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Introduction Air Transportation Dr. Hana Naghawi

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Airport System Planning

Air transportation is the most recent mode in modern technology, has vastly changed world travel. It improved opportunities to reach distant places with minimum travel time

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Components of Aviation system:AirwaysAirports (AP)AirlinesAircraft (AC)General aviation (GA): one of the two categories

of civil aviation. It refers to all flights other than military and scheduled airline and regular cargo flights, both private and commercial

Air passengersOperating environment

Airport System Planning

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Airport Planning

For Smaller airport the connected transportation requirements may be served by highway facilities For larger airports/terminals access to freeways and expressways, extension of urban rail transit maybe required to minimize ground time

The Planning of an airport can not be taken as an isolated planning. It has to be integrated with the existing and expected highway, rail and other ground transportation systems.

Airport: An area of land or other hard surface, excluding water, that is used or intended to be used for the landing and takeoff of aircraft, including any buildings and facilities (14 CFR 139.5)

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AP system provide connection between these 2 subsystems

Transportation System Transportation system-En-route airspace subsystem: airways (a

designated route in the sky for AC to used while flying between two particular points)

Ground access subsystem: provides ground services for airport – access roads outside the AP

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AP system

AP system

Runway

Taxiway

Apron

Airside not available for public to access

Landside available for public to access

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Runway: provides sufficient length for the departing AC to accelerate to the takeoff speed, and to arriving AC to decelerate to the exit taxiway speedTaxiway: A paved strip that connects runways and terminals providing the ability to move aircraft so they will not interfere with takeoffs or landings.Apron – that part of an airport, other than the maneuvering area (by ICAO) intended to accommodate the loading and unloading of passengers and cargo, the refueling, servicing, maintenance and parking of aircraft, and any movement of aircraft, vehicles and pedestrians necessary for such purposes. Vehicles, aircraft and people using the apron are referred to as apron traffic. Also called the “Ramp”.

Airside

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An airport terminal is a building at an airport where passengers transfer between ground transportation and the facilities that allow them to board and/or get off from aircraft

Parking facilitiesGround access roads

Landside

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Aviation system planning aims at translating the goals and polices into programs that would be used as a guide for the development of the aviation system

Organizations involved ICAO: International Civil Aviation Organization FAA: Federal Aviation Administration IATA: International Air Transport Association

Levels of Planning:There are three levels of planning: Strategic planning: long-term (20 yrs) Tactical planning: medium to short-term (5-10 yrs) Project planning: immediate

Aviation System Planning (ASP)- Macro

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Master planning applies to the construction of new airports as well as to the significant expansion of existing facilities… staging of development

the FAA states that the goal of a master plan is to provide guidelines for future airport development which will satisfy aviation demand forecasting in a financially feasible manner so it involves many economic analysis. The question of determining what expansion improvement is warranted, and when to make them, is particularly complex

Master Planning- Micro

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FAA specifies a number of elements which are generally included in a MP:1- organization and preplanning2- inventory of existing conditions and issues- data collection3- aviation demand forecast4- requirements analysis and concept development- provide the required capacity to meet future demand (estimated in step 3)5- AP site selection- operational capability, weather, ground access, development cost, …..6- environmental procedure and analysis- study all present and future impacts on environment- decide upon mitigation measures7- simulation8- AP plans- AP layout, access roads plans, terminal building plan, number of runways, size and shape of aprons9- Plan implementation- cost and scheduling

Elements of the AP Master Planning- FAA

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1- provide graphical presentation of the future development2- put a realistic implementation schedule of proposed development3- propose achievable financial plan

Outcome of a MP1. The airport component layout- runways, terminals,

taxiways, aprons, and supporting services such as emergency facilities and fueling servicing

2. Land use adjacent to the AP3. Environmental controls4. Economic feasibility analysis of needed AP usage5. Financial plan for achievement of foregoing6. A construction schedule

Goals of AP Master Planning- FAA

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The forecast of air traffic, like forecast for any mode, is critical to the provision of adequate service facilities and the study of the impact of the presence of the mode

Basically forecasts are needed for:To understand the relative use of the air modeTo develop strategiesTo plan, design, and construct airport facilitiesTo calibrate the impact of air travel and the economy

Aviation Demand Forecasting

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Demand elements: what do I have to forecastType of activityLevel of activityPeak hour forecast

Aviation Demand Forecasting

Factors affecting the Demand1. Economic growth and industrial development2. Demographic characteristics (HHsize,…)3. Personal consumption expenditure (PCE)/ explains

purchasing power of individuals 4. Geographic attributes- geographic distribution

between activities 5. Other external factors (tax, fuel, fees,…)

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1. Professional Judgment- Under conditions of limited growth

2. Survey of Expectations/depth analysis- iterative 3. Trend Forecasting- extrapolation- component of

growth rate….. for modified growth rate to account for short term, don’t use for long term

4. Economic analysis- D= aPᵝ

Methods of Forecasting

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4-Step Process

Generation

Distribution

Mode Choice

Assignment

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Trip generation: # of trip ends (O-D matrix)market analysisRegression

Trip distribution: predicts the level of trip interchange between designated airport pairs

gravity modelIs decision to make a trip separated from the decision where to go in the case of air travel? Integrated modelMode Choice: specific modesAssignment: what route is taken by individual traveler from a choice of all available routes

4-Step Process

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Factors to be taken into consideration while selecting AP site:1. Availability of adequate area2. Accessibility-should be located away from a built-up area3. Topography, soil conditions and drainage-self drained 4. Coat of development5. Cost of maintenance6. Traffic volume and type of traffic7. Cross-wind component- runway length8. Proximity of airways9. Attitude of property owners10. Safety11. Availability of material resources and facilities12. revenues

AP Site Selection

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Factors affecting AP capacity:Runway capacity

Average AC size and mix of types of AC using runway

Terminal facilityAirside: apron requirements, number of gates,

size of gatesLandside: luggage handling

Airport Capacity

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Runway decision• Configuration• Length• Orientation• Number of runways• Exist taxiway location

Taxiway decision• Number of taxiway• location

Gate-Apron Decision• Number of gates• Location• Size

Design of runway and taxiway pavement

Geometric Design of the Airside- Runways

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Runway configuration1. Single runway2. Parallel runway3. Open V-runway4. Intersecting runways

Runway configurationdepends on CAPACITY

Runway- Configuration

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Runway OrientationTakeoff and landing operations take place into the wind. Therefore, runways are oriented in the direction of prevailing winds

Wind Rose (WR) Method is used to determine the “best” orientation of the runway

WR is a graphical representation of the wind conditions in an area

Runway- Orientation

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To prepare a WR 1. Collect data on wind speed, direction and

frequency of occurrence for at least 5 years2. Construct WR that contains circles to represent

wind speed and radial lines that indicates direction

3. Display the percentage on the corresponding portions of the WR

Runways-WR

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Runways-WR

The WR procedure makes use of the transparent template on which 3 parallel lines have been plotted. The middle line represents the runway centerline, and the distance between it and each of the outside lines is equal to the allowable crosswind component (e.g. 15 mph)

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How to use the WR1. Place the template on the WR so that the middle line

passes through the center of the WR2. Using the center of the WR as a pivot, rotate the template

until the sum of percentages between the outside lines is a maximum

3. Read the true bearing for the runway on the outer scale of the WR beneath the centerline of the template. In the previous WR, the best orientation is 150⁰-330⁰ or S 30⁰ E.

4. The sum of percentages between the outside lines indicates the percentage of time that a runway with the proposed orientation will match the crosswind standards

Runways-WR

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The wind force affects the AC operation through its components: 1. Lateral crosswind component affects the stability

of AC. Max allowable is 25kph2. Tail crosswind component affects the effective

wind speed required to develop sufficient lift. Max allowable is 8kph

Crosswind

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Standards of the ICAO and FAA agree that runways should be oriented so that the usability factor of the airport is not less than 95%

The usability factor is the percentage of time during which the use of the runway system is not restricted because of excessive crosswind component

Runway- Usability Factor

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Runway numbering to guide pilot for landing and takeoff

Use magnetic compass bearing (WCB)Round the bearing to the nearest 10⁰

e.g. 273 270Divide the rounded number by 10

e.g. 270/10 =27L 27R

Runway- Numbering

N 360

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E 90

135

315

W 270

S 180225

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Runways are numbered between 01 and 36•A runway numbered 09 points east 90•A runway numbered 18 points south 180•A runway numbered 27 points west 270•A runway numbered 36 points north 360

Runways are normally used in both directions and is named for each direction separately (e.g. R33 in one direction is R15 in the other direction. The 2 numbers always differ by 180

If there is more than one runway pointing to the same direction (parallel runways), each runway is identified by the letter L,C,R next to the number

Runway- Numbering

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Why is it one of the most important decisionsAffect the size and cost of APControls the type of AC that AP serves Limit the takeoff and landing weight of ACMay limit the length of journey that AC can fly

The following factors influence runway LengthPerformance characteristics of the critical AC using

the APLanding and takeoff weights of critical ACElevation of APRunway gradientTemperature, humidity, winds,…

Runway- Length

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Weight: design based on maximum takeoff weight (MTOW)Components:

1. Empty operation weight (EOW)2. Loaded = passengers + luggage + freight3. Fuel

MTOW =1 + 2 + 3

Journey fuel weight runway length

Runway- Length

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At see level:A runway of at least 6,000 ft (1,800m) in length is usually adequate for AC weights below 200,000Ib (90,000 kg)

Larger AC including widebodies will usually require at least 8,000 ft (2,400 m)

International widebody flights, which carry substantial amounts of fuel and are therefore heavier, may also have landing requirements of 10,000 ft (3,000 m) or more and takeoff requirements of 13,000 ft (4,000 m)+

Runway- Length

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Design steps:1. Use AC performance curves of individual airplanes2. Determine runway length for landing and takeoff3. Modify takeoff for effective runway gradient (ERG)

by increasing runway length by the following rates for each 1%- 10% for turbojet airplanes and 20% for turboprop airplanes

4. Modify landing for slippery surfaceIn case of turbojet AC landing on wet/slippery runway, increase the required landing length from (5-9.5)% depending on AC

5. Consider the higher value as a design value

Runway- Length

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performance Curves- Boeing727-00

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What length of runway is required for Boeing 727-00 series AC, given the following conditions?1. Maximum landing weight 135,000Ib2. Allowance for slippery pavement 7.0%3. Normal maximum temperature 80⁰F4. Airport elevation 4000 ft5. Flight distance 1000 mi6. Takeoff weight 147,500 Ib7. Effective runway gradient 0.5%

Runway- Length- Example

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Runway length for landing:1. Select the suitable performance cure2. On the horizontal axis enter the max. landing

weight 135,000 Ib3. Project this point vertically to intersect with the

4000 ft elevation line4. Extend this point of intersection horizontally to the

right and read runway length required for landing (5650 ft)

5. Modify for slippery pavement by 7%5650*1.07= 6045 ft

Runway- Length- Example

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Runway length for takeoff:1. Select the suitable performance cure2. Enter the temperature scale on the horizontal axis (80⁰F)3. Project this point to intersect with the line corresponding to the AP

elevation (4000 ft)4. Extend this point horizontally to the right until it matches with the

reference line (RL) 5. Create a line/curve parallel to the slanted lines to the intersection of

the elevation limit line or until it reaches a point directly above AC takeoff weight or distance whichever occurs first

6. Project this point horizontally to the right and read the required R length for takeoff (9200)

7. Modify this length for effective gradient (9200*1.05 = 9660 ft)

Because this value is taken as the design R length as it is the largest

Runway- Length- Example

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Runway is connected to terminal apron by taxiway system which consists of taxiway and taxiway exist

At smaller APs, air traffic may not be sufficient to justify construction of parallel taxiway. In this case taxing is done on the runway itself and a cul-de-sac must be provided at the end of the runway

Busy airports typically construct high-speed or rapid-exit taxiways in order to allow AC to leave the runway at higher speeds. This allows the aircraft to vacate the runway quicker, permitting another to land or depart in a shorter space of time

Taxiway

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Characteristics:Connect between runways and terminal building and

hangarsUsually parallel to RunwaysAllow lower speed of ACClear runway for landing and takeoff operation while the

AC is moving to its final distention

Taxiway

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Design of Taxiway is affected by: Air traffic volume Runway configuration Location of terminal building and other ground

facilities

Taxiway should be direct, straight and uncomplicated Usually taxiway is located parallel to the runway

centerline for the entire length of the runway When curves cannot be avoided their radii should be large

enough to permit taxiing speeds of 20-30 mph Radii corresponding to taxiing speeds of 20,30 and 40

mph are 200, 450 and 800 ft respectively

Taxiway- Design

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Safety requirements: Separation in the air (between successive ACs in

air Clearance (between the ACs or AC and an

obstacle on the ground)

Taxiway- Design

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Taxiway- AC Dimensions

Off-tracking: the difference between the paths followed by the nose gear and the main gear, to accommodate for this off-tracking the pavement is widened at the curve

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1. Exist/ Entrance T: meets the AC operations requirements (air traffic volume)

2. Parallel/ dual T: for high density of AC operations3. Apron T: across (through) the apron4. Taxilane: secondary access to the gate or other

terminal parts5. Holding bag (pad): parking area for AC awaiting air

traffic control instructions for clearance6. By-pass T: used for large with high traffic AP7. Turnouts: it is used when it is uneconomical to

provide parallel T

Taxiway Types

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Three common types of exit taxiway:1. Perpendicular exit taxiway: used when the design

peak hour traffic is less than 30 operations per hour

2. Angled 45 to runway centerline: recommended for small AC. It will accommodate an exist speed of 40mph

3. Angled 30 to runway centerline: recommended for large AC. It will accommodate an exist speed of 60 mph

Exist-Taxiway Types

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Exist-Taxiway Types

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Rapid Exist Taxiway

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1. Terminal Apron: paved area adjacent to the terminal building where AC park while fueling, light maintenance, loading and unloading passengers, cargo, and similar operation are performed

2. Holding Apron: it is an area adjacent to the taxiway, where AC park briefly before taking off while checks are made

3. Parking Apron

Apron

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Landside- Passenger Terminals

1. Linear2. Pier3. Satellite4. transporter

Terminal Design Concept