IntroductionIntroduction

Grammatical Hierarchy

Definition of GRAMMAR GRAMMAR: the structural system of a language. the branch of linguistics that deals with

syntax and morphology (and sometimes also deals with semantics)

Linguistics

Grammar

Syntax

Morphology

Semantics

Five Ranks The grammar of the English language is

organized into five ranks: the Sentence

the Clause the Phrase the Word the Morpheme

Diagram of the five ranks: Each rank is composed of one or more

than one grammatical unit of the immediate lower rank:

Sentence

Clause

Phrase

Word

Morpheme

Example A full sentence can generally be

segmented rank by rank down to its smallest constituents---the morphemes.

These undergraduates are rapidly improving

in their writing.

Sentence Clause

Phrases

Noun Phrase Prepositional PhraseVerb Phrase

WordsThese

undergraduates

are rapidly

improving

in their

writingundergraduates rapidly

improving writing

Morphemes

These are intheir

0.1 Morphemes 1.Definition:the minimum or smallest grammatical unitthe smallest meaningful element of speech.

2.Classification:

Two categories: 1) Free Morphemes 2) Bound Morphemes. *3) Allomorphs

3. Diagram of Morpheme

1) Free Morphemes

1. Definition:has a complete meaningcan stand by itself as a Simple Wordcan sometimes act as a complete utterance

in connected speech to form Compound Words

Derivatives

2) Bound Morphemes

are mostly affixesalso meaningful, but the meaning is not

complete in itself unless it is attached to some other forms

cannot stand by itself: it only exists as an

Inflectionalor

Derivational Affix

Inflectional Affix

-’s (genitive case)

-s/-es (plural nouns)

-s/-es (the third person singular verbs in simple present)

-ed (past tense verbs)

-ing, -ed (-ing participle, -ed participle form of verbs)

-er, -est (comparative, superlative degree of adjectives/ adverbs)

Derivational Affix

Prefix, Suffix (Prefix) + Root + (suffix)co-exist existence co-existence

Diagram of Morpheme

Mo

rph

eme

Free MFree

morpheme

Affix

Derivative

Free MFree M Compound word

Bound morpheme

Inflectional Affix

Derivational Affix

Prefix

Suffix

-’s, -s -ing, -ed/-en-est, -er, -s,-es

Affix＋

＋

＋ Root

Word-formation

3) Allomorphs

Definition: The variants of the same morpheme are ca

lled allomorphs.

Explanation: the same morpheme in different contexts m

ay take different phonological or orthographical forms.

Examples:

In Orthography: in- im- il- ir- inactive immature illegal irrational incoherent immortal illogical irregular inexperienced imperfect illegible irrelevant

In phonology:

-s cats dogs houses/s/ /z/ /iz/

0.2 Words is composed of one or more morpheme. can be classified in two ways: in terms of

word-formation grammatical function

In terms of Word-formation

a) Simple Word

b) Derivative

c) Compound Word

a) Simple Word:

also called Morpheme Word (free morpheme)

minor but has frequent appearance and strong derivational ability

the main body of English vocabularyusually the small word

at on down near hand foot take make

b) Derivative:

Structure:

(prefix) + root +(suffix) :

kindun ness

Influence the meaning

of the root

Influence the part of speech

of the root

c) Compound Word Structure:

Free Morpheme + Free Morpheme

Classification: Compound Noun

Compound AdjectiveCompound VerbCompound AdverbCompound PronounCompound ConjunctionCompound Preposition

In terms of grammatical function

Closed-class words Open-class words

Closed-class words

Definition:

Closed-class words refer to those sets of words whose items are closed or limited in number and are only exceptionally extended by the creation of additional members.

Scope:

All the Function Words: Preposition

PronounDeterminerConjunctionAuxiliary

Open-class Words

Definition:

Open-class words refer to those sets of words whose items are indefinitely extendable. New items are constantly being created and old items are giving place to new ones.

Scope:

All the Content Words:• Noun

• Adjective

• Adverb

• Main Verb

NOTE:

Cardinal Numeral, Ordinal Numeral and Interjection are between closed and open

0.3 Phrases

Definition:

is composed of one or more than one word.

is a group of words organized in a specific way with a key Word as its Head.

The word class of the Head determines the class of the phrase and the way in which the words are organized.

Word Class of Phrase :

1. Noun Phrase

2. Verb Phrase

3. Adjective Phrase

4. Adverb Phrase

5. Prepositional Phrase

1) The Noun Phrase:

Structure: (Determiner) + (Pre-Modifier) + Noun + (Post-Modifier)

all the college students

Noun as the Head

Noun as the Pre-Modifier

Determiner

Exercise

His new book on phonology Milton lived in the 17th century The author’s new novel that will soon come out

Clause

Prepositional Phrase

Non-finite Verb Phrase

book

Milton

novel

2) The Verb Phrase:

In terms of the amount of verbs

In terms of grammatical form

Finite Verb Phrase Non-finite Verb Phrase

Simple Verb Phrase Complex Verb Phrase

Classification :

Simple Verb Phrase:

Structure:(Modifier) + Main Verb + (Modifier)

She looks pale. We utterly detested him.

Main Verb

Modifier + Main Verb

Complex Verb Phrase:

Structure: Auxiliary /Auxiliaries + Main Verb + (Modifier)

It is getting dark. She ought to have told him about it. Joan will certainly object and so will

Mary.

Finite Verb Phrase:A finite verb phrase is initiated by a

finite form, that is, a verb form that changes according to Tense or Subject.

I loved you two years ago.

Tommy loves Lora.

Children love fairy tales.

Verb phrases

Person/Number

Tense

Non-finite Verb Phrase:A non-finite verb phrase is initiated by a

non-finite form, that is, a verb form that does not change according to Tense or Subject.

We went there to see a film.

I usually go there to see a film.

Robert seldom goes there to see a film.

Andrew will go there to see a film.

Non-finiteFinite

Point out finite and non- finite verb phrases:

Having seen the film, we had a discussion. Painted by a famous artist, the portrait is

invaluable. Tired from studying all afternoon, she went

for a walk. Opening the book slowly and tentatively,

she began to read.

Non-finiteFinite

3) The Adjective Phrase:

Structure:(Modifier) + Adjective + (Post modifier /

Complementation)

The course is pretty difficult. I’ll be glad to help you repair the car if

you show me what’s wrong.

pretty difficult

glad to help you repair the car

4) The Adverb Phrase:

Structure: (Modifier) + Adverb + (post Modifier)

He spoke loudly and clearly.

5) The Prepositional Phrase:Structure: (Modifier) + Preposition + Complementation

The weather has been fine except in the north. Now their footsteps could be heard directly

above my head. We are collecting money for the benefit of

some orphans.

except

above

for

in the north

my head

the benefit ofsome orphans

0.4 Clauses:

is composed of one or more than one phrase.

A full-fledged clause is structurally a sequence of phrase and logically a construction of “Subject + Predicate”.

Classification:

1) In terms of grammatical function:

2) In terms of the “Subject + Predicate” construction:

3) In terms of the relation between the clauses

4) In terms of verb phrase type

5) Verbless clauses

1) In terms of grammatical function:

Independent clause (IC)

Dependent clause (DC)

stand by itselfact as a complete utterance

forms only part of another clause or phrase

He knows everything about it.

I don’t think he knows everything about it.

Quiz: I went to the store. I didn't buy any bread.

I went to the store; I didn't buy any bread.

I went to the store, but I didn't buy any bread.

I went to the store; however, I didn't buy any bread.

When I went to the store, I didn't buy any bread.

I didn't buy any bread when I went to the store.

IC. IC.

IC; IC.

IC, IC.

IC; IC.

DC, IC.

IC DC.

2) In terms of the “Subject + Predicate” construction:

Simple Clause

Complex Clause

only one construction of “subject + predicate”

comprises another clause or other clauses

as its element or elements

Examples: simple or complex?

It is not true.

What you said is not true.

He said that it was not true.

He complained that what you said was not true.

Simple

Complex

Complex

Complex

Simple

Simple

Complex

Complex

DC

IC

IC

IC

IC

DC

DC

3) In terms of the relation between the clauses

In a complex clause, the clause that takes another clause as its element is the main clause, while the clause that forms part of the main clause is a subordinate clause.

Example:

He complained that what you said was not true.

Main Clause Subordinate Clause

Subordinate Clause Main Clause

4) In terms of verb phrase type:

In terms of verb phrase type: Finite Clause:

Non-finite Clause:

takes a finite verb phrase as its predicate verb

takes a non-finite verb phrase as its predicator

I signed the paper to get the license. (Non-finite clause)It is forbidden to smoke in this room. (Non-finite clause)

Quiz: Finite or Nonfinite?

1. Everybody left just after the ceremony

2. Inviting your sister was not a great decision

3. I'll be home around ten if my train is on time.

4. They expect Susan to do all the work.

5. Deprived of oxygen, plants will quickly die

Nonfinite

Finite

Finite

Finite

Nonfinite

5) Verbless clauses is marked by the absence of any form of

verb element is just a construction of “subject + predicate”

without any form of verb element. Hungry and exhausted, the climbers

returned. Christmas then only days away, the family

was pent up with excitement.

0.5 Sentences

A. Features B. Definition C. Classification

A. Features:

the highest rank of grammatical unit. the basic linguistic unit of connected

discourse Based on one or more than one clause can stand alone and perform a function in

social communication.

B. Definition

a grammatical unit that can stand by itself and perform a communicative function.

C. Classification Full and Minor Sentences A minor sentence is only a sentence

fragment which in specific contexts and situations can stand by itself and perform a communicative function.

Minor sentences are extensively used in informal discourses.

A: When did he arrive?B: Last night.No smoking!Fire!

Full Sentence

A Full Sentence is a sentence with an expressed subject and predicate.

This kind of sentence is mostly used in formal speech and writing.

Classification

Classification of Full Sentence: Simple Sentence

Compound Sentence

Complex Sentence

Compound-complex Sentence

one independent clause

Two or more coordinated independent clauses

an independent clause comprising one or more dependent clauses as its elements

Two or more coordinated independent clauses with at least one complex clause

Examples:

Jack and James play football every afternoon.

Some students like to study in the mornings.

Alicia goes to the library and studies every day.

I tried to speak Spanish, and my friend tried to speak English.

We had to go inside when it started raining.

As long as it isn't cold , it doesn't matter if it rains.

I admire Tim, but he doesn't admire me, although I try hard to impress him.

S. S.

S. S.

S. S.

Cpd. S.

Cpx. S.

Cpx. S.

Cpd. Cpx. S.

The End