
Measuring Work Outcomes: The Bottom Line
1. Discuss the measurement of dependent variables in the study of work behavior. Ask
students what variables are most important to workers and to organizations.
Interpreting and Using Research Results
1. Discuss external validity. Ask students why it is important. Involve students in a
discussion of how to achieve high generalizability of research results.
Ethical Issues in Research and Practice in I/O Psychology
1. Discuss the steps I/O psychologists take to protect human subjects.
Appendix: Statistical Analyses of Research Data
1. Define descriptive statistics, including measures of central tendency and variability.
Describe what these measures tell us about a group of scores.
2. Define inferential statistics, and how they are used to draw conclusions about groups of
scores.
3. Discuss statistical significance.
4. Discuss the normal distribution and how it is used in various inferential statistical tests.
5. Discuss differences in the analyses of experimental method and correlational method
data.
6. Define the correlation coefficient, including the implications of direction and strength.
Involve students in a discussion of correlation and causality.
CHAPTER 2
Research Methods in I/O Psychology
ADDITIONAL LECTURE TOPICS
Steps in the Research Process
Dwyer and Ganster (1991) conducted a study to determine the effects of workload and control
over one's job on employee attendance and satisfaction. The article published as a result of this
study is used to demonstrate important concepts in research methods. The concepts and
terminology from the chapter in the text are used to explain this study and are italicized.
One goal of this study was to describe some characteristics of jobs that may be associated with
important work behaviors (attendance) and attitudes (work job satisfaction). A second goal was
to test a descriptive model that proposes a relationship between job stress and employee
attendance.
The problem was formulated (Step 1) based on previous research findings as well as actual
problems faced by employers. One hypothesis formed (Step 2) by these researchers was that
employees who work under heavy job demands and have little control over their jobs have
higher rates of absenteeism and tardiness and lower job satisfaction than employees who work
under heavy job demands but who have a high degree of control over their jobs.
The research design selected (Step 3) was the correlational method. The researchers measured
and determined the relationships between five variables (degree of control, job demands,
absenteeism, tardiness, and job satisfaction). The participants in the study were actual employees
of a manufacturing company. Therefore, the research setting was the work place.
Data were collected (Step 4) in two ways. First, the researchers asked participants to complete
questionnaires (self-report measures). Secondly, they collected data from the attendance records
maintained by the employer. This data was collected from 90 male workers who represented a
wide range of ages (19 to 6) over a wide range of jobs (25) from three work shifts.
The sampling technique was not random. Since all employees who were given the questionnaire
did not return them, each individual did not have an equal probability of being selected to
participate. Neither was the sampling technique stratified since the number of participants of
each gender, in each job, on each shift, and at each age did not mirror the actual breakdown of
these groups in the total population of the company. On the other hand, the sample was
representative of male workers of all ages over all shifts in 25 different jobs in the company.
The data were analyzed (Step 5) by computing correlation coefficients that showed the
relationship between the variables measured in the study. (Please note that in the actual study
there were several interaction effects between the variables measured that are not mentioned here
for the sake of simplifying the material for introductory-level students.)
In their interpretation of the results (Step 6), the researchers concluded that a heavy work load
was apparently related to higher absenteeism and tardiness when workers have low control over
their jobs. However, heavy work load was apparently not related to higher absenteeism and
tardiness when workers had a high degree of control over their jobs. The researchers further
concluded that the stress that accompanies a heavy work load and low control is linked to
increased costs to employers (in time lost from work).
The external validity of these findings may not be automatically assumed. For example, since
this study was conducted in only one company, and with only male employees in certain jobs,
these findings may not hold true for (or generalize to) female employees who do different types
of jobs or for workers in other companies. To determine the external validity of these findings,
this study should be replicated using different workers in different companies.
Dwyer, D. J., & Ganster, D. C. (1991). The effects of job demands and control on employee
attendance and satisfaction. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 12, 595-608.
The Relationship Between Grades and Job Performance: A Meta-Analysis
Employers and academics often have differing views on the value of grades for predicting job
performance. Students also tend to be particularly interested in how meaningful grades are for
future work performance. Roth, BeVier, Switzer, and Schippman (1996) examined the
relationship between undergraduate and graduate grades (GPA) and job performance in a meta-
analysis of 71 studies. After correcting for research artifacts, a correlation of .30 between grades
and performance was found. However, the relationship between GPA and performance appeared
to be moderated by several factors. For example, grades were found to be more strongly
predictive of job performance for workers on the job for more than one year. In addition,
undergraduate GPA was found to be more predictive of job performance than graduate school
GPAs, including those of individuals who completed Ph.D. and M.D. programs. This study
nicely illustrates procedures involved in meta-analyses, as well as the valid prediction of job
performance through the use of GPA.
Roth, P. L., BeVier, C. A., Switzer, F. S., & Schippmann, J. S. (1996). Meta-analyzing
the relationship between grades and job performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 81(5),
548-556.
CHAPTER 2
Research Methods in I/O Psychology
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES
Instructor tip: Any one of the following exercises may be adapted for use as a classroom or
group activity. Interesting variations in group discussions occur when different groups are
assigned a task with regard to particular occupations, especially the students’ own jobs. 1. Consider and describe how you could scientifically examine the effects of worker training on
work performance using the experimental method. Describe how you would complete each step
of the research process and define the independent and dependent variables. Discuss any
extraneous factors which may affect the results of your research.
2. Consider and describe how you could scientifically examine the relationship between the
amount of work experience and work performance in an actual work setting. Describe how you
would complete each step of the research process and define the variables of interest. Discuss
any extraneous factors that may influence the results of your research.
3. Construct a list of at least five variables of interest which may be examined in actual work
settings, including such factors as worker job satisfaction, worker productivity, work conditions,
and so on. Determine how these variables could be specified, operationalized, and measured.
Delineate which factors could be used in an experimental research design, and which would
require a correlational research design.
Exercise 4: Classroom Activity
Assign particular research articles to 3 to 4 groups of students (group formation and article
assignment may be accomplished in a previous class session). During class, allow groups to
discuss principle variables, methods, and steps in the research process described in their
respective articles. Ask each group to select a representative to orally present their article
information to the class.
Exercise 5: Reciprocal Peer Tutoring Exercise
Using Research Methods to Study Work Behavior
1. Together with your peer tutor, describe specific features of your respective jobs, including
work duties and tasks, the physical work environment, and relationships with coworkers and
supervisors.
2. Discuss your respective levels of satisfaction with your jobs, including your levels of work
motivation. Consider and discuss how the various features of your respective jobs influence your
levels of job satisfaction and work motivation.
3. Discuss how each of you could examine these relationships using scientific research methods,
including the operationalization of the variables of interest and the accomplishment of the
various steps in the research process. Indicate which type of research design each of you would
use.
CHAPTER 2
Research Methods in I/O Psychology
FILM AND VIDEO REFERENCES
“Measuring Up: An Introduction to Research Methods”
Featuring illustrative classroom vignettes, this program shows how to gather, organize,
summarize, and analyze data using such graphical representations as line graphs, bar
graphs, and histograms. It covers such topics as surveys, samples, populations, qualitative
and quantitative data, and variables.
Insight Media #41TS3691 22 minutes
“The Bigger Picture: Distributions, Variation, and Experiments”
This program shows how to gather data, present data on graphs, and summarize data
using measures of central tendency and variation. It explains frequency distributions;
variability; correlation; and such experimental concepts as variables, experimental and
control groups, hypotheses, and random assignment.
Insight Media #41TS3454 12 minutes
“Inferential Statistics”
Who said statistics were boring? Using magic and circus motifs, this program
demonstrates the significance of probability theory and the importance of using the
correct test to analyze research data. Host Amy and her friend Matt the Magician guide
viewers through the need to make probability statements, and along with a team of
students, use juggling skills to explore choice of test. Setting significance levels, tests of
difference, the sign test, degrees of freedom, Yates correction, expected frequencies,
parametric tests, and plastic interval scales are explored. Supporting graphics and
animation enliven each discussion point and set up questions posed to viewers.
Films for the Humanities and Sciences #BVL36201 36 minutes
INTRODUCTION TO THE TEST BANK
This test bank contains over 40 multiple choice, true/false, and essay test items for each of the
fifteen chapters in Introduction to Industrial/Organizational Psychology (6th edition). Each
multiple choice item contains four (or infrequently five) possible alternative answers, and the
correct answer is provided for each. Chapter sections and page numbers are also provided for
multiple choice and true/false items. The instructor is invited to use any, all, or none of the test
items, yet their use is encouraged as they were developed to require a comprehensive and
sometimes detailed knowledge of the text.
We hope that this test bank facilitates the instructor's ability to teach effectively, and the student's
acquisition of knowledge about industrial/organizational psychology.
H.R.R., A.L.G., and R.E.R.
CHAPTER 1
Introduction: Definitions and History
TEST BANK
Multiple Choice Test Items
1. FACTUAL: What is Industrial/Organizational Psychology? ANSWER: b
Industrial/organizational psychology is defined as
a. the study of work in industry.
b. the study of human behavior in work settings.
c. a combination of management principles and work efficiency
methods.
d. the process of analyzing communication between managers and
subordinates.
2. FACTUAL: The Science and Practice of Industrial/Organizational Psychology
ANSWER: a
The two objectives of I/O psychology are
a. conducting research and applying research knowledge to improving work behavior.
b. conducting research and establishing general laws of work behavior.
c. conducting research and training other psychologists.
d. training other psychologists and designing organizational structures.
3. FACTUAL: The Science and Practice of Industrial/Organizational Psychology
ANSWER: c
The scientific objective of I/O psychology involves
a. applying psychological principles to observing work behavior.
b. applying research results in attempts to improve work behavior.
c. the study and understanding of all aspects of behavior at work.
d. the discovery of general laws of human behavior.
4. FACTUAL: The Science and Practice of Industrial/Organizational Psychology
ANSWER: b
The applied objective of I/O psychology involves
a. examining and describing human work behavior.
b. the application of psychological principles to work behavior.
c. the discovery of general laws of human behavior.
d. conducting research and publishing it in scientific journals.
5. FACTUAL: The Roots and Early History of Industrial/Organizational Psychology
ANSWER: c
The engineer who is credited with stimulating the beginning of the field that would
develop into I/O psychology is
a. Hugo Munsterberg.
b. Walter Dill Scott.
c. Frederick W. Taylor.
d. Elton Mayo.
6. CONCEPTUAL: The Roots and Early History of Industrial/Organizational Psychology
ANSWER: b
An efficiency expert is studying jobs carefully, making detailed assessments of how long
it takes workers to perform tasks. In all likelihood, the expert is using the scientific
management method of
a. ergonomics.
b. time-and-motion studies.
c. scientist-practitioner model.
d. job specialization.
7. APPLICATION: The Roots and Early History of Industrial/Organizational Psychology
ANSWER: d
Suppose that a manager wants to increase the output of a staff of word processors/typists.
Which of the following strategies would be consistent with the principles of scientific
management?
a. Giving the typists pep talks every morning
b. Instituting an Employee of the Month program
c. Firing the least productive typists and hiring new ones
d. Designing work stations that increase the efficiency with which workers can perform
their jobs
8. CONCEPTUAL: The Roots and Early History of Industrial/Organizational Psychology
ANSWER: c
One reason that scientific management is no longer as applicable in the work place as it
was at one time is that
a. the standard of living has increased over the years.
b. the theory is too broad to apply today.
c. jobs today are more complex than they used to be.
d. the principles do not apply to international businesses.
9. FACTUAL: The Roots and Early History of Industrial/Organizational Psychology
ANSWER: b
A major contribution to the development of I/O psychology that occurred during the
World War I years was
a. development of the atomic bomb.
b. the creation of the Army Alpha and Beta intelligence tests.
c. an increased focus on ergonomic design of war equipment.
d. an increased focus on the psychological experiences of soldiers.
10. FACTUAL: The Great Depression Years and World War II ANSWER: a
In the famous Hawthorne studies, workers became more productive because
a. they knew they were being observed.
b. the lighting was increased.
c. they were given longer rest breaks.
d. they thought they would eventually be rewarded.
11. FACTUAL: The Great Depression Years and World War II ANSWER: d
A main proposition of the human relations movement is
a. workers are motivated solely by money.
b. achievement motivation is important in determining worker morale.
c. workers in high-level positions are unlikely to be satisfied with their jobs.
d. good interpersonal relationships among coworkers will lead to increased productivity.
12. CONCEPTUAL: The Great Depression Years and World War II ANSWER: c
According to Mayo, which workers are most likely to turn to the social environment of
the work setting for motivation?
a. Workers who are highly satisfied with the work itself.
b. Workers in high-level management positions.
c. Workers in repetitive or low-level positions.
d. All workers are equally likely to seek motivation in social relationships on the job.
13. FACTUAL: The Great Depression Years and World War II ANSWER: a
World War II contributed greatly to the growth of I/O psychology through
a. the need for state-of-the-art machinery.
b. the death of many soldiers leading to dramatic shrinking of the workforce.
c. the development of espionage devices.
d. an increased focus on mental illnesses produced by warfare.
14. FACTUAL: The Great Depression Years and World War II ANSWER: d
A major event in the "modern era" of I/O psychology (1960s-1990s) that had a major
impact on employment decisions was
a. the emergence of personality testing.
b. the human relations movement.
c. the cognitive explosion.
d. civil rights legislation.
15. FACTUAL: Industrial/Organizational Psychology Today and in the Future
ANSWER: b
Which of the following is NOT a major trend that is influencing the course of I/O
psychology?
a. Increasing diversity of the workforce
b. Increase in the world’s population
c. The changing nature of work
d. Expanding focus on human resources
16. CONCEPTUAL: Industrial/Organizational Psychology Today and in the Future
ANSWER: b
Which of the following recent strategies/trends is most consistent with Elton Mayo’s
thinking and the principles of the Human Relations movement?
a. The trend toward virtual work groups that interact electronically.
b. The expanding focus on human resources.
c. The downsizing trend that makes for a smaller company workforce.
d. The increasing diversity of workers.
17. FACTUAL: Industrial/Organizational Psychology Today and in the Future
ANSWER: c
Which of the following is NOT a typical reason for organizational downsizing?
a. Technological advancements eliminate jobs for people
b. Reductions in the number of middle-level managers
c. Decreasing globalization of business
d. Fewer workers are required to do more work than before
18. FACTUAL: Industrial/Organizational Psychology Today and in the Future
ANSWER: d
Which of the following is an outcome associated with organizational downsizing?
a. Workers who remain become more loyal to the organization.
b. There is a decrease in line workers, but an increase in management.
c. Remaining workers are more motivated because they fear also losing their jobs.
d. The organization is usually more efficient and more competitive.
19. FACTUAL: Industrial/Organizational Psychology Today and in the Future
ANSWER: c
The major reason that organizations will need to give greater and greater attention to
human resources in the future is
a. employees do not want to work as hard as they once did.
b. fewer people are going to college.
c. there is a dwindling supply of truly skilled workers.
d. employers are relying less on employee selection.
20. FACTUAL: Industrial/Organizational Psychology Today and in the Future
ANSWER: a
By the year 2010, white males will constitute __________ of the US workforce.
a. less than half
b. more than 80%
c. less than 20%
d. exactly half
21. FACTUAL: Industrial/Organizational Psychology Today and in the Future
ANSWER: d
An obvious advantage of increased workforce diversity is
a. more workers will do more work.
b. women and ethnic minorities bring distinct characteristics into the work environment.
c. greater competition and individualism among workers.
d. the opportunity for different viewpoints that lead to organizational innovation.
22. FACTUAL: Industrial/Organizational Psychology Today and in the Future
ANSWER: b
Research indicates that companies that value workplace diversity
a. have higher levels of organizational conflict.
b. attract the most qualified workers.
c. are less innovative than other companies.
d. have organizational cultures that are very similar to those of less diverse companies.
True/False Test Items
23. FACTUAL: What Is Industrial/Organizational Psychology? ANSWER: T
Some I/O psychologists are involved in helping employees to deal more effectively with
stress on the job.
24. FACTUAL: The Science and Practice of Industrial/Organizational Psychology
ANSWER: F
I/O psychology has two objectives: to conduct research and to train other psychologists.
25. FACTUAL: The Roots and Early History of Industrial/Organizational Psychology
ANSWER: F
Time-and-motion studies are part of the procedures known as the human relations
movement.
26. CONCEPTUAL: The Roots and Early History of Industrial/Organizational Psychology
ANSWER: T
Taylor believed that there must be a match between the worker's skills and abilities and
the type of work he or she performs.
27. CONCEPTUAL: The Roots and Early History of Industrial/Organizational Psychology
ANSWER: T
Time-and-motion studies may be most useful for examining simple jobs involving
manual labor or repetitive action.
28. FACTUAL: The Great Depression Years and World War II ANSWER: F
The Great Depression of the 1930s led to increased opportunities for
industrial/organizational psychologists.
29. FACTUAL: The Great Depression Years and World War II ANSWER: F
The Hawthorne studies were conducted in laboratories at Harvard University in the mid-
1920s.
30. CONCEPTUAL: The Great Depression Years and World War II ANSWER: T
One principle of the human relations movement is that social factors will sometimes
outweigh the effects of monetary incentives in motivating workers.
31. FACTUAL: The Great Depression Years and World War II ANSWER: T
The two World Wars contributed greatly to the growth of I/O psychology, particularly in
the area of employee testing.
32. FACTUAL: Industrial/Organizational Psychology Today and in the Future
ANSWER: T
In the early 2000's, there will be a serious shortage of individuals who are truly qualified
for entry-level management positions.
33. FACTUAL: Industrial/Organizational Psychology Today and in the Future
ANSWER: T
By the year 2010, white males will be in the minority in the US workforce.
34. FACTUAL: Industrial/Organizational Psychology Today and in the Future
ANSWER: T
While diversity in the workforce has benefits, demographic and cultural differences can
increase work team conflict, inhibit team cooperation, and harm performance.
Essay Test Items
35. Describe the two objectives of industrial/organizational psychology.
36. Explain the basic principles of scientific management, and discuss the applicability of those
principles to today’s jobs.
37. Describe the Hawthorne studies, and explain their results.
38. Discuss the influence of civil rights legislation on employment practices, and the role of I/O
psychologists in implementing civil rights legislation.
39. Discuss the challenges and benefits associated with increasing workforce diversity.
40. Explain what is involved in organizational downsizing, and the consequences of downsizing.
41. Explain the expanding focus of organizations on human resources.
CHAPTER 2
Research Methods in Industrial/Organizational Psychology
TEST BANK
Multiple Choice Test Items
1. CONCEPTUAL: Social Scientific Research Methods ANSWER: c
A key overriding theme of social science research methodology and of scientific research
methods is
a. applicability.
b. relevance.
c. objectivity.
d. prediction.
2. CONCEPTUAL: Social Scientific Research Methods ANSWER: b
The basic goals of any science in general and of I/O psychology in particular are to
a. understand and accept phenomena.
b. describe, explain, and predict phenomena.
c. observe, communicate, and interrelate scientific principles.
d. act as a scientist and react to the scientific findings of others.
3. FACTUAL: Social Scientific Research Methods ANSWER: a
In addition to the basic goals of science, the applied science of I/O psychology has the
goal of
a. controlling or altering behavior in order to achieve desired outcomes.
b. making the world a better place to live.
c. objectively observing human behavior.
d. systematically conducting research.
4. FACTUAL: Steps in the Research Process ANSWER: d
The first step in conducting research is to
a. develop a working hypothesis.
b. develop a null hypothesis.
c. observe the target behavior.
d. formulate the problem to be studied.
5. FACTUAL: Steps in the Research Process ANSWER: c
An hypothesis is
a. a statement of fact.
b. a natural or physical law which has been proven to be true.
c. a statement concerning the supposed relationship between or among variables.
d. an assumption that has not previously been scientifically tested.
6. FACTUAL: Steps in the Research Process ANSWER: b
A theory is
a. a natural or physical law that has been proven to be true.
b. the organization of beliefs that enable us to better understand behavior.
c. a statement concerning the supposed relationship between or among different things or
events.
d. a series of assumptions that are previously unexamined.
7. CONCEPTUAL: Steps in the Research Process ANSWER: a
Which of the following is NOT true of theories?
a. They either represent proven facts or the personal views of scientists.
b. They serve as useful starting points for understanding and influencing behavior.
c. They represent complex, abstract principles of behavior.
d. They are useful in developing strategies for research.
8. FACTUAL: Steps in the Research Process ANSWER: c
The type of research design selected depends on
a. the time and money available for conducting research.
b. the personal preferences of the researchers.
c. the research question and research setting.
d. the population of interest.
9. FACTUAL: Steps in the Research Process ANSWER: c
Sampling refers to
a. the selection of a population to be studied.
b. the selection of one hypothesis from several proposed hypotheses.
c. the selection of a representative group from a large population.
d. the inclusion of all members of a population in a particular study.
10. FACTUAL: Steps in the Research Process ANSWER: a
A stratified sample is one in which
a. subjects are selected around important variables that divide a population into
subgroups.
b. subjects are selected by drawing names out of a hat.
c. either males or females, but not both, are included.
d. only volunteers are used.
11. FACTUAL: Steps in the Research Process ANSWER: b
A random sample is one in which
a. participants are selected around important variables that divide a population into
subgroups.
b. participants are chosen in such a way that each individual has an equal probability of
being selected.
c. either males or females, but not both, are included.
d. only volunteers are used.
12. CONCEPTUAL: Steps in the Research Process ANSWER: b
The main benefit of random sampling is
a. it is always more informative than stratified sampling.
b. it protects against biases in the selection of participants for study.
c. it is very flexible and follows very loose guidelines.
d. it is most frequently used by scientists.
13. FACTUAL: Steps in the Research Process ANSWER: b
The final step in the research process is
a. the statistical analysis of the data.
b. the interpretation of the results.
c. the developing of the hypothesis.
d. None of the above
14. FACTUAL: Major Research Designs ANSWER: a
The experimental method is designed to
a. give the researcher a very high degree of control over the research setting.
b. increase the objectivity of the researcher.
c. examine relationships between variables as they naturally occur.
d. establish correlational relationships between variables.
15. FACTUAL: Major Research Designs ANSWER: c
A field experiment in I/O psychology is one which is conducted
a. at a location other than the one where the psychologist is working.
b. in a laboratory setting.
c. in a work setting.
d. in a nature setting.
16. FACTUAL: Major Research Designs ANSWER: d
In a field experiment, the researcher
a. generally acts as a participant observer.
b. must relinquish control and examine naturally occurring relationships.
c. cannot manipulate variables.
d. generally has less control than in the laboratory.
17. FACTUAL: Major Research Designs ANSWER: b
The independent variable is the variable that is
a. the outcome variable.
b. manipulated by the researcher.
c. measured by the researcher.
d. ignored in most experiments.
18. FACTUAL: Major Research Designs ANSWER: c
The dependent variable is the variable that is
a. the controlled variable.
b. manipulated by the researcher.
c. measured by the researcher.
d. ignored in most experiments.
19. APPLICATION: Major Research Designs ANSWER: c
Dr. Ob has been hired to evaluate the effectiveness of the XYZ company’s training
program in increasing worker productivity. In this example, the dependent variable is
a. the XYZ company.
b. the training program.
c. worker productivity.
d. monetary costs of the training program
20. APPLICATION: Major Research Designs ANSWER: c
Dr. Io is a scientist who studies teamwork. She is interested in examining differences in
worker job satisfaction based on the type of product a team is assigned to work on in the
laboratory. In this example, the independent variable is
a. teamwork.
b. the type of product worked on by the team.
c. worker job satisfaction.
d. team performance.
21. CONCEPTUAL: Major Research Designs ANSWER: c
The primary advantage of the experimental method is that
a. it is much simpler to use in research than the correlational method.
b. its findings are usually more useful in business environments.
c. it allows us to determine cause-and-effect relationships.
d. it produces results that are easier to analyze than the correlational method.
22. FACTUAL: Major Research Designs ANSWER: d
The control group is the group of participants
a. that receives the treatment.
b. where half of the participants receive the treatment.
c. that is always randomly selected.
d. that does not receive the treatment.
23. APPLICATION: Major Research Designs ANSWER: a
In an experiment investigating the effects of alcohol consumption on the ability to
operate a punch press machine
a. alcohol consumption is the independent variable and ability to operate the machine is
the dependent variable.
\ b. ability to operate the machine is the independent variable and alcohol consumption is
the dependent variable.
c. the experimental group is tested on ability to operate the machine and the control
group is not.
d. the control group operates the machine under the influence of alcohol and again after
the effects, if any, have worn off.
24. APPLICATION: Major Research Designs ANSWER: d
To test the effectiveness of a new training program for sales skills, a randomly selected
group of salespeople receives training and another randomly selected group receives no
training. The independent variable consists of
a. the amount of sales for each of the groups.
b. the group of salespeople who received the training.
c. the group of salespeople who did not receive the training.
d. whether or not the salespeople received the training.
25. CONCEPTUAL: Major Research Designs ANSWER: b
An extraneous variable in the Hawthorne studies was
a. the increase in the intensity of the lighting.
b. the attention paid to the assemblers by the researchers.
c. the group of employees who experienced the change in working conditions.
d. All of the above
26. CONCEPTUAL: Major Research Designs ANSWER: b
The key to the success of the experimental method is
a. to randomly select a very large sample of participants.
b. to hold all extraneous variables constant.
c. to manipulate as many variables as possible.
d. to allow extraneous variables to only influence the treatment group.
27. CONCEPTUAL: Major Research Designs ANSWER: a
Random assignment of participants to treatment and control groups
a. accomplishes control of many potential extraneous variables.
b. is rarely used by I/O psychologists.
c. is very difficult to accomplish and time-consuming.
d. is only used in correlational research designs.
28. CONCEPTUAL: Major Research Designs ANSWER: c
Which of the following is a major drawback of the experimental method as applied to
organizational settings?
a. It does not achieve the same depth as other research methods do.
b. It requires too many participants to be practicable.
c. Laboratory conditions may be quite different from conditions in the work setting.
d. It cannot be applied to actual work settings.
29. FACTUAL: Major Research Designs ANSWER: a
The correlational method of research
a. examines relationships between variables as they naturally occur.
b. cannot be used in a laboratory.
c. must involve random assignment of participants to groups.
d. is less scientific than the experimental method.
30. CONCEPTUAL: Major Research Designs ANSWER: b
Because the correlational method does not require the rigid control over variables
associated with the experimental method,
a. it is less scientific than experimentation.
b. it is easy to use in actual work settings.
c. any type of measurement may be used.
d. cause-and-effect relationships are easily established.
31. FACTUAL: Major Research Designs ANSWER: c
One limitation of the correlational method is
a. it is very difficult to use.
b. it is usually costly and time-consuming.
c. it is difficult to determine cause-and-effect relationships.
d. it can only be used in controlled, laboratory-like conditions.
32. FACTUAL: Major Research Designs ANSWER: d
A statistical technique that allows the results from several research investigations to be
combined and summarized is called
a. a factor analysis.
b. a t-test.
c. analysis of variance.
d. a meta-analysis.
33. FACTUAL: Measurement of Variables ANSWER: c
Turning a variable into something that is measurable is called
a. external validity.
b. relevance.
c. operationalization.
d. objectivity.
34. FACTUAL: Measurement of Variables ANSWER: b
Obtrusive observation is a method for measuring research variables in which subjects are
a. unaware that they are being observed.
b. aware that they are being observed.
c. unconcerned about being observed.
d. none of the above
35. APPLICATION: Measurement of Variables ANSWER: a
A company had decided to enclose a questionnaire with its next billing to ascertain its
customers' opinions about company services. Which method of measuring variables is
the company using?
a. self-report technique
b. direct observation
c. unobtrusive observation
d. obtrusive observation
36. FACTUAL: Measurement of Variables ANSWER: a
Which of the following is NOT typically examined as a dependent variable in I/O
psychology research?
a. profits
b. employee turnover
c. employee absenteeism
d. employee job satisfaction
37. CONCEPTUAL: Measurement of Variables ANSWER: c
Which three dependent variables are most strongly theoretically linked to one another?
a. Job satisfaction, productivity, absenteeism
b. Job satisfaction, productivity, profits
c. Job satisfaction, absenteeism, turnover
d. Turnover, productivity, quality
38. FACTUAL: Interpreting and Using Research Results ANSWER: a
The question of whether research results obtained in one setting will apply to another
setting is called
a. external validity.
b. internal validity.
c. research applicability.
d. method restriction.
39. FACTUAL: Interpreting and Using Research Results ANSWER: a
Dr. Io wants to apply the findings of her laboratory research on teamwork to a particular
work organization, a beach resort and restaurant on the island of Kauai. Dr. Io’s biggest
problem is likely to be
a. the external validity of her results.
b. the internal validity of her results.
c. random assignment of participants to groups.
d. choosing a method.
40. FACTUAL: Ethical Issues in Research and Practice in I/O Psychology ANSWER: b
Informed consent must be obtained from __________ before data can be collected.
a. researchers
b. participants
c. observers
d. employers
41. FACTUAL: Ethical Issues in Research and Practice in I/O Psychology ANSWER: d
I/O scientists and practitioners are required to keep data __________.
a. available to all participants.
b. numeric rather than verbal.
c. in an organized data file.
d. confidential.
42. FACTUAL: Appendix: Statistical Analyses of Research Data ANSWER: b
The most common measure of central tendency is the
a. frequency distribution.
b. mean.
c. standard deviation.
d. median.
43. FACTUAL: Appendix: Statistical Analyses of Research Data ANSWER: b
Inferential statistics are used to
a. create a useful "picture" of data.
b. test hypotheses.
c. determine the variability of a sample.
d. All of the above
44. FACTUAL: Appendix: Statistical Analyses of Research Data ANSWER: d
A characteristic of a normal distribution of scores is that
a. it is a bell-shaped curve.
b. it has a midpoint score which is both the mean and the median.
c. 50% of the scores fall above the mean, and 50% of the scores fall below the mean.
d. All of the above
45. FACTUAL: Appendix: Statistical Analyses of Research Data ANSWER: c
In a normal distribution, what percentage of scores lies between one standard deviation
above and below the mean?
a. 5 percent
b. 50 percent
c. 68 percent
d. 95 percent
46. FACTUAL: Appendix: Statistical Analyses of Research Data ANSWER: b
A simple statistical test commonly used to test the difference between the means of two
groups on some dependent variable is the
a. correlation coefficient.
b. t-test.
c. multivariate analysis of variance.
d. standard deviation.
47. FACTUAL: Appendix: Statistical Analyses of Research Data ANSWER: b
An advantage of examining more than one independent variable at a time is
a. detection of main effects.
b. detection of interaction effects.
c. it is more cost-effective than examining one independent variable.
d. fewer participants are required.
48. FACTUAL: Appendix: Statistical Analyses of Research Data ANSWER: c
A negative correlation coefficient indicates that
a. an increase in one variable is associated with an increase in another variable.
b. a decrease in one variable is associated with a decrease in another variable.
c. an increase in one variable is associated with a decrease in another variable.
d. there can be no negative correlation since correlations range between 0 and +1.0.
49. APPLICATION: Appendix: Statistical Analyses of Research Data ANSWER: b
Which of the following is an example of a negative correlation?
a. As turnover increases, absenteeism rates are unchanged.
b. Greater absenteeism leads to a drop-off in productivity.
c. The more training, the better worker performance.
d. The happy worker is a productive worker.
50. APPLICATION: Appendix: Statistical Analyses of Research Data
ANSWER: a
An I/O psychologist discovers that as job satisfaction increases, absenteeism decreases.
This is an example of
a. a negative correlation.
b. a positive correlation.
c. a mean difference.
d. none of the above
True/False Test Items
51. FACTUAL: Social Scientific Research Methods ANSWER: T
Job satisfaction is an example of a variable examined in organizational research.
52. CONCEPTUAL: Social Scientific Research Methods ANSWER: F
Theories are useless ideas which have much less meaning in scientific research than facts
and laws.
53. FACTUAL: Social Scientific Research Methods ANSWER: T
The last step in the research process involves interpreting the results and drawing
conclusions.
54. CONCEPTUAL: Social Scientific Research Methods ANSWER: T
A researcher takes care to select participants for a study that represent the ethnic and age
breakdowns of the population at large. This is an example of stratified sampling.
55. CONCEPTUAL: Major Research Designs ANSWER: F
Since the researcher often directly observes behavior in an experimental design, another
name for the experimental method is the observational method.
56. CONCEPTUAL: Major Research Designs ANSWER: T
Extraneous variables need to be controlled as much as possible when conducting
scientific research.
57. FACTUAL: Interpreting and Using Research Results ANSWER: T
A meta-analysis is a statistical technique that allows the results of a number of studies to
be combined and analyzed together.
58. FACTUAL: Measurement of Variables ANSWER: F
Obtrusive observation refers to any method of observing participants in a study and
recording their behavior.
59. FACTUAL: Measurement of Variables ANSWER: T
One problem with using self-report techniques of data collection is that subjects may give
socially desirable answers rather than truthful answers.
60. FACTUAL: Measurement of Variables ANSWER: F
Of the handful of dependent variables typically used in I/O research, quality of work is
the easiest to measure.
61. FACTUAL: Interpreting and Using Research Results ANSWER: T
External validity is concerned with whether obtained research results will generalize to
other settings.
62. CONCEPTUAL: Interpreting and Using Research Results ANSWER: T
External validity is usually more of a problem for research conducted in laboratory
settings as opposed to field settings.
63. FACTUAL: Applying I/O Psychology: The Hawthorne Effect ANSWER: F
A 1970s re-analysis of the data from the original Hawthorne studies revealed that the
Hawthorne studies were a model of good social scientific research methods.
64. FACTUAL: Ethical Issues in Research and Practice in I/O Psychology ANSWER: F
Informed consent refers to participants’ being paid for their research participation.
65. FACTUAL: Ethical Issues in Research and Practice in I/O Psychology ANSWER: F
I/O practitioners follow different ethical standards than I/O scientists.
66. FACTUAL: On the Cutting Edge: Multivariate Research in I/O Psychology
ANSWER: T
Researchers use multivariate research designs to help capture the complexity of actual
work behavior.
67. CONCEPTUAL: Appendix: Statistical Analyses of Research Data ANSWER: T
Analysis of research data can be either quantitative or qualitative.
68. FACTUAL: Appendix: Statistical Analyses of Research Data ANSWER: F
Descriptive statistics are used to statistically verify that there is a significant difference
between two groups on some dependent variable.
69. FACTUAL: Appendix: Statistical Analyses of Research Data ANSWER: F
Another name for the median is the "average."
70. FACTUAL: Appendix: Statistical Analyses of Research Data ANSWER: T
In a normal distribution, the median and the mode are the same number.
71. FACTUAL: Appendix: Statistical Analyses of Research Data ANSWER: F
Both descriptive statistics and inferential statistics are used to test research hypotheses.
72. CONCEPTUAL: Statistical Analyses of Research Data ANSWER: F
A strong negative correlation is represented by a coefficient of zero (0.0).
Essay Test Items
73. Describe the basic and applied goals of I/O psychology.
74. Describe the steps in the research process.
75. Discuss the issue of sampling in research, including examples of random and stratified
sampling.
76. Discuss, compare, and contrast the experimental and correlational methods.
77. Describe the experimental method, and the advantages and disadvantages associated with
laboratory and field experiments.
78. Describe the research method of meta-analysis, including its particular purposes.