introduction - daimun ambani international model united nations 2016 | 20th october 2016 – 23rd...

Dhirubhai Ambani International Model United Nations 2016 | 20th October 2016 – 23rd October 2016

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Forum: TheEconomicandSocialCouncil

Issue: EnvironmentalDegradationDuetoRapidUrbanization

StudentOfficer: AnoushkaGanesh

Position: DeputyPresidentofECOSOC

Introduction

Urbanization,simplyreferstotheshiftfromaruraltoanurbansociety.Ithasalwaysbeenacritical

corollaryofindustrialization,whichisvitaltopromotegrowthintheeconomyandensurescientific,socio-

culturalandtechnologicaldevelopment.Thedevelopingworldisundergoingarevolutioninhasty,formless

and unchecked urbanization, as rural populations flock to ever growing mega cities in search of better

education,healthcare,andemployment.By2050,66%oftheworld’spopulation isprojectedtobeurban.

Outofthis,AfricaandAsiaareprojectedtobecome56and64%urbanrespectively1.Thismeans,by2050,

another 2.5 billion people shall become a part of the urban population. While in today’s day and age,

urbanizationhasbecomeanecessityforacountry’sgrowth,butwiththisgrowthcomespressureonscarce

resources,urbansystems,landandproperty,andenergysupply.

Environmentaldegradation,oneofthemostnotableconsequencesofurbanization,isthecorrosion

of theenvironmentthrough exhaustion of resources such as air, water and soil and the devastation of

ecosystems.It occurs as a result of the dynamic interdependence of socio-economic, organizational and

technological activities,which is the crux of urbanization in nations across theworld. The conversion of

Earth’slandsurfacetourbanuseshasoverwhelmingeffectsontheglobalbiosphere.Itacceleratesthelossof

highly productive farmland, affects energy demand, alters the climate, modifies hydrologic and

biogeochemicalcycles,fragmentshabitats,andreducesbiodiversity2.Rapidurbanizationhasbeenidentified

1 World Urbanization Prospects: The 2014 Revision: Highlights. N.p.: n.p., n.d. World Urbanisation Prospects. Web. 4 June 2016. http://esa.un.org/unpd/wup/Publications/Files/WUP2014-Highlights.pdf 2 "Environmental Impacts of Urban Growth." Urbanisation and Global Change. N.p., n.d. Web. 4 June 2016. https://www.google.co.in/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=1&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=0ahUKEwiClb-Ah-nNAhUMpo8KHfkiCrMQFggdMAA&url=http%3A%2F%2Furban.yale.edu%2Fresearch%2Ftheme-4&usg=AFQjCNHUVPp_iPY9SP82DkE6PYMLjjQGIQ


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as a major global "risk" by both theUnited Nations andWorld Economic Forum (WEF) – with theWEF

notingthatcitiescanactaspointsofriskconvergenceacrossnumerousareas3.

In this race of rapid urbanization, not only is there a strain on the resources, but also amassive

contribution to air, water and soil pollution. The increase in urban population has resulted in a greater

numberoffactoriesthatnowoperatewithintherapidlyurbanizingcountries.Thismeansthatthepartsper

millionpollutionemission,theeffluentsandheavymetaldischargeintowaterbodiesaswellassurrounding

landareashasincreasedtenfold.Moreover,urbanizationhasincreasedpollutionthroughaugmenteduseof

pesticides in agriculture, vehicular pollution and is, in general, affecting the environment quite adversely.

The main risk of such degradation is not limited to just the environment, but also poses an imminent risk to climate

change, speeding up the process of global warming.

Furthermore,thereisagrowingincomepoverty,withalackofappropriateprogramstosupportthe

rapidly growing poor urban population by the government. Inmost sub Saharan countries, the resource

requirementsfortheconstructionofinformalsettlements,thecollectionoffoodandfuelsforheatingindoor

spacesandcooking food, aremoredirectly relianton local,natural resources thanwouldbe the resource

requirements ofwealthier andmore formalizedurban residents. Lackof drainage, lackofwaste removal,

and lackofaccess tocleanenergysources,mean that thewastesgenerated fromhumanactivitiesarenot

removed far from settlements (a service performed by municipal services for formal areas) but become

visiblyevidentinthepollutionofair,waterandsoilintheimmediatevicinity.

Since the Kyoto Protocols in 1997 and before it, there have been a number of summits and

environmentalconferencesthatwereheldallaroundtheworld,themostrecentbeingtheParisConference

held in November 2015. Each of these attempts at convening with nations resulted in promises to help

improve the situation in rapidlyurbanizing countries andyieldpositive results.However,withnations in

suchadynamic stateofdevelopment,natural resourcesplummetingand theenvironmentdegrading, it is

clear thatamore forceful, impactingandpractical solution is theneedof thehourand it is the jobof the

Economic and Social Council to come to a plausible solution that addresses the issue as a whole, while

keepinginmindthelimitationsofthenationsthatshallhavetoimplementthepoliciescreated.

DefinitionofKeyTerms

Urbanization

Theprocess bywhich large numbers of people becomepermanently concentrated in relatively small

areas,formingcities4.

3 "Corruption and Social Unrest: Coping with Rapid Urbanisation." Corruption and Social Unrest: Coping with Rapid Urbanisation. N.p., n.d. Web. 4 June 2016. http://www.rics.org/uk/news/news-insight/comment/corruption-and-social-unrest-coping-with-rapid-urbanisation/


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Environmentaldegradation

The reduction of the capacity of the environment tomeet social and ecological objectives andneeds.

Degradationof theenvironmentcanalterthe frequencyand intensityofnaturalhazardsand increase

thevulnerabilityofcommunities.Thetypesofhuman-induceddegradationarevariedandincludeland

misuse, soil erosion and loss, desertification, wild land fires, loss of biodiversity, deforestation,

mangrovedestruction,land,waterandairpollution,climatechange,sealevelriseandozonedepletion5.

Developingnation

There is no established convention for the designation of "developed" and "developing" countries or

areasintheUnitedNationssystem.Incommonpractice,JapaninAsia,CanadaandtheUnitedStatesin

northern America, Australia and New Zealand in Oceania, and Europe are considered "developed"

regionsorareas.Ininternationaltradestatistics,theSouthernAfricanCustomsUnionisalsotreatedas

adevelopedregionandIsraelasadevelopedcountry;countriesemergingfromtheformerYugoslavia

are treated as developing countries; and countries of eastern Europe and of the Commonwealth of

Independent States (code 172) in Europe are not included under either developed or developing

regions6.

Desertification

The degradation of land in arid, semi arid and dry sub humid areas resulting from various factors

includingclimaticvariationsandhumanactivity. It affects the livelihoodsof ruralpeople indrylands,

particularlythepoor,whodependonlivestock,crops,limitedwaterresourcesandfuelwood7.

Deforestation

Deforestationimpliesthelong-termorpermanentlossofforestcoverandimpliestransformationinto

another land use. Such a loss can only be caused andmaintained by a continued human-induced or

naturalperturbation.This includes areasof forest converted to agriculture, pasture,water reservoirs

andurbanareas.Thetermspecificallyexcludesareaswherethetreeshavebeenremovedasaresultof

harvesting or logging, and where the forest is expected to regenerate naturally or with the aid of

silviculturalmeasures.Unlessloggingisfollowedbytheclearingoftheremaininglogged-overforestfor

4 Picture 2. "Urbanisation." 2. URBANIZATION 2.1 Defining Urbanization (n.d.): n. pag. 2. URBANIZATION 2.1 Defining Urbanization. Web. 4 June 2016. http://water.tkk.fi/wr/tutkimus/glob/publications/Haapala/pdf-files/URBANIZATION.pdf 5 "Terminology." UNISDR News. N.p., n.d. Web. 4 June 2016. https://www.unisdr.org/we/inform/terminology 6 "United Nations Statistics Division- Standard Country and Area Codes Classifications (M49)." United Nations Statistics Division- Standard Country and Area Codes Classifications (M49). N.p., n.d. Web. 4 June 2016. http://unstats.un.org/unsd/methods/m49/m49regin.htm#ftnc 7 "What Is Desertification." What Is Desertification. N.p., n.d. Web. 4 June 2016. http://www.unesco.org/mab/doc/ekocd/chapter1.html


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the introduction of alternative land uses, or the maintenance of the clearings through continued

disturbance,forestscommonlyregenerate,althoughoftentoadifferent,secondarycondition8.

Landuseplanning

Theprocessundertakenbypublicauthorities to identify,evaluateanddecideondifferentoptions for

theuseoflandincludingconsiderationoflongtermeconomic,socialandenvironmentalobjectivesand

theimplicationsfordifferentcommunitiesandinterestgroupsandandthesubsequentformulationand

promulgationofplansthatdescribethepermittedoracceptableuses9.

Environmentalimpactassessment

The process bywhich environmental consequences of a proposed project or program are evaluated,

undertakenasanintegralpartofplanninganddecision–makingprocesseswithaviewtolimitingor

reducing the adverse impacts of the project or program. It is utilized extensively in national

programming and project approval processes and for international development assistance projects.

Environmental impactassessmentsshould includedetailedriskassessmentsandprovidealternatives,

solutionsoroptionstodealwithidentifiedproblems10.

Environmentalsustainabilityindex(ESI):

The ESI was a composite index published from 1999 to 2005 and tracked 21 indicators, including

natural resources, pollution levels, and environmental management efforts, that characterize and

influence environmental sustainability on a national scale. The United States ranks 45th. This high-

middlerankingreflectshighperformanceonissuessuchaswaterqualityandenvironmentalprotection

capacity and low performance on other issues, such as waste generation and greenhouse gas

emissions11.

BackgroundInformation

Allindustrialcountriesonedayhitanecologicalturning-point,aneventthatopensthepopulation’s

eyes to theenvironmentalconsequencesofdevelopment.For theUnitedStatesofAmerica, itwas in1969

when the Cuyahoga river in Ohio, dense with pollutants and deprived of fish, caught fire. As a result,

America’sEnvironmentalProtectionAgencywas founded thenextyear.Severeenvironmental regulations

8 Food And Agriculture Organization Of The United Nations. T ERMS AND D EFINITIONS (n.d.): n. pag. T ERMS AND D EFINITIONS. Web. 4 June 2016. http://www.fao.org/docrep/014/am665e/am665e00.pdf 9"Terminology." UNISDR News. N.p., n.d. Web. 4 June 2016. https://www.unisdr.org/we/inform/terminology 10 "Terminology." UNISDR News. N.p., n.d. Web. 4 June 2016. https://www.unisdr.org/we/inform/terminology 11 "The 2005 Environmental Sustainability Index." Infoplease. Infoplease, n.d. Web. 4 June 2016. http://www.infoplease.com/ipa/A0930889.html


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passedinthe1970sledtotherealizationthatthethousandswhohaddiedaroundtheMinamataBay,died

duetoheavymercurypoisoningofthesurroundingbayarea.Thetruthofthematteristhatunlessanation

facessuchadrasticissue,combattingenvironmentaldegradationtoday,isaslow,strenuousprocess.What

makes it harder is the fact that countries who have faced the true consequences of what environmental

degradation is capable of inflicting, still don’t seem toworkwholeheartedly towards reducing the effects

urbanizationhasontheenvironment.

Industrialization

Sincethebeginningoftheindustrialrevolutioninthelate18thcentury,therehavebeenanumberof

debates toweigh its advantagesanddisadvantages.While industrializationhasbeenan importantpartof

theworld’sgrowthandtheprogressofamajorityoftheworld’snations,itsilleffectscannotbeneglected.

BhopalGasTragedy

TheBhopalGasTragedy,1984wasacatastrophewhosedevastatingeffectscanstillbefeltinpartsof

Indiaandshallcontinuetobefeltforgenerationstocome.Earlymorning,onDecember3,1984,40

tonsofMethylIsocyanate(MIC)wasaccidentlyreleasedintotheatmospherebytheUnionCarbide’s

factoryinBhopal,India.ThegasleakspreadthroughthecityinMadhyaPradeshatanalarmingrate,

causing severe vomiting, irritation to the respiratory tract andmany other inconveniences among

the confused citizens. Furthermore, the leak caused heavy damage to the environment in Bhopal,

especially the area around the factory. The damage done was both instantaneous and long-term.

Followingtheleak,treesaroundthefactorywerestronglyaffected–theirleavesturnedyellowand

fell off. Around 2,000 animals, mostly livestock such as goats and buffalo, were killed by the gas

leak12. Worried that the lakes and rivers were polluted, all fishing activities were brought to a

standstillbythegovernment.Suppliersstoppedprovidingadequatefoodoutoffearthattheirfood

would be contaminated too. Crops in the state were affected too, reducing avenues of food

acquisitiondrastically.Thelongtermeffectsstemfromthelackofapropercleanupinthecitysince

any attempt to do so was left incomplete. In 1998, due to issues with responsibility, the task of

cleaning the city shifted from Union Carbide to the State Government. Since then, funds and

acceptingresponsibilityhavebecomeaproblem,bothforthecompanyaswellasthestate.Infact,it

is because of this frenzy that even today, the undergroundwater supply in the city is so heavily

polluted with heavy metals and other organic pollutants. However, it must be noted that this

pollution canbe tracedback toUnionCarbide’s activities evenprior to the leak. Furthermore, the

MICreleasedintotheatmosphereshallcontinuetoplaguetheecosystemforgenerationstocome.All

this, simplybecause of a nation’s lack of awareness of environmental standards and an industry’s

abilitytotakeadvantageofthesituation.

12 "Bhopal Gas Tragedy." Bhopal Gas Tragedy. N.p., n.d. Web. 13 July 2016. http://www.bmhrc.org/Bhopal%20Gas%20Tragedy.htm


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ChernobylDisaster

TheChernobylDisasterofApril1986wasanucleartragedywhichwastheresultofaflaweddesignin

a Soviet reactor and gravemistakes of the operatorsworking the plant. The accident triggered the

biggest, unrestrained radioactive release into the ecosystem to have ever occurred, with huge

quantitiesofradioactivesubstancesliberatedintotheairforcloseto10days.Theleakcontaminated

morethan200000squarekilometersofEurope. Tworadionuclides, theshort-livediodine-131and

the long-lived caesium-137, were particularly significant for the radiation dose they delivered to

members of the public13. This resulted in grave socio – economic disturbance for amajority of the

population in Ukraine, Belarus and Russia. Pripyat, the city closest to Chernobyl was immediately

evacuatedtoreducetheirexposuretotheleak.Theextentofdamagedependedheavilyonwhetherit

wasraininginthatparticularareaatthetimeoftheleak.Exposedareas, likestreets,grasslandsand

rooftops,weremostseriouslyaffected.

For more than 2 decades, Chernobyl’s environment has been closely monitored and recorded.

although natural factors like wind and rain as well as human efforts, have reduced, as much as

possible,externalcontamination,sewageandsludgesystemstothisdayareheavilycontaminated.

Growingurbanpopulation

One of themost important challenges of the developing 21st century is managing growing urban

areas.Theworld’s urbanpopulationhas grown rapidly from746million in1950 to3.9billion in201414.

Asia, inspiteof itsrelatively lower levelofurbanization, ishometo53%of theworld’surbanpopulation,

followedbyEuropewith14%andLatinAmericaandtheCaribbeanwith13%15.Peoplewholive inurbanareas have very different consumption patterns than residents in rural areas. For example, the urban

population’sconsumptionof food,energy,anddurablegoodsis farmorethanthatofruralpopulations. In

13 "Chernobyl Accident 1986." Chernobyl. N.p., n.d. Web. 13 July 2016. http://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/safety-and-security/safety-of-plants/chernobyl-accident.aspx 14 "Redirect Notice." Redirect Notice. N.p., n.d. Web. 10 July 2016. https://www.google.co.in/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=1&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=0ahUKEwic9cu4kenNAhXKRY8KHRN7DW0QFggdMAA&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.un.org%2Fen%2Fdevelopment%2Fdesa%2Fnews%2Fpopulation%2Fworld-urbanization-prospects-2014.html&usg=AFQjCNGE4bs3iqmsPiDGwO8USsXnV_4AuA%5C 15 "World’s Population Increasingly Urban with More than Half Living in Urban Areas | UN DESA | United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs." UN. N.p., n.d. Web. 10 July 2016. https://www.google.co.in/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=2&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=0ahUKEwjBsp3fkenNAhVMP48KHRhqAXQQFgggMAE&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.un.org%2Fen%2Fdevelopment%2Fdesa%2Fnews%2Fpopulation%2Fworld-urbanization-prospects-2014.html&usg=AFQjCNGE4bs3iqmsPiDGwO8USsXnV_4AuA&bvm=bv.126130881%2Cd.c2I


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fact,duringthe1970s,China’surbanpopulationconsumuedtwiceasmuchporkasitsruralpopulation,who

wasraisingthepigs16.

InformalSettlements:

Informal settlements have a two – pronged environmental impact (see figure 1). On one side, the

conditions inwhich occupants of such settlements live, coupledwith the constantworry of natural

disasters as well as manmade ones, contribute to the manifestation of environmental degradation.

This feature evaluates informal settlements for their suitability as human habitations. On the other

hand,thecollectiveeffectsofinformalsettlementsinparticularlocalesaresubstantialforthecityor

areainwhichtheyarelocated.

fig1:Informalsettlementsandenvironmentalimpacts.

Inhabitantsofinformalsettlementstendtorelymoreonindigenous,naturalresourcesforthe

constructionoftheirhouses,gatheringandpreparingfood,usingfossilfuelsandevenpreparing

traditionalmedicines.Infact,theirrelianceontheseresourcesismuchmorethanthatofthe

wealthier,urbancitizens.However,this,coupledwithpoordrainageplans,lackoftechnicalknowhow

onwastedisposalandtheabsenceofclean,renewableenergysources–allcontributetothe

degradationoftheareaingeneral,addingtothepollutionoftheair,waterandsoil.Themainproblem

withthesesettlementsisthatitisverychallengingtodecreasetheirneedfornaturalresources,which

runtheriskofcausingaseverelossofbiodiversityinthearea.Furthermore,peripheralinformal

settlementsareoftenaconsequenceoftheaccidentalextensionofurbanareasintoarableor

otherwiseecologicallypreciousland.

16 "World Population Highlights 2007: Urbanization." N.p., n.d. Web. 10 July 2016. https://www.google.co.in/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=1&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=0ahUKEwjOi7KPkunNAhXLOI8KHbmNAZAQFggbMAA&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.prb.org%2FPublications%2FArticles%2F2007%2F623Urbanization.aspx&usg=AFQjCNEHHwS-4qciOnKA6sPvOg9j0Tsszg&bvm=bv.126130881%2Cd.c2I


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MajorCountriesandOrganizationsInvolved

UNEP(UnitedNationsEnvironmentProgram)andUNEA(UnitedNationsEnvironmentAssembly)

TheUNEPhas,sinceits inceptionin1972,workedrelentlesslytobringenvironmentaldegradation

to the forefront of world issues. The beauty of this organization is its ability to link themore important

aspectsofdevelopment thatmightovershadowenvironmentaldegradation tohighlight this very causeof

theirs.A2007reportofUNEPsuggestedthatamongtherootcausesofdecadesofsocialstrifeandconflict

are the rapidlyerodingenvironmental services in severalkeypartsof thecountry17.Furthermore, inMay

2016,UNEPreportsindicatedthatenvironmentaldegradationandpollutionisestimatedtocauseupto234

times asmany premature deaths as occur in conflicts annually, highlighting the importance of a healthy

environmentinordertoachievethe2030agendaofsustainabledevelopment18.

TheUnitedNationsEnvironmentAssemblyistheworld’shighestleveldecisionmakingbodyonthe

environment19.ThehistoricUnitedNationsConferenceonSustainableDevelopment(Rio+20)inJune2012

calledforthestrengtheningoftheUNEPsoastocreateabodywithawiderreachintofinancial,legislative

anddevelopmentalarenas tohelpachieve theSDGsby2030.So far, theUNEAseems tobe theonlybody

outside the UN, with universal representation and ties with non state actors such as Non Governmental

Organisations (NGOs) andmembers of the private sector. Hence it is the one organisationwith the best

outreachintheworld.

USA(UnitedStatesofAmerica)

TheUnitedStatesofAmericaistheworld’shighestconsumingnationandtheirper–capitalevelof

consumption ismagnified by their population. Yet their population grows at a rate that is comparable to

17 "Press Releases June 2007 - Environmental Degradation Triggering Tensions and Conflict in Sudan - United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)." Press Releases June 2007 - Environmental Degradation Triggering Tensions and Conflict in Sudan - United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). N.p., n.d. Web. 4 June 2016. http://www.unep.org/documents.Multilingual/Default.asp?ArticleID=5621&DocumentID=512&I=en 18 "Premature Deaths from Environmental Degradation Threat to Global Public Health, UNEP Report Says - UNEP." Premature Deaths from Environmental Degradation Threat to Global Public Health, UNEP Report Says - UNEP. N.p., n.d. Web. 4 June 2016. http://www.unep.org/NewsCentre/default.aspx?DocumentID=27074&ArticleID=36186 19 "Statement by Kenyan President Uhuru Kenyatta on the UN Environment Assembly." Climate Action. N.p., 10 May 2016. Web. 14 July 2016. https://www.google.co.in/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=5&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=0ahUKEwiz2d2ksfLNAhXMMI8KHZMMA2QQFgg3MAQ&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.climateactionprogramme.org%2Fpress-releases%2Fstatement_by_kenyan_president_uhuru_kenyatta_on_the_un_environment_assembly&usg=AFQjCNGIckDvDdtdIzTxdUaQKrq2jroW6Q


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third world nations such as Bangladesh20. The biggest issue with the country is its rate of consumption.

Despitebeingadevelopednation,itspopulationandtheirabilitytoconsumenaturalresourcesrelentlessly

has put a strain on the existing resources. It isUSA’s trade relationswith other nations across the globe,

whichhasreducedtheimpactofthetruedegradationwithinthecountry.Itisthisviciouscycleofpopulation

explosion and amplified consumption rates that shall eventually lead to desertification, enhanced climate

changeanddestructionofnaturalecosystems.

Brazil

Of all Latin American nations, Brazil continues to have a major part (66 percent) of its territory

coveredby forests.However, the1970sand1980switnessedadistressingrateofclearingandburning in

theAmazon.Amajorityof theclearingwascarriedoutbyranchers, longwith largecorporateoperations,

and a smaller portion resulted from slash-and-burn techniques used by small farmers. Slash-and-burn

cultivationisusedtoconvertexistingforestareasintofarmland21.Theproblemwiththistechniqueisthat

deliberatefires,whichbegininacontrolledarea,soongetoutofhandandburnthroughtheundergrowthof

nearby forests,destroyingsmaller trees,shrubsandothersmallvegetation.Thiscauses thedying trees to

fall,becauseofwhichthe,thegroundgetskindledandrapidlyspreadsthefiretoothertreesaswell.

AccordingtotheWorldWildlifeFund,90%oftheAtlanticForestecosysteminsouthernBrazilhas

beenwipedoutduetothecocoaboomofthe1970s.Furthermore,inthelargercitiesofthecountry,levelsof

air pollution and congestion areworse than those found in cities of developednations.At the same time,

basicenvironmentalproblemsrelatedtothelackofsanitation,clearingofrainforeststocreatearableland,

persistinBrazil.ThemainissueforadevelopingnationlikeBrazilisthefactthatwhilerapidurbanizationis

an active contributor to environmental degradation, it still has not moved on from the initial stages of

developmentsincethecountry’smainsourceofeconomyisitsagriculturalsector.

China

Inrecentyears,Chinahasemergedasoneofthemanydevelopingnations,predictedtoovertakeUSA

by2050.Chinahasworkedrelentlesslytoreachthisstageandhoweverinthisprocess,Chinapaidheavilyin

theformofenvironmentalexploitation.China’scurrentenvironmentalsituationisaresultofpolicychoices

made in this century coupledwith the approaches and institutions that have evolved over the others. It

wasn’tuntil the1972UnitedNationsConferenceontheHumanEnvironment thatChinabegantodevelop

environmental institutions. However, by then, the country’s environmentwas already in dire straits. The

cost of environmental degradation inChinawas about $230billion in2010, or3.5percent of thenation’s

20 "Census.gov." Census.gov. N.p., n.d. Web. 4 June 2016. http://www.census.gov/ 21 Lindsay, Rebecca. "From Forest to Field: How Fire Is Transforming the Amazon." Earth Observatory. N.p., 8 June 2004. Web. 14 July 2016. http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Features/AmazonFire/


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grossdomesticproduct—threetimesthat in2004, in localcurrencyterm22.Thesealarming figureswere

based on costs arising from pollution and damage to the ecosystem – the price China paid to speed up

industrialization. If this hadn’t been enough of a warning signal for the nation, the putrid smog that

blanketed thecityofBeijing in2013surpassed levels thatevenwesternenvironmentalagencies consider

hazardous.Chinawasakeyplayerduringthe2015Parisconference,withlargereductionsinitspollution

levelsbeingthepromisetheywalkedawaywith.Thequestioniswhethertheirresourceswillpermitthemto

takesuchdrasticmeasurestomeettheexpectationsthecountryhassetforitself.

India

Since 2014, India has witnessed an economic swell, and the country has become a desired

investmentfor investorsaroundtheworld.2014alsoexperiencedcapitalexpenditureprojectsattract$23

billionofforeigninvestment23.Howeverenvironmentalproblems,amajorityofwhichareaconsequenceof

urbanpollution,preventthecountryfromdevelopingtoitsfullpotential.Inarecentsurveyof178countries

whose environments were surveyed, India ranked 155th overall and almost last in air pollution

exposure24.The survey also brought to notice the fact that India's ecological quality is far below all BRIC

countries[China(118),Brazil (77),Russia(73),andSouthAfrica(72)].Additionally,accordingtoarecent

WHOsurvey,amongtheG-20economies,13ofthe20mostcontaminatedcitiesareinIndia.Notonlythis,

povertycontinuestobebothacauseandconsequenceofresourcedegradation.Alltheseissueshavebegun

to have a visible effect on the nation. Due to land degradation, agricultural yields have gone down.

Furthermore, a continueddependence onnatural resources has resulted in a depletion of grasslands and

forestcoveraswell.Whilethenationis,slowlybutsteadily,makingprogressontheeconomicfront,thereis

alotofworkthecountryneedstodotomaintainitsrichenvironment.

Bangladesh

Over–population,lackofawarenessandpovertyaresomeofthemostcommonfactorsthatleadtoa

depletionofnaturalresourcesaswellasdegradationofthenation’senvironment.Furthermore,reductionof

soil nutrients, deforestation, damage of wetlands, etc. have continued in the nation for a while as well.

Natural calamities like tidal bores, cyclones and floods have also resulted in severe socio-economic and

environmentaldamageinthepast,withlittledonetoeffectivelyrecoverfromtheiraftereffects.

22 Wong, Edward. "Cost of Environmental Damage in China Growing Rapidly Amid Industrialization." The New York Times. The New York Times, 29 Mar. 2013. Web. 4 June 2016. http://www.nytimes.com/2013/03/30/world/asia/cost-of-environmental-degradation-in-china-is-growing.html?_r=0 23 Currie, Daniel. "India's Continuous Environmental Degradation." Fair Observer. N.p., 06 June 2015. Web. 14 July 2016. http://www.fairobserver.com/region/central_south_asia/indias-continuous-environmental-degradation-32791/ 24 "India: Green Growth - Overcoming Environment Challenges to Promote Development." World Bank. N.p., n.d. Web. 4 June 2016. http://www.worldbank.org/en/news/feature/2014/03/06/green-growth-overcoming-india-environment-challenges-promote-development?cid=SAR_TTWBSAREN_EXT


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TimelineofEvents

Date Descriptionofevent

1760 Beginningoftheindustrialrevolution

1962

Rachel Carson publishes her book, Silent Spring, which is a compilation of her

research on epidemiology, toxicology and ecology. She suggests that agricultural

pesticidesareincreasingtocatastrophiclevelsandarelinkedtothedamagecaused

tohumanhealthandthedeathofcertainanimalspecies.

1967The Environmental Defense Fund is formed to pursue legal solutions regarding

environmentaldegradation.

September16,1968

Environmental experts from around the world meet for the first time at the

IntergovernmentalConference forRationalUseandConservationof theBiosphere,

heldbyUNESCO.Thisiswherediscussionsbeganforthefirsttimeontheconceptof

environmentallysustainabledevelopmentfornationsaroundtheworld.

1969

Friends of the Earth forms an activism organization, which specializes in the

prevention of environmental degradation, emphasis on the role of citizens in

decisionmakingregardingtheenvironmentandpreservationofecologicaldiversity.

June22,1969TheCuyahogaRiverinOhio,UnitedStatesofAmerica,catchesfire,bringingpolitical

attentiontotheneedforpoliciesonthecontrolofwaterpollution.

April22,1970The first international Earth Day is celebrated to protest against environmental

degradationaroundtheworld.

December2,1970

ThebiggestoutcomeoftheCuyahogaRiverincident,wastheinceptionoftheUnited

States Environmental Protection Agency, which was one of the first national

departmentsdedicatedtotheenvironmentintheworld.

1971

The International Institute for Environment and Development (IIED) is created in

theUnitedKingdom,tohelpfindwaysfornationstomakeprogressontheeconomic

frontwithoutdestroyingtheirecologicaldiversity.

June 5, 1972 to June

16,1972

The United Nations Conference on the Human Environment and UNEP is held in

Stockholm.Discussionson the issueofpollutionandacid rain inNorthernEurope


12

leads to the creation of important national agencies for the protection of the

environment,includingtheinceptionoftheUnitedNationsEnvironment(UNEP)25.

1973Chipko Movement to retaliate against heavy deforestation and environmental

degradationisinitiatedbyagroupofwomeninIndia.

1975TheConventiononInternationalTrade inEndangeredSpecies(CITES)of floraand

faunaisbroughtintoaction.

May 31, 1976 to June

11,1976

HabitatI,theUNconferenceonhumansettlementsisheldinCanada,whereforthe

first time, a global meeting links human settlements and their impact on the

environment.

1977The Greenbelt Movement is started in Kenya, where community tree planting is

utilizedasamethodtopreventdesertification

July24,1980

The Global 2000 Report is released, for the first time recognizing biodiversity as

critical for the functioningof theearth’secosystems.Thereportalsostrongly feels

that the extinction of animal species due to the degradation of the environment

weakensexistingecosystemstoquiteanextent.

1982TheinternationaldebtcrisissetsbackLatinAmericancountriesbyalmostadecade

intheprogresstheymadewiththepreservationoftheirenvironment.

October28,1982

TheUNWorldCharterforNatureadoptsthebeliefthatallformsoflifeonearthare

uniqueanddeserverespectirrespectiveoftheirutilitytohumans.Thecharteralso

callsfortheunderstandingofourdependencenaturalresourcesandtheimportance

ofcontrollingtheextentoftheirexploitation.

December10,1982

The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Seas (UNCLOS) is adopted,

establishingconcretelawsonenvironmentalstandards,includingspecificprovisions

todealwithmarinepollution.

December 2, 1984 to

December3,1984BhopalGastragedy

1985 TheozoneholeabovetheAntarcticisdiscoveredbyAmericanandBritishscientists

March22,1985TheViennaConventionfortheProtectionoftheOzoneLayer isattendedbyUNEP,

theInternationalCouncilofScientificUnionsandtheWorldMeteorologicalSociety.

25 "Declaration of the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment." United Nations Environment Program. N.p., n.d. Web. 16 July 2016. http://www.unep.org/documents.multilingual/default.asp?documentid=97&articleid=1503


13

Discussions on the condition of the ozone hole aswell as the level of greenhouse

gasesintheatmospherearecarriedoutandtheideaofglobalwarmingbecominga

realityisestablishedhere.

April26,1986 Chernobyldisaster

1988

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IIPC) is created by the World

MeteorologicalOrganization(WMO)andtheUNEP,withthegoalofcreatingrealistic

responsetechniquestotherampantclimatechangearoundtheworld26.

3 June to 14 June,

1992UnitedNationsConferenceonEnvironmentandDevelopment

January1,1995TheWorldTradeOrganizationcomesintoexistenceasanorganizationdedicatedto

therealizationthattrade,environmentanddevelopmentarestronglyinterlinked.

1997 KyotoProtocols

2000

InceptionoftheMillenniumDevelopmentGoalsattheSummitoftheUnitedNations.

This is the largestgatheringofworld leaderswhereasetof time–boundgoals to

achieve measurable progress in combatting poverty, hunger and environmental

degradation,amongotherissuesistobeachievedby201527.

August 26, 2002 to

September4,2002

The World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD) is convened in

Johannesburgtodiscusstheissueofactivelypromotingsustainabledevelopmentby

theUnitedNations.

2008Thisisthefirsttimeinhumanhistory,thatmorethan50%oftheworld’spopulation

nowlivesinurbanizedtownsandcities28.

December 7, 2009 to

December18,2009

The historic Copenhagen Climate Negotiations are held, where the Conference of

Parties fails to reach an agreement on reduction commitments beyond 2012 (the

endoftheKyotoprotocoltimeframe)oftheemissionsofgreenhousegases(GHGs).

ItisatthisconferencethatfocustoreduceGHGemissionsshiftsfromamultilateral

approachtoamorenationalorregionalapproach.

March11,2011Japanishitwithanearthquakeofmagnitude9.0andatsunami,whichdamagethe

nation’snuclearpowerplants,givingrisetoglobalconcernsregardingthesafetyof

26 "IPCC - Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change." IPCC - Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. N.p., n.d. Web. 17 July 2016. https://www.ipcc.ch/organization/organization_history.shtml 27 "United Nations Millennium Development Goals." UN News Center. UN, n.d. Web. 17 July 2016. http://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/bkgd.shtml 28 "Urbanization | UNFPA - United Nations Population Fund." Urbanization | UNFPA - United Nations Population Fund. N.p., n.d. Web. 17 July 2016. http://www.unfpa.org/pds/urbanization.htm


14

nuclearpower.

2012 UnitedNationsConferenceonSustainableDevelopment(Rio20+)

2015 MillenniumDevelopmentGoalscometoanend

September,2015 SustainableDevelopmentGoalscommence

30 November to 12

December,2015UnitedNationsClimateChangeConference

RelevantUNTreatiesandEvents

• AgreementfortheEstablishmentofaGeneralFisheriesCouncilfortheMediterranean(asamended),Rome,1949

• ConventionfortheEstablishmentoftheEuropeanandMediterraneanPlantProtectionOrganization(asamended),Paris,1951

• InternationalConventionforthePreventionofPollutionoftheSeabyOil,London,1954(asamendedin1962and1969)

• UnitedNationsConventiontoCombatDesertificationinthoseCountriesExperiencingSeriousDroughtand/orDesertification,ParticularlyinAfrica,Paris,1994

• AgreementonanInternationalEnergyProgramme,Paris,1974

• ConventionontheTransboundaryEffectsofIndustrialAccidents,Helsinki,1992

• TheEnergyCharterTreaty,Lisbon,1994

• Kyotoprotocols,1997

• ConventionontheProtectionoftheEnvironmentThroughCriminalLaw,Strasbourg,1998

• Observanceofenvironmentalnormsinthedraftingandimplementationofagreementsondisarmamentandarmscontrol,8December2010(A/RES/65/53)

• ReportoftheGoverningCounciloftheUnitedNationsEnvironmentProgrammeonitseleventhspecialsession,20December2010(A/RES/65/162)

• Cooperativemeasurestoassessandincreaseawarenessofenvironmentaleffectsofwasteoriginatingfromchemicalmunitionsdumpedatsea,20December2010(A/RES/65/149)

KeyIssues

Urbanization has been an active contributor to air, soil and water degradation, leading to other

environmentalcomplicationssuchasclimatechangeandglobalwarming.Furthermore,rapidurbanization

hasalsocontributedmassivelytothestrainonnaturalresourceslikefood,energyandhabitableaswellas

arable land. The largest contributors to environmental degradation are the countries that are rapidly


15

developingnations,especially thosenationswhere theirglobalrecognition ison theriseormigration isa

prominentissue.

Tropicaldeforestationforcreatinghabitableaswellasarablelandkillsover100speciesoffloraeach

day in countries like Brazil, Bolivia,Cameroon,Central African Republic, Ecuador, India,Laos,Malaysia,

PapuaNewGuinea,andRepublicofCongo.Thisdeforestationresultsinanincreasedcarbonfootprintforall

these countries, accelerating global warming. Congesting arable land with fertilizers, overgrazing and

shiftingagricultureareharmfulfarmingproceduresthatdamagelandandcreatesoilerosionwhichcauses

silting in key rivers and reservoirs. Soil degradation is a vicious cycle which will eventually lead to

desertificationanddegradationoflandqualitybypermittingagentsoferosiontoactdirectlyonarableland.

Rapidurbanizationhasledtoanincreaseddemandforsourcesofenergy,especiallypetroleum,shale

gas,etc.Toextractmaximumgasfromacertainareaintheocean,hydraulicfracturinghasbecomeapopular

method. However, this is illegal and there have been a number of issues in countrieswhere government

approved fracking took place. For example, in 2011, energy company Cuadrilla suspended test fracking

operationsnearBlackpool,inLancashire,UK,aftertwoearthquakesof1.5and2.2magnitudehitthearea29.

Asubsequentstudyfounditwasthatshalegastestdrillingtriggeredthetremors.

fig2:hydraulicfracturingtocarryoutshalegasextraction

Despite pre existing agreements and treaties like the Kyoto Protocols and the agreements of the

Paris Agreements of 2015, many developing nations have not come to a consensus on how to combat

environmentaldegradation.Formostitisaquestionofpracticalitywithrespecttotheireconomies.

PossibleSolutions

AlthoughtreatiesdatingbacktotheKyotoProtocolin1997tosummitsliketheParisConferenceof

November2015promisedeffectivechange,itisimportanttonotethatthecountriesexpectedtoimplement

29 "What Is Fracking and Why Is It Controversial?" BBC News. N.p., 16 Dec. 2015. Web. 16 July 2016. https://www.google.co.in/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=2&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=0ahUKEwj0vYfev_jNAhUWSY8KHQZyAysQFggjMAE&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.com%2Fnews%2Fuk-14432401&usg=AFQjCNHzV1hhzmAy5Uq952gwGM0T1gahnQ


16

theseclausescomefromaneconomyandalevelofdevelopmentthatmaynotbeabletoliveuptowhatis

expectedofthem.Furthermore,thelevelofdegradationwithinthesenationsislargelyduetotheireconomic

statusandtheirlevelofdevelopment,makingithardertofindfeasiblesolutions.

Somesolutionscouldinclude,creatinganeffectiveandwellcoordinatedinstitutionalsetuptodeal

withthegrowingproblemsrelatedtohumansettlementandinformaldevelopmentasdoneinZanzibar in

2005 in accordance with the Agenda 21 and the Habitat Agenda adopted in Istanbul during the 1996

Summit30.

To combat issues like fracking, imposing anti fracking laws and suitable penalties as done in

countrieslikeFrance,GermanyandAustriacouldbeapossiblesolutiontoo.Countrieswherefrackingisone

ofthefewpossiblesourcesofenergy,tillbettersourcescanbeestablished,bettermethodsoffrackingcanbe

adoptedsuchas31:

a. WaterfreefrackingasdonebyanAlberta–basedenergyfirm,GasFrac.Thismethodinvolvesthe

utilization of a gel made from propane—a hydrocarbon, already naturally present

underground—andablendofmoderatelybenignchemicals,suchasmagnesiumoxideandferric

sulfate(usedinwatertreatmentplants).Sincethequantityofhydrocarboninthegelissimilarto

what's in the ground, the fluid can just blend into the flow being obtained from the ground,

eradicatingtheneedtodrainpollutedwastewaterandtowitawayintrucksfordumping

b. Removingdiesel fumes:Thediesel-poweredgearused todrill andpumpwells canbeamajor

sourceofdangerouspollutants likeparticulates,aswellascarbonemissions thataddtoglobal

warming.

c. Pluggingmethaneleaks

Another importantaspectwould includespreadingawarenessaboutpopulationcontrolandfamily

planningandincentivizingitsimplementationwithhelpfromtheUnitedNationsPopulationFund(UNFPA)

throughthesetupoffamilyplanningcentersasdoneinIndiaincollaborationwiththeRedCross.

Energy sourcesmust be focused on aswell. Implementing domestic and non domestic renewable

heat incentivesasdone inEurope. ImplementingstrictCSRs formultinationalcompanies,especially those

30"Planning and Design for Future Informal Settlements." (2014): n. pag. The Causes and Consequences of the Informal Settlements in Zanzibar. Web. 4 June 2016. https://www.fig.net/resources/proceedings/fig_proceedings/fig2006/papers/ts35/ts35_01_ali_sulaiman_0320.pdf 31 "Green Fracking? 5 Technologies for Cleaner Shale Energy." National Geographic. National Geographic Society, n.d. Web. 4 June 2016. http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/energy/2014/03/140319-5-technologies-for-greener-fracking/


17

working with oil and petroleum or those that set up factories (especially in LEDCs) that must be either

incentivizedifadheredtoorstrictlypenalizedifnotfollowed.

These solutions are just the tip of the iceberg. It is very important that the solutions that are

discussed, epitomize comprehensiveness and detail. Environmental degradation is a persistent issue that

willrequirecarefuldeliberationandagreatdealofattentiontodetail.Itistheneedofthehourfornationsto

cometogetherandutilizethisforumtothebestoftheirabilitieswhileneverlosingtrackofwhattheyare

andarenotcapableofcarryingoutasacountry.

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