INTRODUCTION

1

The term 'tribe' has been defined variously by different

scholars. So it is not easy to give a clear cut defeni tion due to

its different connotations. A section of the people was notified as

Scheduled tribes in India, under the President's Order 1950. Some

Scholars hold the opinion that this classification is political rather

than strictly ethnographic (Krisha Iyer, 1961). In order to

understand a particular group as a tribe we should know about

their physical features, area of settlement, social distance from the

advanced groups, marriage systerrs - ploygarr:y, polyandry, marriage

by service, purchase and exchange sororate and levirate

rr.arriages, taboos, religious conventions, Iraterial culture I language

etc. According to Luiz the existence of discrirrination, culture and

custOIr.S, cOlJ1bined with the fact that they are nomadic prirr.itive

and still 0 bserve ta boos and convention likely to be descri bed by

modern society as derogatory and anti-social is proof to confirm a

group as a tri be. If ha bitaticns are far froIr. civilisation and of

the external features of a tri be are present, these will certainly

strengthen the decision (L uiz, 1962).

0.1 Tribeg in India

According to the 1981 Census report the total population in

India is 6552.87 lakhs. It includes a tribal population of 516.29

lakhs I 1. e. 7.76 percentage of the total population of the country.

2

TabJ.e I

State-wise distribution of the tribal population

S1.No.

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19

20

21

22

23

24

State/Union Territories

Andra Pradesh

Bihar

Gujarath

Himachal Pradesh

Karnataka

Kerela

Madhya Pradesh

Maharastra

Manipur

Meghalaya

Nagaland

Orissa

Rajasthan

Sikkim

Tamil Nadu

Tripura

Uttar Pradesh

West Bengal

Andaman 6 Nicobar Islands

Arunachal Pradesh

Dadra 6 Nagerhaveli

Goa, Daman 6 Diue

Lakshad weep

Mizoram

INDIA

Population

3,176,001

5,810,867

4,848,586

197,263

1,825,203

261,475

11,987,031

5,772.038

387.977

1,076,345

650,885

5,91'5,067

4,183,124

73.623

520,226

583,920

232,705

3,070,672

22,361

441,167

81,714

10,721

37,760

461.907

51,628,638

3

Over fourfifths of the scheduled tribe population in the

country is concentrated in the states of Madhya Pradesh, Orissa,

Bihar, Maharashtra, Gujarath, Rajastan, Andhra Pradesh and West

Bengal.

Linguistically the tribal people belong to

Austroloid, Mongoloid and Dravidian. Geographically

areas in India are divided into five regions.

the

the

groups

tribal

They are:- 1 Himlayan Region

3 North East India

5 South India.

2. Middle India

4. Western India and

The hilly areas of Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Kerala come

tmder the 5th region (South India). Anthropologists and Sociologists

both foreign and Indian have taken a lot of interest on the tri bes

of this area. Linguistically the tribals of this area are Dravidians.

0.2 TRmES OF KERALA

0.2.1 Classification

As per the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes Act of

1976, there are 35 tribal communities in Kerala whereas Luiz

describes about 48 tribes (Luiz, 1962). The largest tribal group is

Paniyas with a population of about 50,000. Five tribal communities

4

viz. Cholanaickans, Kattunaickans, Kadars, Kurum bas and Koragas

are declared as primitive tribes of Kerala. They are found in

Wayanad, Malappurarr., Palakkad, Trissur and Kasargod Districts.

Com munities with Pre-agricultural stage of development, stagnant

population and very 10\\ literacy rate are recognised as prirr.itive

tribes. These communities account for about 3 percent of the total

scheduled tribes population of the state. There are nearly 1500

primitive tribal house-holds in Kerala with a total population of

about 12,000.

0.2.2. General Characteristics

Of the Kerala tribes, a few groups such as Aranadans,

Koragas, Mala Pandarams, Nayadis etc. are the most backward

tribes who are still in the primitive food gathering stage.

Ulladans, Karimpalans,

and Maratis are some of the

among the tribal communities.

Kanikkar, Kurichian, Mala Arayan

relatively more advanced sections

Usually the tribal huts are made with bamboo, thatched

"'ith leaves or grasses. A few live in cave under over hanging

rocks or in the hollows of big trees. Separate dormitories for boys

and girls were popular, but they are fast disappearing except

among a few tribes such as Urali Kurumans, Vishavans etc.

G a7/ltJ

Chavadies (common hall) are available in the tribal settlements for

the use of visitors when necessary.

Generally a tribal family consists of the father, ITlother and

their umr.arried children. Joint family system (family consists of

more than one married couple) is also seen among the tri bes. The

tribals practice interesting social customs and taboos. In some

tribes it is objectionable for a man to talk to his nieces after they

have attained puberty. Also, there are taboos regulating diet,

drinking smoking and even the use of utensils. All tribal,)

communities except Kurichians and Kunduvadiyans follow the rule of

patrilineal inheritance. Regarding the succession most of the tribes

have no clear rules because they have nothing to be inherited

especially among those who are still in the primitive stage. Some

groups which have given up matriarchal rule now follow a mixture

of matriarchy and patriarchy, 1. e. they divide the assets equally

among sons and nephews.

In almost all tribal groups their exist the headman system.

The headman (Muuppan) is respected and his decision and

arbitrations are accepted by the members of the community. The

headman presides over the council of elders which takes decisions.

He is consul ted before finalising marriage arrangements, and is

expected to attend marriages and funerals. The headman usually

carries a stick with crested silver knot 8S a symbol of authority

6

vested in hiII1. The office of the headman is hereditary except

among a very few groups such as Kurichians etc. Certain tribes

follow the matrilineal system of succession. In this system of

succession, the status of headman goes to the nephew (rratrilineal­

marumakkattayam). In all other cases the son succeeds the father.

Burial is the popular form of disposal. Son-.e tribes follow

the system of cremating the headman.

Makkathayam (succession through the male line 1. e.

patrilineal inheritance) is followed by all groups except

Kurichians, Kanikkars, Kundu Vadiyans and ~;alayalars. Most of the

tribes have no clear rule regarding succession because there is

nothing to be inherited especially among those \\ ho are still in the

hunting or nomadic stage.

The tribals live in groups in a hamlet or settlement. They

may generally be related to each other except a few families \\hich

had come to the particular hamlet from other hamlets after

marriage or in search of livelihood. Families belonging to the same

tribal sect only are found in a settlement and there is hardly any

measure of intermingling among them. The intermingled life pattern

is against their traditional practice. There might have been a

period of promiscuity and sexual freedoIr among the priIr.itives. but

7

later marriage by capture, service, purchase and exchange

developed. Now the last three types exist. Parents are anxious to

have their children married as early as possible. Marrying outside

the group is strictly forbidden in all the tribal groups.

The majority of the tri bes are engaged in agricultural

operations. They cultivate rice, ragi, cholam, tapioca, ginger,

cardamom and other products as conditions permit. Collection of

forest produces is another important occupation of the tribals.

Basket making and mat weaving are very popular among

Malavettuvans, Mannans, Mavilans and Koragas. Hunting is practised

by the male rr.embers of most of the tribal communities.

According to the 1981 Census report the combined work

participation rates for main workers and marginal workers among

scheduled tribes are higher than the corresponding rates for the

total population. The percentage of main workers in the agricultural

sector among scheduled tribes are much higher than the total

population rate (41. 30). In the non-agricultural sector their

population is very 10 W , the percentage being 21. 99 per cent against

58.70 per cent for the total population.

Palakkad is the sole district in the state which has a

work participation rate above 50 per cent with 54.46 per cent and

8

t!re lowest is in Kottayam with only 31. 63 per cent. More than

tIlree fourth of man workers under scheduled tribes in Wayanad,

Malappuram, Palakkad, Idukki and Thiruvananthapurarr: belong to the

~ricultural sector. The highest percentage being in Idukki (87.53

per cent) closely followed by Palakkad (86.62). Idukki records the

highest percentage of cultivators with 46.73 followed by

Thiruvananthapuram (44.46) Kottayam (36.15) Palakkad (28.99) and

KoHan, (27.50). In respect of agricultural labourers the largest

J:ercentage is in l-Ialappuram with 74.83 followed by ~ayanad with

72.57.

Households

There are 52,421 households belonging to scheduled tri bes

in Kerala which account for 1.19 ~per cent of the total households.

The average household size of scheduled tribes in 4.99 person per

household as compared to 5.75 for the general population of the

state.

\\-ayanad district has highest proportion of scheduled tribe

households with 17.99 per cent. Idukki (4.34) Palakkad (1. 77),

Kannur (1. 56) and Kottayam (1. 01) are the other districts having

scheduled tribe households over 1 per cent. The lowest percentage

of scheduled tribe households is recorded in Alappuzha District

9

with 0.15 per cent of the total scheduled tribes households in the

state. Wayanad district accounts for 35.38 per cent, followed by

Idukki (15.44) Kannur (13.18) and Palakkad (12.55), while

Alappuzha district ranks last with only 1. 24 per cent.

sex Ratio

Compared with the sex ratio Le., 1032 females for 1000

males for the total population, tribes are lower with only 992

females for 1000 males.

The sex ratio is above 1000 only in four districts namely

Malappuram (1055), Thiruvananthapuram (1025), Kottayafil (1012) and

Vvayanad (1010). In all other districts males out-number females.

Trissur being the lowest with 937 feIIiales per 1000 males.

Education

Education has been considered as the chief instrument to

bring the back\\ard tribals into the mainstrearr. of national life.

:I1'l3d:q.Jacy 0 f schools in tri bal areas is one of the reasons for the

educational backv..ardness. The number of children attending schools

constitute a small percentage of the total number of children in the

corresponding age group. Some tribes like the Kurichians of

Wayanad believe that it is a sin to send the children, especially

girls, to schools. In the tri bal areas general educational facilities

10

are provided by the Educational department and special

supplemental facilities for the tribal children are provided by the

Tribal Welfare Department. The Government departments are granting

educational concessions and other kinds of assistance to the tri bals

from pre-primary stage to post-graduate level. Tribal students are

exempted from all kinds of fees. They are also given lumpsum

grant meant for the purchase of books, stationery, dress and

monthly stipend at varying rates depending on the course of study.

In order to ensure proper and regular attendance of tribal children

in primary schools parents of children were granted incentives.

There are 112 hostels, 56 balawadies, 14 nursery schools, 12 single

teachers schools, and one vikasvadi are functioning for the tribals

in Kerala. In the hostels the tribal pupils are eligible for free

educational facilities including boarding, lodging, and dress. A

Model Residential School in the pattern of central school was

started during the 1990-91 academic year in Wayanad District.

At present educational fadli ties upto high school level are

easily available to the tribes. Schools are functioning inside or

within 3 kms. from the tribal settlements. But the tribal children

are reluctant to complete their studies. So the number of students

at the University level is much less. Now there are 2172 tribal

students studying in college level (1991 Report of the Govt.)

11

lhe Scheduled Tribes Development Department of the State

Government takes so many steps for the educational development of

the tribes. Besides all the above mentioned facilities there are 33

institutions in important tribal areas imparting training in

vocational, technical and industrial subjects.

Literacy

Literacy rate among scheduled tribes in Kerala is 31. 79% as

against 70.42% for the total population. Female literacy is as low

as 20%. Comparative figures of literacy rate of 1971 and 1981 show

that the literacy rate has increased from 25.72% in 1971 to 31. 80%

in 1981. As per 1981 Census the lowest level of literacy is in

Palakkad district (12%) and the highest rate of literacy is in

Kottayam district.

0.2.3 Tribal Population in Kerala

According to the 1981 Census of the Scheduled Tribes

Population in Kerala is 2.61 lakhs and this constitues 1. 03 per cent

of the total population of the state.

12

Table II

Cummunity- wise Distribution of

Scheduled Tribes Population

S1. Name of Tribe PopulationNo.

Male Female Total

1 Adiyan 3,953 4,199 8,152

2 Aranadan 37 58 95

3 Eravallan 1,050 1,021 2,071

4 Hill Pulaya .1,540 1,552 3,092

5 Irulas, Irulan 9,445 9,253 18,698

6 Kadar 774 779 1,503

7 Kammara 39 44 83

8 Kanikkaran, Kanikkar 6,741 6,983 13,724

9 Kattunayakam 4,532 4,271 8,803

10 Kochuvelan 4 6 10

11 Kondakapus 6 5 11

12 Kanda reddis 534 530 1,064

13 Koraga 592 506 1,098

14 Kota 24 17 41

15 Kudiya, Melakudi 299 298 597

16 Kurichian 11,293 10,922 22,215

17 Kurumans 10,542 10,199 20,745

13

18 Kurumbas 673 610 1,283

19 Mahamalasar 5 4 9

20 Malai Arayan 12,247 12,252 24,499

21 Malai Pandaram 1,077 1,045 2,122

22 Mala Vedan 1,229 1,206 2,435

23 Mala Kuravan 117 137 254

24 Malasar 501 466 967

25 Malayan 1,272 1,122 2,394

26 Malayarayan 1,413 1,333 2,746

27 Mannan 2,907 2,906 5,813

28 MaraU 11,240 10,955 22,195

29 Muthuvan , Mudugar 5,664 5,549 11,213

30 Palleyan 16 14 30

31 Palliyan 406 387 793

32 Palliyar 214 206 420

33 Paniyan 27,910 29,042 56,952

34 Ulladan 6,456 5,231 12,687

35 Uraly 4,660 4,372 9,032

36 Unclassified 1,831 1,802 3,633

Total 1,31,243 1,30,232 2,61,475

14

0.2.3.2 District Level Population

Of all the Districts of Kerala, the largest percentage of

Scheduled tribes population is in Wayanad (17.25). Idukki (3.98),

Kannur (1. 42) and Palakkad (1. 41) are the other Districts having

percentage of Scheduled Tribe population higher than the state

average. The lowest percentage of scheduled tribe population is in

Trissur District (0.13 per cent)

Table III

District- wise Distribution of Scheduled Tribes

S1. District Persons Male Female PercentageNo. total

1 Kannur 39,704 20,144 19,560 1.42

2 Wayanad 95,557 47,547 48,010 17.25

3. Kozhikode 3,888 1,954 1,934 0.17

4. Malappuram 7,955 3,871 4,084 0.33

5 Palakkadu 28,794 14,553 14,241 1.41

6 Trissur 3,227 1,666 1,561 0.13

7 Eranakulam 3,551 1,828 1,723 0.14

8 Idukki 38,712 19,733 18,979 3.98

9 Kottayam 15,227 7,567 7,660 0.90

10 Alappuzha 3,273 1,638 1,635 0.14

11 Kallam 7,442 3,758 3,684 0.24

12 Thiruvananthapuram 14,145 6,984 7,161 0.54

Source: Census of India, 1981.

15

Rural and Urban Picture

The percentage of Scheduled Tribe population is

substantially higher in rural areas as compared with urban areas.

The percentage of Scheduled Tribe population in rural areas is 1.24

as against 0.10 in urban areas (1981 Census).

0.2.4 Important Tribal Areas

The tribal areas in Kerala may be divided into seven major

regions. They are:

1. Thiruvananthapuram

2. Idukki

3. Pararr. bikkulam

4. Attappady

5. Nllambur

6. \\ayanad

7. Kasargod

The Kerala Governement has divided the tribal areas into

seven project areas. They are:-

1. Kannur (Kannur District)

2. Kal petta ( \\ ayanad District)

3. Attappady (Palakkad District)

4. Nllambur (Malappuram District)

5. Thodupuzha (Idukki District)

16

6. Kanjirappally (Kottayam District)

7. Nedumangad (Thiruvananthapuram District)

In addition to this, former Kollam Distrct

divided into Kollam and Pathanamthitta Districts)

important tribal settlement area espe~ially in

Malavedas, the tri bes for the present study.

(TID\\! it

is also

the case

is

an

of

1. Kmmur (Kmmur District)

According to 1981 Census, the total tribal population in

this districtis 39,704. Kasargod (19,651) and Tellicherry (13,573)

are the Taluks having major tribal areas. Paniyas Maratis and

Kurichias are the major tribes in this district.

2. Kalpetta (Wayanad District)

Paniyas and Kurichias are the major tribal comOlUnities in

this area. The total tribal population in this district is 95,557.

All the three Taluks Mananthavady (32,991) , Sulthanbathery

(36,821) and Vythiri (25,745) are the major tribal settlement areas.

3. Attappady (Palakkad District)

Irulars, Mudugas

communities in this area.

is 28,794.

and Kurumbas are the major tribal

The total tribal population in this area

17

4. Nilambur (Malappuram District)

Chola Naickans, Malamuttthans and Paniyans are the major

tribal communities in this area. According to 1981 Census the total

tri bal population is 7,955. Ernad Taluk (Nilam bur) is the major

tribal area having a tribal population of 7,678.

5. Thodupuzha (Idukki District)

Malayarayan, Muthuvar, Mannan, Uraly and Ulladan are the

major tribal communities inhabiting in this area. The total

population of the tribes as per 1981 Census in this district is

38,712. The Taluks having major tri bal areas are

a. Thodupuzha (18,749) b. Devikulam (11,554)

c. UdulP. banchola (5,411) d. Peermade (2,998)

6. Kanjirappally (Kottayam Distrct)

According to 1981 Census the total tribal population in

Kottayam District is 15,227. The important tribal areas are in

Meenachal (8,412) and Kanjirappaly (4,605) Taluks. The major

tribes in Kottayam District are Malayaran, Ulladan, Uraly,

Malavedan and Malapandaram.

18

Table IV

Distribution of Major tribes in Kottayam District

51. Tribes Male Female TotalNo.

lo ~~alayarayan 5,037 5,165 10,202

2. Ulladan 1,474 1,482 2,956

3 Uraly 329 308 637

4 Malavedan 310 289 599

5 Malaypandaram 272 281 559

7. Nedumangadu ( Thiruvananthapuram District)

The tribal population in Thiruvananthapuram District is

14,145. Arr..ong them 341 are ~lalavedans (Census, 1981) . Malavedans

are seen in both Nedumangadu and Neyyattinkara Taluks.

Table - V

Distribution of Major Tribes in Thiruvananthapuram District

Tribes Male Female Total

Kanikaran 6,185 6,369 12,534

Kondareddis 153 145 298

Malapandaram 191 213 404

Malavedan 166 175 341

Uraly 86 73 159

19

Kallam - Pathanamthitta District

According to the provisional report of the Scheduled Tri bes

Development Department 1991, the total tribal population in

Pathanamthitta District is 5720 and in Kollam District it is 3063.

As per 1981 Census, the total tribal population in Kollam District

was 7,442. The total Malavedan population in this district was 1090

which is the largest among all other districts. Majority of the

Malavedan population is in Pathanapuram and Pathanamthitta Taluks.

Table - VI

Distribution of Tribes in Pathanamthitta and Pathanapurarr. Taluks

Taluk

Pathanamthitta

Pathanapuram

~jale

2,206

1,126

Female

2,162

1,060

Total

4,368

2,186

PathanalJ'thitta is the District having the largest Malaveda

population in the State of Kerala.

Major tribes in Kollam district are Malavedas and Mala

Arayas.

20

Table - VIII

Distribution of Woajor Tribal Population in Kallam and

Pathanamthi tta District

Tribes Male Female Total

Malayarayan 647 603 1,250

Ulladan 804 793 1,597

Kanikkar 506 548 1,054

Malavedan 554 536 1,090

Uraly 397 385 782

tv) alapandaram 498 410 908

Table - VIII

Distribution of tribes in Kottarakkara and Kallam Taluk

Taluk

Kottarakkara

Kallam

Important Tribes

Male

134

505

in

Female

146

246

Kottayam,

Total

280

751

Pathanamthitta and

Thiruvananthapuram Districts other than tv'alavedas are

1. Malayarayan 2. Ulladan 3. Kanikkaran.

21

0.2.5 Malavedas

0.2.5.0 Malavedas are relatively an advanced tribal group.

According to 1981 Census the population of Malavedas in Kerala is

2.384. The major settlement areas are in Pathanarnthitta. Kottayam.

Kollam and Thiruvananthapuram districts.

Table - IX

District-wise distribution of Malavedas

District Male Female Total

1. Kannur/Kasaragod 19 13 32

2. \\ayanad 2 2

3. Kozhikode 0

4. Malappuram 0

5. Palakkad 34 88 122

6. Trissur 1 1

7. Ernakularr. 16 14 30

8. Idukki 65 66 131

9. Kottayam 310 289 599

10. Alappuzha 12 24 36

11. Kollam/PathanaJr. thitta 554 536 1090

12. Thiruvananthapuram 166 175 341

Total 1178 1206 2384

22

The Vedas are described in the North Arcot manual as

having been formerly hunters and soldiers. They are supposed by

some to be the remnants of the earliest inhabitants of the peninsula

and identical with the Veddas of Ceylon. Malavedas in Tamil Nadu

were formerly known as Valmiker indicating that they lived on the

contents of ant-hills. The name 'Vedan' connotes hunter and hunting

was an early occupation.

In the W'adras Census report of 1901, the Vedas are

descri bed as a Tamil Speaking labouring and hunting caste, the

members of which are formerly soldiers and subsequently dacoits.

In the Madurai Manual, the Vedas are described as a very

low caste who live in jungle. They are described in Coimbatore

~anual as a very degraded poor tribe living by basket-making.

They speak a low Canarese.

The Vedas of Travancore are people who live in jungles

or \\orking in rice fields and formerly sold and taught as slaves.

Now Malavedans are living in wretched huts amid the rice

flats at the foot of the hills and are employed by farmers. Most

of these settlements are nearer to the villages.

23

Formerly Malavedans had no temples of their own. Hindus

permit them to offer money at the Hindu Temple. But now certain

settlements have their own temple and poojari. Their Gods are

, Chattan ' and 'Chavu'. A legend connected with the origin of Vedas

states that when Lord Parameswaran was on hunt with them he was

attacked and those v.ho deserted him came to be known as Kattans

or Ulladans, while those who rerrained and participated in the

fight continued to be described as Vedas.

2.5.1 Internal Structure

The ~ala Vedans are divided into the following Sub­

divisions:-

1. Tolvedans 2. Chingannivedans 3. Cheruvedans

4. Elichativedans and 5. Valiyavedans.

The Tolvedans are found in the Neyyattinkara and

Nedumangad Taluks, the Chingannivedans in the Pathanapuram and

Pathanan,thitta Taluks and the Cheruvedans in Thiruvalla and

Pathanamthitta. The Elichativedans are found on both banks of the

Manimala river in the Changanasseri Taluk. The Cheruvedans neither

interdine nor intermarry with the other Vedans. When a Cheruvedan

dies, the widow and her children go back to her house. Each

endogamous group claims superiority to the rest and neither

24

interdines nor interrr.arries with the other groups. The

Chingannivedans observed the custom of chipping their incisors in

the form of sharp pointed cones.

Clans

Each group is divided into a number of clans. The

Cheruvedans are divided into four clans. They are:-

1. Venaten iUam

2. Vendiri iUam

3. Churulayar iUam

4. Modandan iUam

The members of a clan considered themselves as blood

relations. Hence a rr.an cannot marry a ,""oman of the same clan. He

can marry from any of the other clans. A woman after marriage

continues to be of her own clan and her children take after her

clan.

The chingannivedans are divided and classified into twelve

clans:

1. Veliyan iUam

2. Kavatayan iUam

3. Venatan iUam

7. Vartyan iUam

8. Karumaruvan illam

9. Thurn boyarr. illam

4. Polachan illam

5. Kozhakatan illam

6. Vazhakaten illam

25

10. Modayanatan illam

11. Padayan illam

12. Molavana illam

The clans are exogamous. The first eight illams constitute

brother illams and a man of one illam cannot rrarry a" woman from

anyone of the other illams. He can only marry a woman from any

one of the other four clans which constitute 'macharr,pi' illams. The

children belong to the clan of the mother.

The 'Elichathivedans' are also divided into four clans.

1. Vellillarr. 2. kumari illam 3. Konchillam 4. Velillam

The clans are exogamous

Tolvedans are divided into eight clans.

1. Panni illam 5. Puli illam

2. Manni illam 6. Veli illam

3. Vayali illam 7. Paral illam

4. Mutt illam 8. Pallikal illam

The first four clans constitute brother illams. The last

four clans are 'machampi' illams to the first four. In the event of

the death of a man, all the members of a clan observe death

pollution for sixteen days. The pollution does not extend to other

clans. If a fine is imposed on a man for committing an offence, and

26

he cannot pay it, the clans men collect the amount from among

themselves and pay it. A needy man is helped with money by the

merr,bers of a clan as occasions like the marriage of his daughter.

Habitation

The Malavedans live in clusters with 10 or 50 households

in each settlement. Most of the huts are one roomed, an average

dimension of 15 x 12. They are made of jungle wood posts and

reeds with grass for thatching. This huts are called '''Kuti''. The

floors are plastered with cowdung.

Eesides these huts, there are houses provided by the

Government which consists of a long hall separated into several

apartments by brick walls. The apartments are brick buildings with

tile roofs.

Households articles

Mats made of grass and barn boo splinters are used for

furnishing the huts. Mats are spread out to sleep and offered for

the gu'ests to sit. The earthen wares purchased from the market are

used for cooking and serving and aluminium vessels are also used.

Dress and Ornaments to Wear

Men use a towel round the waist reaching up to the knee

and the upper portion of the body is exposed. Certain advanced

~lalavedans wear banians, shirts and lunkies.

27

The old women also wear towel round the waist. Young

women use lunkies and blouses. Malavedans "ear ear rings of brass

or silver. Some wear a cylindrical tube or brase (ola) in the lobes

of the ear. They used to wear necklases.

While women have their hair long. men cut their hair

frequently.

Chipping

Chipping the upper incisor teeth in the form of short

serrated cones is a custom arrong a group of ~'alavedans. The

operation is done both by men and women. It is done for rr.en by

men at the age of nine or ten. The chipping is done with a small

knife or bill-hook. The pain and swelling last for a day or two.

Agriculture

Malavedas had rights to private plots of land. They

cultivate all the products as the non-tribals in their areas.

Besides, they are working in the agricultural fields of non-tribals

for wages. Few Malavedas are engaged in other works like making

bamboo baskets etc.

Food

eaters.

Rice

They

is the staple food of Malavedas. They are meat

eat the meat of san: bur. black and white monkey.

28

crocodiles. crab and fish. They also use tapioca. sweet potatoes

and other tubers. They are fond of eating rats.

Gods

Their main God is Chattan or Sattan who has no fixed

abode. They also worship "Chavu" the soul of ancestor. They also

worship all Hindu Gods. Toddy is an important item for "Chavu"

worship.

2.5.2 SOCIAL FUNCTIONS AND CEREMONIES

Puberty and Menses

Vihen a girl attains pUberty. a seclusion shed is put-up and

she is kept their during the period of pollution. On tenth day

cow-dung liquid is sprinkled to her and over all present there.

The girl baths in a stream and puts on a new cloth. Pollution

ceases and a feasting follows.

A woman in menses is segregated for five days and she is

forbidden to cook food or touch the vessels on those days. On the

fifth day she baths and come horr,e.

Marriage Customs

A rr:alaveda groorr. can rr.arry either his maternal uncle's or

his paternal aunt's daughter (cross cousin marriage). Marriage by

29

exchange is also prevalent. Child marriage was practised by

Cheruvedans in early days. The brides parents go in search of a

bride groom. If the elders agree, an auspicious day is fixed and

the marriage takes place at the bride's house. On the auspicious

day, the bridegroom I s party go the bride's house. A pair of cloth

is presented by the bridegroom to the bride who gives it to her

"naa ttuun" (husband's sister). One cloth is tied round the loins;

the other is thrown over the head. The bridegroom ties the 'tali'

(marriage badge) on the neck of the bride and the couple are taken

into a roolT' where they are served with food. The visiotrs are

treated with a feast. The couple remains under the parental roof

for a few months until they find a new horr:e for themselves.

The marriage preliminaries take a tortuous turn among the

Chingannivedans. The groom's uncle and father go to the girl's

house where they are fed. The groan;' s uncle then moots the

marriage question by handing over some pan supari to the girl's

father, who ask them why they do so. He is told that they are

g1ven for chewing. He holds the betel and nut in his hand and

asks questions if they will given him pan-supari to chew for all

time, to which they answer that they will. They talk in the strain

for sometime. If the bride's father does not chew what is offered,

it signifies that he is not agreable to that marriage. If he is

agreable he chews and sends the groan-.' s uncle and father to the

30

bride's uncle. In the event of the approval, they take the uncle to

the bride's house. The marriage is then settled and the day is to

be fixed for the marriage. The uncle and the father of the bride

are then taken to a toddy shop, where they all drink toddy.

Sirr.ilarly the bride's father and uncle entertain them with toddy.

This gives the hallmark of approval to the n:atch.

The marriage takes place in the bride's house and consists

of the presentation of two clothes to the bride by the bridegroom

elect, and his party go to the bride's hut. The 'taalikettu I (tying

the w.arriage badge) cererr.ony is generally in the morning. The

bride-groolT' presents the clothes to the bride, \\<ho puts on round

the loins and covers the head \\<ith the other. The bridegroom I s

sister then ties the ' taaU I (marriage badge), generally a necklace

of beads, round the bride's neck. The couple are then seated on a

mat, and they take a handful of cooked rice, served on a planktain

leaf. This is called 'Kantu Kanjikuti' or partaking of food in the

presence of all. The bride's father is then given money as "Kettu

artha panan: II , given for the purchase of his wife. All are then

treated with a feast.

The next day, the bride and her party visit the

bridegroom I shut, where they are again treated to a feast. Before

the gathering disperses, the bride stands in front of the hut and

31

her uncle places before her a measure of paddy, pan-supari, and

one rupee. He then takes a few grains of paddy and places them on

his left hand. He removes them in pairs. If an odd num ber remains

in the end, all the grain is thrown over the head of the girl. He

repeats the process again and if he gets an even num ber in the end

he says' the girl will be blessed with a large num ber of children

who will work for the master, and that the master should enjoy a

bountiful harvest as a result of their labour. This is reItiniscent

of the days of slavery. If it so happens that an odd number CDlfles

a second time, it is treated as an evil woIten and they believe

that the married life may not be happy.

The girl lives in the husband's parent's house. On the

seventh day, the bridegroom's parents go to the bride's parent's

house with five measures of rice, pan and money. The bride's

father also provides an equal quantity of these rr:aterials for the

occasion. Rice is separately cooked by the women of the two

parties. Meanwhile, the men go to the toddy shops and regale

therrselves vvith toddy. They return and exchange the cooked rice

and pan. All enjoy a feast. Next Irorning the married couple go to

the groom's house. Even if the girl has not attained puberty she

is allowed to live with her husband.

An Elenchathi vedan may marry the daughter of his

maternal uncle or the paternal aunt. Marriage by exchange is also

32

prevalent. Marriage takes place in the bride's house. \\ hen a man

has a daughter of marriageble age, he ascertians frorr, his brother­

in-Ia w v.hether he is agreeable to the marriage of his daughter to

his son. If he agrees, the Astrologer chooses the auspicious date.

The bridegroom elect and his party go to the brides house on the

date fixed, and the bridegroom elect presents the bride with t\\O

pairs of cloths and a jacket. The pair go to the marriage booth,

where the bridegroom ties the 'taali'. All are treated v.ith a feast

and pan-supari. The bridegroom then departs \\ith his wife to his

house v.here he stays \\ith his parents.

Divorce is not resorted among Cheruvedans. The marriage

bond is very loose among the Chingannivedans. If a man dislikes

his wife, he takes her horne, and in the presence of elders he

divorces her. If a woman puts away her husband she has to return

the money when she is taken back to her parent's home.

Funeral Ceremonies

\\-hen a man dies, inforrr,ation is sent round to all

relations. V,hen they assemble the brother-in-law of the deceased

persons digs the grave four feet deep near the habitations. As soon

as the grave is ready, the corpse is washed, covered with a new

cloth and carried to the grave. The nephew first throws some soil

and then the others fill in the grQve. A handful of paddy is put

33

into a leaf and tied up with a creeper and the packet is laid at

the head of the grave. All disperse. bath and return to the home

of the deceased. The mourners are then treated to a bowl of

toddy. They do not take any food at that day. On the sixteenth

day. the nephew rr,akes an offering of fried paddy. beaten rice.

tender coconuts and toddy saying "oh. spirit. pray. accept all my

offerings and join the other ancestor spirits on any of the crests

of hills". The offerings are taken of by those present. All the

sub-divisions follo\\ this systerr; of ceremonies with little

difference.

Religious Ceremonies

Most of the Tolvedans in Neyyattinkara have embraced

Christianity. All others are Christians or Hindus. Forrr,erly

Malavedans had no temples. They visit Hindu shrines for worship.

Now they have teulples of their own in certain settlements. A

Malaveda temple is seen in Valiyavenkodu ~alavedan settlement in

Kadakkal. They \\<orship ancestor-spirits in ~:alaveda temples and in

his ov.n home. Three measures of beaten rice. one measure of

toddy. four tender coconuts, tobacco. a bunch of plaIi<tains and

molasses are placed in front of the house at night. A fowl is

sacrificed and the following prayer is offered.

"enRe muuRttiyee, ninakku kooliyute pari tarinRi

raccakkaayi iruntu kollanam caavumaaR ellaam

34

vellamkuti eeRRukollanam koccinootum kuttiyoot,¢m

yaatooru upatravavum untaakarutee".

'Oh, God, I am offering you a fov-!. Pray, protect

me

Oh, ancestor spirits, pray protect me. Oh

ancestor - spirits,

Pray accept my offering. May no harm be done to

my children".

After saying this, he distributes the offering to all

assembled there.

0.2.6 Tribal Languages

Though the tribes of Kerala speak their ov.n languages it

cannot be stated that there are as rrany different languages as

there are tribal groups, since more than one tribe can speak one

and the same language. The tribal languages in Kerala can be

classified into five groups, viz.

1. Walayalam or Dialect of W.alayalam

2. Dialect of Tamil

3. Dialect of Kannada

4. Tulu or Dialect of Tulu and

5. Mixed language (Somasekharan Nair, 1977)

35

0.2.6.1 Earlier works on the Tribal languages of Kerala

Though much attention had not been given to the tribal

languages of Kerala in earlier periods, scholars have now been

giving considerable attention to this study. The Dravidian

Linguistics Association had conducted a project in which the speech

forms of Kanikkars, Malavedas, Malappulayars, Malakkuravans,

Malavettuvans, Malayadiyars and Malappandarams were studied and

the result of this research work has been published in 1976.

(Bhattacharya 1976). There are five Ph.D. thesis about the

languages of 1ribes. Namboodiri has been studied the language of

fv'Iuthuvan (Nan-. boodiri, 1976). Annie Joseph prepared the

Gescriptive Grammar of Mannans (Annies Joseph, 1976); The language

of Kadars has been studied by Indira (Indira, 1976) . Tham puran

prepared the Grammar of the language of Mala Arayar (ThaIT,puran

1979). Rajendran prepared a complete grammer of the language

spoken by the W:udugas of Attappady with notes on the languages

and culture of the Irulas and Kurumbas of Attappady (Rajendran,

1978) .

In addition, minor attelT1pts at constructing grammars and

phonological outlines of some tri bal dialects have been made by the

students of the Department of Linguistics, University of Kerala. A

detailed study of the speech of Veda (Vettuvar) was conducted in

1977 by the Linguistics M.A. students of the University of Kerala.

36

(Kumari, Nirmala, 1977), Padmakurr.ar, 1977) ; PadmakurrJari Amma

1977; Radhakrishnan Nair, 1977; Ranganathan, 1977; Thankacci,

1977; Thankam, 1977; Vimalakurr.ar, 1977) • Noun ~jorphology of the

Malaveda language of Vembayam was studied by Vimala, M rv,.A.

student of Linguistics Department (Virr,ala 1984). A cOlI'plete grammer

of the language of kanikkar has been prepared by the M.A.

students of the Department of Linguistics University of Kerala in

1972 and Krishna Iyer published the 'caattupaatu' and the Kinship

Terrr,s of Kanikkar (Krishna Iyer 1937). Chandrasekhar (1961) and

VisVvambharan (1967) have published a few folksongs of Kanikkar.

The tribal dialects of Idukki have also been studied in ",hich the

culture and languages of the Mala Arayas, Mala Ulladars, Urali,

Mannans, Muthuvan, Paliyar, Kurumbapulayar and Karvazheppulayar

have been investigated (Prabodhachandran Nayar 1980). Another

study on the Paniyas of Kerala has been attempted by Somasekharan

Nair (Somasekharan Nair 1977).

Adiv aasikalute naatti! (Am pattu Sukumaran Nair, 1982)

Sahyante makkal (Paanoor 1990), Socio cultural approaches to Tribal

languages (Shukla 1985), The language of Cholonaickans (Somasekharan

Nair, 1981), Personal pronous in the Paniya and Adiya speech forms

of Kerala - sorrle Sociolinguistic 0 bservation (Somasekharan Nair,

1985)J A note on the Tribal speech Investigations (Somasekharan

Nair, 1988) and rviuduga Language (Rajendran, 1986) are some of the

important studies published recently on the Tribal languages of

Kerala.

37

0.3 PRESENT STUDY

The present study is based on the speech of Malavedas, a

hill tribe inhabiting in the Hilly areas of the Southern districts of

Kerala.

Collection of data

An intensive cultural and linguistic inforrr.ation from a

single settlement is of far greater 1m portance than conducting a

wide and extensive survey of the whole settlements with lesser

information details. Only seven Malaveda settlements have been

selected and the data have been collected in the months of August,

September and October in 1986, April and May of 1987 and October

and November in 1990. Informants were selected frolT' all the seven

settlements. The data were elicited mainly by recording the

informal speech of the informant. After the collection of the data

the forms were checked with suitable informants.

Details about the informants were given in the following

table.

Table - X

List of Informants

----Sl. Name Sex Age Settlements Marital Educational OccupationNo. status status

1 PODDan Male 40 Valiyaveenkatu married illiterate Agricul turelabourer

2 Veluttiran Male 46 Valiyaveenkatu married illiterate Agriculturist

3 Paakkiran W:ale 48 Urukunnu married illiterate Agricul turist

4 Aniyaaran Male 44 Urukunnu married illiterate Labourer

5 Vellaattan ~:ale 49 Urukunnu married illiterate Agricul turist

6 Raamati Ferr.ale 50 Valiyaveenkaatu married illiterate Labourer

7 Ponnani FelT'ale 49 Thadikkaatu married illiterate House wife

8 Cakkira Female 46 Thadikkaatu married illi terate House wife wco

9 Ponnani Female 34 Kollaayil married illi terate Labourer

10 Vellaattan Wale 42 Arkkannoor married illiterate Agriculturist

11 Pavaani Female 46 Arkkannoor married illi terate House wife

12 CiRRa Female 46 Arkkannoor married illiterate House wife

13 Velleemma Female 57 Puuthoor married illiterate Agricul turist

14 Arumanayakarr ~1ale 53 Achencoil married illiterate Agricul turist

15 Nalluuran Male 58 Achencoil married illiterate Labourer

39

Besided the introduction, this thesis consists of phonology,

Morphophonemics, Morphemics, Syntax, Socio-linguisticS of Malaveda

kinship Terms, Personal Pronouns and Personal narr,es, Sample text

and sample vocabulary.

In phonemics, inventory and distri bution of phonemes,

allophones and their distribution, syllable structure, phonotactis,

phrase intonations, sentence intonations, consonant clusters,

functional yield of segmental phonemes etc. have been discussed. In

the chapter on rv'orphophonfmt:C5 every change has been arranged by

giving rules. In Morphemics, on the basis of the distribution of

certain type of suffixes sterns have been classified into four sets;

verbs, nouns, appellatives and clitics. The position classes of the

grarr, matical categories are given in the beginning of each chapter.

All suffixes have been described and the al ternations of the stems

have been accommodated. Syntax deals with the major types of

sentences such as sirr:ple, complex and compound. Seven major types

of sentence patterns viz. intransitive, transitive, causative,

irr.perative, optative, negative and interrogative are also discussed.

The classification and analysis of the kinship terms, Personal

Pronouns Personal nanies of Malavedas are also illustrated in the

chapter on the sociolinguistics of Malaveda kinship terms, Personal

Pronouns and Personal names. Sarr,ples sentences and vocabulary list

\\ hich includes simple and complex words follo\\ the analysis of the

language.