introduction-principles of psychological measurement

7/29/2019 Introduction-Principles of Psychological Measurement

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PRINCIPLES OF PSYCHOLOGICAL MEASUREMENT

3090.03

Instructor: Peter Papadogiannis, Ph.D.

York University


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Why is Psychological Testing Important?

1. Allows us to make important decisions aboutpeople.e.g. Early School Placement, College Entrance Decisions,Military Job Selections

2. Allows us to describe & understand behaviour

3. Measures personal attributes4. Measures performance

5. Saves time

6. Most economical

7. Its Scientific


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Psychological Test DefinitionIs a measurement instrument that consists of a

sample of behavior obtained under

standardized conditions and evaluated usingestablished scoring rules.


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Types of Reasoning Associated

with Psychological TestingInductive Reasoning - from Data to General

Theory.

Deductive Reasoning - from General Theory toData.


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Characteristics of Psychological Instruments

Behaviour Sampling

Standardization Scoring Rules


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Behaviour Sampling

It is a sample of behaviour.

It is not an exhaustive measure - it is too difficult

to evaluate every behavior.

Attempts to approximate the exhaustiveprocedure.

Does not necessarily require the respondent to

engage in overt behavior.

The test must somehow be representative of

behaviours that would be observed outside of the

testing situation


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StandardizationThe behavior sample is obtained under standardized

conditions.

Each individual taking a psychological or educational test

should be tested under essentially identical conditions.

For example, SAT administration instructions pertain to:

Seating Arrangements, Lighting Conditions, Noise Levels Interruptions,

Answering common questions

Standardization is vital because many test results are

referential in nature: Your performance is measured

relative to everybody elses performance.


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Standardization (cont.)

Standardization reduces between subject variability due

to extraneous variables.

Standardization is easier to obtain with tests designed to

be administered en masse.

Tests such as the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale, which

are administered individually, are less standardized.

The individual giving the test is an important variable.

They take special training to standardize the way they give

the test.


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Scoring RulesThere are established scoring rules for obtaining quantitative

information from the behavior sample.

Objective Scoring Rules: Most mass produced tests fall into this

category. Different qualified examiners will all come to the same score

for an identical set of responses.

Subjective Scoring Rules: When the judgement of the examiner is an

important part of the test, different examiners can legitimately come to

different conclusions concerning the same sample of behavior. There

conclusions should be similar, however.

Good standardized psychological tests all have a set of rules or

procedures for scoring responses to a test.


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Types of Tests

Most psychological tests can be sorted into 3

general categories:

1. Tests in which the subject performs a task.

2. Tests that involve observations of the subjects

behaviour within a particular context.

3. Self-report measures


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Tests of PerformanceReferred to as "Tests of Maximal Performance"

Subjects are given a well-defined task that they try to performsuccessfully.

Participant must know what he/she must

do in response to the task.

The subject exerts maximal effort to

succeed.

Performance tests are designed to uncover whatan individual can do, given the specific testconditions.

Examples

- Intelligence Tests, language proficiency- Biology test, flight simulator

B h i Ob i


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Behaviour Observation

Naturalistic observation

Involves observing the subjects behaviour and responses

in a particular context.

Differs from performance tests in that the subject does

not have a single, well defined task.

The observer can record duration &

intensity

Examples

- Examiner might observe children interacting

or an individual having a conversation or some other social interaction.

- Companies recruit observers to pose as salespeople to observeemployees behaviors. Subjects may be unaware they are being tested.


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Self Report Instruments- Participant is asked to report his or her feelings,

attitudes, beliefs, values.

When self-report makes sense:

Self-report relies upon the test takers awareness andhonesty.

It is the bestmethod to measure internal states - things

only the person themselves can be aware of and judge.

People are not always good judges of their ability

Provides an estimate


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Self Report Instruments (cont.)Many personality inventories such as the MMPI and the

16PF measures are based on self-report.

Clinicians include self-report measures as part of their

initial examinations of presenting clients.

Self-Report measures are frequently subject to self-

censorship.

People know their responses are being measured andwish to be seen in a favorable light. (self-serving bias)

Items are frequently included to measure the extent to

which people provide socially desirable responses.


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History of Test Developmentcirca 1000 BC.:Chinese introduced written tests to help fill civil service

positions Civil Laws, Military Affairs, Agriculture, Geography

1850 : The United States begins civil service examinations.

1885 : Germans tested people for brain damage

1890: James Cattell develops a "mental test" to assess college students .

Test includes measures of strength, resistance to pain, and reaction time.1905: Binet-Simon scale of mental development used to classify

mentally retarded children in France.

1914: World War I produces need in U.S. to quickly classify incoming

recruits. Army Alpha test and Army Beta test developed. Looked atpsychopathology.

1916 :Terman develops Stanford - Binet test and develops the idea of

Intelligence Quotient


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History of Test Development (cont.)

1920 - 1940:factor analysis, projective tests, and personality inventoriesfirst appear.

1941-1960 : vocational interest measures developed

1961-1980 : item response theory and neuropsychological testing

developed1980 - Present: Wide spread adaptation of computerized testing.

"Smart" Tests which can give each individual different test items develop


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Early Abuses of Tests in America Goddard (1906) began testing 378 residents and categorized them as

Idiot (ma below 2), imbecile (3-7), feebleminded (8-12), moron (foolish)

MA four years behind, were feebleminded

Goddards desire was to separate people out

Believed feeble minded people were the cause of most social problems

(thievery, laziness, alcoholism, prostitution, immorality).

Called for the colonization of morons to restrict their breeding. Further, he

believed that many immigrants were feeble minded.

Went to Ellis Island, administered tests translated from French to English to

Yiddish, Hungarian, , Italian, Russian, to farmers, laborers, who had just

crossed the Atlantic. Then interpreted results based on French norms.

Favored deportation for low IQ immigrants but then also in a humanitarian

gesture said we might be able to use moron laborer if only we are wiseenou h to train them ro erl .


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Early Abuses of Tests in America (cont.) Robert Yerkes, a Harvard psychology prof. Convinced the Department

of War that it should test all of its 1.75 million recruits for intelligence

tests, so they could be classified and given appropriate assignments(Goddard and Terman also chaired this committee).

Army Alpha

Army Beta Examinations

Produced evidence that supported segregation. Sounded dire warnings

that racial intermixture would inevitably cause a deterioration of

American intelligence. Later recanted: without foundation Probablythe result of cultural and language differences.


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Application of Psychological Measurement

Educational Testing

Personnel Testing

Clinical Testing


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Educational Testing Intelligence tests and achievement tests are used from an early age in

the U.S and Canada. From kindergarten on, tests are used for placement

and advancement.

Educational institutions have to make admissions and advancement

decisions regarding students. e.g, SAT, GRE, subject placement tests

Used to assess students for special education programs. Also, used in

diagnosing learning difficulties.

Guidance counselors use instruments for advising students.

Investigates school curriculum.


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Personnel Testing Following WW I, business began taking an active interest in testing job

applicants. Most government jobs require some civil service

examination.

Tests are used to assess: training needs, workers performance in

training, success in training programs, management development,

leadership training, and selection.

For example, at the Lally School of Management, the Myers -Briggs

type indicator is used extensively to assess managerial potential. Typetesting is used to hopefully match the right person with the job they are

most suited for.


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Clinical Testing

Tests of Psychological Adjustment and tests which canclassify and/or diagnose patients are used extensively.

Psychologist generally use a number of objective andprojective personality tests.

Neuropsychological tests which examine basic mental

function also fall into this category. Perceptual tests are

used detecting and diagnosing brain damage.


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Testing Activities of PsychologistsClinical Psychologists - e.g. Assessment of Intelligence, Assessment ofPsychopathology

Counseling Psychologistse.g. Career Interest Inventories, Skill Assessment

School Psychologists

e.g. Assessment of Academic progress, Readiness for School,

Social Adjustment

I/O Psychologists - e.g. Managerial potential,

Training Needs, Leadership Potential

Neuropsychologists- e.g., Assessment of Brain Damage, neurologicalimpairments.

Forensic Psychology- intersection between law andpsychology --needed for legal determinations

e. . Assessment for risk com etenc to stand trial child custod


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Information About TestsThe Mental Measurement Yearbook - A guide to all currentlyavailable psychological tests.

The MMY uses content classifications do describe tests:

1. Acheivement 2. Behavior Assessment

3. Developmental 4. Education5. English & Language 6. Fine Arts

7. Foreign Languages 8. Intelligence and Aptitude

9. Mathematics 10. Neuropsychological

11. Personality 12. Reading

13. Science 14. Sensory-Motor

15. Social Studies 16. Speech and Hearing

17. Vocations


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Ethics In Psychological Testing

Given the widespread use of tests, there is considerable

potential for abuse.

A good deal of attention has therefore been devoted to the

development and enforcement of professional and legalstandards.

The American Psychological Association (APA) has taken

a leading role in the development of professional standardsfor testing.

A i P h l i l A i ti Ethi l G id li


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American Psychological Association Ethical Guidelines:

The investigator has the responsibility to make a careful evaluation of its ethical

acceptability.

The investigator is obliged to observe stringent safeguards to protect the rights of

human participants.

The researcher must evaluate whether participants are considered Subject at risk or

Subject at minimal risk - No appreciable risk (physical risk, mental harm).

The principal investigator always retains the responsibility for ensuring ethical

practice in research. That is, the principal researcher is responsible for the ethical

practices of collaborators, assistants, employees, etc. (all of whom are also responsible

for their own ethical behavior).

Except in minimal-risk research, the investigator establishes a clear and fair

agreement with participants that clarifies the obligations and responsibilities of each.

Must explain all aspects of the research that may influence the subjects decision to

participate. Explains all other aspects that the participants inquire about.

American Ps chological Association Ethical G idelines (cont ):


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American Psychological Association Ethical Guidelines (cont.):

In research involving concealment or deception, the research considers the

special responsibilities involved.

Individuals freedom to decline, and freedom to withdraw, is respected.

Researcher is responsible for protecting participants from physical and mental

discomfort, harm, and danger that may arise from research procedures. If there

are risks, the participants must be aware of this fact.

After the data are collected the investigator provides participants with

information about the nature of the study and attempts to remove any

misconceptions that may have arisen.

The investigator has the responsibility to detect and remove any undesirableconsequences to the participant that may occur due to the research.

The information obtained from the participant should be treated

confidentially unless otherwise agreed upon with the participant.

I f d C


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Informed Consent

Participants must be fully informed as to the purpose and

nature of the research that they are going to be involved in.

Participants must be fully informed about the procedures used

in the research study.

After getting this information, the participants must provide

consent for their participation.

Participants must be informed about their right to

Confidentiality and their right to withdrawal without penalty.

D b i fi


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Debriefing

Post-administration debriefing should:

-Restate purpose of the research.

-Explain how the results will be used (usually.

emphasize that the interest is in the group

findings).-Reiterate that findings will be treated

confidentially.

-Answer all of the respondents questions fully.-Thank the participant!

P ti i t F db k


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Participant Feedback

In clinical research, or research with interpretive

instruments, there may be the need to provide more in-

depth feedback about individuals responses (e.g.,

Research on Emotional Intelligence).

In such cases, first and foremost, it is critical that this

kind of detailed feedback be given by a qualified

individual.

At Least 4 parties are involved in Professional Test Use:


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At Least 4 parties are involved in Professional Test Use:

(1) Testing professionals: the test developer and

publisher

(2) Testing professionals: the individuals who

administer the testing procedure

(3) The user: the organization or practice that will

eventually use the information to make certain

decisions

(4) The test taker

DEVELOPING/SELECTING APPROPRIATE TESTS


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DEVELOPING/SELECTING APPROPRIATE TESTS

Define what each test measures and what the test should be used for.

Describe the population(s) for which the test is appropriate.

Accurately represent the characteristics, usefulness, and limitations of

tests for their intended purposes.

Describe the process of test development.

Provide evidence that the test meets its intended purpose(s).

Provide either representative samples or complete copies of test

questions, directions, answer sheets, manuals, and score reports to

qualified users.

DEVELOPING/SELECTING APPROPRIATE TESTS (Cont )


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DEVELOPING/SELECTING APPROPRIATE TESTS (Cont.)

Indicate the nature of the evidence obtained concerning the

appropriateness of each test for groups of different racial, ethnic, or

linguistic backgrounds who are likely to be tested.

Describe the population(s) represented by any norms or comparison

group(s), the dates the data were gathered, and the process used to select

the samples of test takers.

When feasible, make appropriately modified forms of tests or

administration procedures available for test takers with handicapping

conditions. Warn test users of potential problems in using standard norms

with modified tests or administration procedures that result in non-

comparable scores.

DEVELOPING/SELECTING APPROPRIATE TESTS (Cont )


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DEVELOPING/SELECTING APPROPRIATE TESTS (Cont.)

When a test is optional, provide test takers or their parents/guardians

with information to help them judge whether the test should be taken, or

if an available alternative to the test should be used.

Provide test takers the information they need to be familiar with the

coverage of the test, the types of question formats, the directions, and

appropriate test-taking strategies. Strive to make such informationequally available to all test takers.

Provide test takers or their parents/guardians with information about

rights test takers may have to obtain copies of tests and completed

answer sheets, retake tests, have tests rescored, or cancel scores.

Tell test takers or their parents/guardians how long scores will be kept

on file and indicate to whom and under what circumstances test scores

will or will not be released.

R ibilit f Th T t


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Responsibility of The Tester1. Have competence in test administration, interpretation and

feedback.

2. Have an understanding of basic psychometrics and scoring

procedures and be competent in interpretation, and apply

scientific knowledge and professional judgment to the results.

3. Take responsibility for the selection, administration, and

scoring, the analysis, interpretation and communication of test

results.

4. Be familiar with the context of use: the situation, purpose,

setting in which a test is used.

R ibilit f Th T t ( t )


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Responsibility of The Tester (cont.)

5. Have knowledge of legal and ethical issues related to testuse

6 . Awareness of ethnic or cultural variables that could

influence the results:

7. Have the ability to determine language proficiency

8. Have knowledge of important racial, ethnic, or cultural

variables relevant for individuals or groups to whom tests are

administered.

Iss es to Address ith the Testee


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Issues to Address with the Testee1. Informed consent - Assuring confidentiality, freedom to

withdraw, purpose of assessment, What kinds of attributes are

being measured?

2. Who is the client?Individual, Group, Employer

3. What happens with results, who has access to it

4. Where will the data be stored, how, and for how long

5. Time frame in which results are to be considered valid

6. Who will be the payer, and how much

7. Where will the assessment take place8. Are the facilities appropriate, conducive for testing

9. Will there be follow-up assessments or feedback

Factors Not Under the Testers Control


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Factors Not Under the Testers Control

Some factors are not under the control of the administrator :

1. How fatigued a test taker is.

2. Motivation level of the test taker.

3. Physical Discomfort

4. Test Anxiety

Ethnic and Cultural Variables


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Ethnic and Cultural VariablesKnowledge of attitudes of various racial,

ethnic, or cultural groups toward testing.Ability to determine language proficiency.

Ability to determine the potential effects of

different test settings on different racial,ethnic, or cultural groups.

Knowledge of specific biases that have beendemonstrated for particular tests forindividuals or groups of individuals fromparticular racial, ethnic, or cultural minoritygroups.

Test Fairness


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Test FairnessPeople with different values often disagree over the fairness

of some testing practices.

Factors that affect testing fairness:

1. Obstacles that prevent people from performing well2. Test may provide unfair advantage to some people

3. Some tests are not valid and used in wrong situations

4. Some tests are used for purposes that are inherently

objectionable

Test Use & Test Fairness


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Test Use & Test FairnessA test is most likely to be seen as unfair when:

1. It is the sole basis for the decision.2. The consequences of doing poorly on the test is harsh

Ways to reduce concerns over test unfairness:1. Multiple assessment procedures

2. Use more intensive screening procedures for those

likely to be treated unfairly by a given test.

Types of Decisions


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Types of DecisionsTwo distinctions are very useful for classifying

decisions:

1. Individual or Institutional

2. Comparative or Absolute

Ethics References


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Ethics ReferencesWebsites www.apa.org and www.cpa.ca

APA

American Psychological Associations Code of Ethicsfor Psychologists

The Ethical Practice of Psychology in OrganizationsCPA

The Canadian Code of Ethics for Psychologists

Companion Manual

Guidelines for Non-discriminatory Practice

Guidelines for Educational and Psychological Testing

Practice Guidelines for Providers of Psychological

Service

Ethics References (cont )


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Ethics References (cont.)Websites for publications / reports

Rights and Responsibilities of Test Takers: Guidelines andExpectations(www.apa.org/science/ttrr.html)

Responsibilities in Providing Psychological Test Feedback toClients(http://kspope.com/sci/feedback1.shtml)

The Real World: It is Better to Receive than to Give--Practical Tips for Giving and Receiving PerformanceFeedback(www.siop.org/tip/TipOct00/12waclawski.htm)

Statement on the Disclosure of Test Data

(www.apa.org/science/disclosu.html) Test Security(American Psychologist, Dec. 1999, Vol.54,

No.12, p1078)

Statement on the Use of Secure Psychological Tests in the

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