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Early Medieval Anchors: An OverviewVictoria Fleming

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The Sutton Hoo Ship’s Company, The Longshed, Tidemill Way, Woodbridge, IP12 1FPEmail: [email protected]: www.saxonship.org

Copyright © 2020 The Sutton Hoo Ship’s Company. Permission granted to reproduce for personal and educational use only. Commercial copying, hiring, lending is prohibited.

Abstract: Anchors are a basic piece of equipment for any sea-going vessel, and have a long history dating as far back as the Bronze Age. The first anchors were made of stone weights with ropes, but over time developed to be made of metal with chains to keep the vessel moored. No Anglo-Saxon anchors have been found so far, and so an overview has been given focusing on Roman and Viking finds in Northern Europe, with some examples from the Mediterranean.

Keywords: Anchor, Iron, Stone, Wood, Mediterranean, Roman, Anglo-Saxon, Viking, Chain, Rope

1 Introduction

Anchors are portable objects which belong to a ship’s equipment, and are thrown out of the vessel in order to keep it moored in one place (Moll 1927:293; Vortruba 2019:217). They have been used for thousands of years, with stone anchors found on wrecks such as the Uluburun which dates to the 14th century BC, and are an integral part of any sea-going vessel (Bass, Carlson and Polzer 2006:140; Claggett 2017:13). The typology of anchors is well-defined for Mediterranean finds, but lacking for Northern Europe in the Medieval period, although this may be due to the relative lack of anchor finds compared to those in the Mediterranean (Claggett 2017:11, 13). However, Claggett (2017:8) believes that Mediterranean anchors influenced the design of those in Northern Europe, especially during the Roman and the Early Medieval periods, for trade was taking place between these areas. Certainly, evidence has been found for trade in the British Isles with the Mediterranean as early as the 5th century BC (Claggett 2017:12).

1.1 The Anatomy of an Anchor

The different parts of an anchor have different names, described briefly here. Metal and wooden anchors mostly consist of a shank, arms, flukes and a head. The top of the anchor shank consists of the head, and often has a perforation to allow for the attachment of a rope or chain. A perforation in the top half of the shank allows for a removable stock to be placed, which causes the anchor to come to rest on the seabed in a position where at least one of the flukes is able to bite into the seabed . This reduces the chance the ship will drag the anchor. A removable stock also ensures smaller storage space is required on the vessel when not in use. At the base of the shank is the crown, which may also have a perforation for the attachment of a crown ring which would hold the tripping line to allow for the anchor to be released from the seabed. The arms of the anchor extend from the bottom of the shank, and at the end of these are points or flukes which assist in keeping the anchor in place.

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2 A Brief History of Anchors

Anchors have been found across the world from all eras, dating as far back as the 25 th century BC, and are made of either stone, wood or metal. The wooden anchors usually contained either lead or iron stocks, which prevented them from floating. The earliest stone anchors in Europe date from 800 BC, and metal anchors from 600 BC (Claggett 2017:23; Moll 1927:294-5). Most vessels are thought to have had one anchor, but using two was not unknown. These days, for example, one might use an anchor at each end of the ship for keeping direction in a stream. It is possible that early ships carried more than one anchor for use on different types of seabed (Moll 1927:312).

2.1 Stone Anchors

The earliest anchors were made of stone with holes carved in to contain the rope, and have been in use in the Near East from the 3rd millennium BC (Claggett 2017:23; Frost 1963:7; Moll 1927:294-5; Vortruba 2019:213). (It is possible that ropes were tied around stones for use as anchors; the rope is unlikely to make a mark, however, so the stone just looks like any other stone and goes unnoticed.) Pierced stone anchors vary in size, with some individual anchors weighing more than a ton, and work due to their weight and surface friction against the seabed (Frost 1982:268; Vortruba 2019:225). However, stone anchors are less efficient than those with stems and flukes, and this may have affected the ship’s course and propulsion (Frost 1963:6-7). A variety of anchors might be needed to suit different kinds of seabed. Each additional anchor would add weight.This could compromise the design of the vessel, or where it might go,

It is believed that there were three types of stone anchor, with each being suited to particular types of seabed (Claggett 2017:29; Frost 1967;7; Vorturba 2019:231).

The earliest stone anchors were simple weight anchors, which consisted of a stone with a hole for a rope, and relied on its weight alone to hold the vessel in place. They were particularly useful for a rocky seabed, but would drag on sand (Claggett 2017:29; Frost 1963:7).

Another type of stone anchor is the ‘sandy anchor’. These were for use on sandy floors, and consisted of a small flat stone with at least three holes through which sticks were wedged to act as flukes (Claggett 2017:29; Frost 1963:7). However, these types of stone anchor are rarely found, for they are easily hidden on the seabed, and the number of holes weakened the stone, leading to fracturing (Frost 1963:9).

The final type of stone anchor is the ‘composite anchor’. These were for use on both rocky and sandy beds, and were a combination of the simple weight and the sand anchor. They were triangular in shape, with a rope at the apex and two holes for sticks at the base, and worked by combining the weight of the stone with the grip of the flukes (Claggett 2017:29, 30; Frost 1963:7, 13). They appear to be a transitional design, for they combined the two types of stone anchor and may have been a precursor to wooden and metal anchors (Frost 1963:13).

Over time, stone anchors evolved so that they could hold metal stocks and wooden grips to ensure a better mooring on the seabed.

A number of simple stone anchors have been found across Britain, and their design is generally the same as those found in the Mediterranean (Claggett 2017:25). However, it would seem that stone anchors were in use for a long period of time, for several stone anchors were found on a 14th century AD Medieval site in Leicestershire (Claggett 2017:25).

2.2 Wooden Anchors

Due to the nature of wood, complete wooden anchors are rarely found, although the lead stocks used with these are usually a sign that these were in use in certain areas (Bass, Carlson and Polzer 2006:143; Frost 1963:17). These were a transitional type between stone and metal stocks, for the wooden stocks contained metal cores, and worked by


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neutralizing the pull of the rope, keeping the wooden flukes in position and maintained a horizontal angle for both good grip and firm mooring (Bass, Carlson and Polzer 2006:143; Frost 1963:17).

The stocks were made in different ways, for some had a core of wood inside the arms, whereas others were solid lead, but all had a box-like opening in the middle for the stem of the anchor (Frost 1963:17; Green 2015). As lead is heavy, it was ideal for use in anchor parts (Rosen and Galili 2007: 306). They were commonly used by the Romans, as wooden anchors with lead stocks and collars are found frequently in the Mediterranean in Roman contexts (Hadas, Liphschitz and Bonani 2005:303; Rosen and Galili 2007:301).

Frost (1963:20) thinks that wooden anchors were used on a muddy seabed, and during a certain period may have been carried alongside rock- and sand- anchors, to be used accordingly). Indeed, the Romans used sounding lead weights in order to determine the depth and nature of the seabed, and so use the corresponding anchor type (Rosen and Galili 2007:301).

2.3 Metal Anchors

Metal anchors are the final type of anchor found, and are commonly made of iron. Iron anchors with small, relatively light stocks were in use during the Roman Period, but Frost (1963:18) thinks that these may have needed chains to hold them in place rather than a rope in rough seas. Iron anchors have been found both in the Mediterranean and Northern Europe, dating from the 1st Century AD, although it is possible that they were in use in North West Gaul from the mid-1st century BC (Cunliffe 1972:302; Frost 1982:270).

It is believed that the iron anchor technology was imported from the Mediterranean, although it is possible that these were also local developments in some areas (Claggett 2017:29, 58). However, only three examples of iron anchors dating to before the 8th century AD have been found in Northern Europe, and these all have a strong Mediterranean influence in their design (Claggett 2017:38). The 5th century AD saw a diversion in the design of anchors between the Mediterranean and Northern Europe. The European anchors retained curved arms and developed fastened stocks, while the Mediterranean anchors gained arms at right angles to the shank and abandon features such as the crown ring (Claggett 2017:57).

Frost (1963:270) thinks that heavy anchors indicate the presence of large ships, for a heavy anchor would be required to hold the ship in place. This certainly seems apparent with the Viking examples (See section 6). It also appears that there may be three types of metal anchor, as Moll determined that there were weight anchors of lead, hook anchors without stock, and hook anchors which were thrown overboard with stock and ring for the buoy rope (Moll 1927:309).

However, anchors are notoriously difficult to date by their typology alone, and as a result they are often dated according to the context in which they are found (i.e. with a shipwreck, or stratigraphy). As a result, it is often difficult to place an anchors date to a specific period, especially as anchors are often found on their own, having either been lost or purposely discarded (Kapitän 1984:33).

3 Ropes and Chains

Anchors are usually connected to the ship or boat via a rope or chain (Moll 1927:293). Ropes appear to be the most common form of attachment for anchors to vessels, especially in the Mediterranean examples (Claggett 2017:57).

However, metal chains have been found with some anchors, such as the Bulbury Anchor in Dorset, and the Ladby Anchor in Denmark. It has been suggested that the use of an iron chain with a metal anchor would have overcome the issue of the anchor’s stock rising while moored and prevent the flukes from being dislodged from the seabed (Claggett 2017:58). This would work primarily by the chain absorbing the motion when the vessel moved when anchored, meaning that the forces enacted on the anchor itself were horizontal and therefore prevented it from moving from its place on the seabed. Indeed, this may have been a Northern European adaptation, for chains would be more practical


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in the volatile North Sea (Claggett 2017:58). It also appears that when chains were used rather than rope, the wooden casing was removed from iron anchors, and were in use from the 1st century AD (Frost 1963:20; 1982:270).

Literary evidence also indicates that chains rather than ropes were in use on Northern European vessels. Julius Caesar in De Bello Gallico iii 13 describes the use of iron chains instead of ropes by the Gauls (Cunliffe 1972:302). However, ropes were still used past this period, as Viking Sagas mention the use of ropes on the ships. In Biskupa Sŏgur 1, 390, there is mention of a rope holding the ship, with the rope fastened under the knee of the ship, and the other end in the ground, and further mention is made of the rope, for it was sometimes wound round the capstan (Moll 1927:312). Further information about the storage of rope is mentioned in Fŏrnmănna iv 71, which specifies that the rope was wound up by a windlass (Moll 1927:312). Therefore, it would appear that the appearance of metal chains was not the death of the use of ropes with anchors.

4 Anglo-Saxon Anchors

There is a distinct lack of evidence for Anglo-Saxon ships in general, with only a handful of vessels existing in the archaeological record, and these are in the form of ship burials. Due to the nature of these finds, it is not surprising that no anchors have been found with the ships, for it is possible that these were either stone anchors which have been lost, or iron anchors which would either be used on other vessels or melted down to form other items.

However, there is evidence in the archaeological record in the form of dress accessories and stylistic designs on items which reveals that there was extensive contact between Northern European societies in Britain, Scandinavia and north-western Europe prior to the Viking Age (Claggett 2017:18). Indeed, it would appear that ship building was one of these technologies that was shared, as there is a definite cultural and technological influence in terms of design and the use of clinker-building (Claggett 2017:18, 20).

4.1 Blackfriars, London

The only possible Anglo-Saxon anchor found in Northern Europe is that of the Blackfriars Anchor found on the River Thames in London. This is an iron anchor, thought to date somewhere between the 9th and 11th century AD, and may have been used by a large sea-going vessel (Claggett 2017:41; Medieval London 2020).

The anchor itself is not complete, for it has a broken shank and is half the normal length at 0.60m, but may have originally measured 1.2m, and weighs 14kg (Claggett 2017:42; Medieval London 2020). However, it does have a crown which is fitted and pierced with a loose ring, pointed flukes, and spearhead shaped tapering arms (Claggett 2017:41, 42; Medieval London 2020).

It is also the only example of a Viking-style anchor found in England, but as London was held by both the Anglo-Saxons and the Vikings during this period, it is difficult to state completely if this anchor belonged to a Saxon or Viking vessel (Claggett 2017:42, 59). However, as the Viking occupation of London was primarily land-based during this time, it can be argued that the anchor design was influenced by Viking examples, but belonged to a Saxon ship (Claggett 2017:42)

4.2 Written evidence

Literary evidence can give morphological information about an anchor, and dated sources give an estimated date of use for the anchors mentioned (Claggett 2017:16). There is evidence that the Anglo-Saxons had anchors at least in the 10th century AD when the Exeter Book was written, for one of the riddles refers solely to an anchor:

“I war oft against wave and fight against wind,do battle with both, when I reach to the ground,covered by the waters. The land is strange to me.

I am strong in the strife if I stay at rest.


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If I fail at that, they are stronger than Iand forthwith they wrench me and put me to rout.

They would carry away what I ought to defend.I withstand them then if my tail endures

and the stones hold me fast. Ask what my name is.” (Baum 1963)

Further literary evidence can be found in Beowulf, and poems of the skald Halfrodr, for these both mention ancora, although these were first written in AD1000, but due to the oral tradition, may refer to earlier periods (Moll 1927:311).

4.3 Mediterranean Examples

It is evident that the design of anchors diverged between Northern Europe and the Mediterranean, for examples of anchors dating to the 7th century have been found in Yassiada, Turkey. A 7th century shipwreck containing eleven cruciform anchors was discovered, and revealed that these had wooden and iron stocks, with seven anchors found on the deck of the ship, forward of the mast, and a pair of bowers on either bulwark were ready to use (Bass, Carlson and Polzer 2006: 145).

5 Roman Anchors

The majority of information regarding Roman anchors comes from finds in the Mediterranean, although some have been found in Northern Europe, and it is known that there was contact between the Mediterranean and Northern Europe during this era (Claggett 2017:21). The design of anchors was heavily influenced by the Mediterranean during the 1st and 2nd centuries AD, especially in the British Isles, and the presence of iron anchors in Britain coincides with the Roman occupation (Claggett 2017: 27, 57). However, it is possible that some iron anchors were made in Britain, rather than being imported (Claggett 2017:27).

5.1 Bulbury Camp, Dorset The Bulbury Camp anchor is the earliest example of a chained anchor found in Britain, and the most complete example of a pre-Viking anchor (Claggett 2017:38; Dorset County Museum 2020). In 1881 a hoard of metal objects dating to the 1st century AD was discovered in the centre of the Iron Age hillfort at Bulbury Camp, Dorset (Cunliffe 1972:293; Dorset County Museum 2020). One of these objects was an iron anchor measuring 1.44 metres long, 0.78 metres wide, complete with an iron chain which had corroded around the stock end of the stem of the anchor (Claggett 2017: 38; Cunliffe 1972:300; Dorset County Museum 2020; Frost 1963:19).

The anchor itself is of a type found sporadically in Roman contexts in Western Europe, and is thought to date to the first half of the 1st century AD (Cunliffe 1972:300, 302). The angled arms of the anchor curve sharply back, and taper towards the points, while the shank has two perforations, one rectangular for the insertion of the stock and one circular for the attachment of the chain (Claggett 2017:38; Cunliffe 1972:300). The chain itself measured 6.5 metres in total and was formed of 115 oval links, with each link measuring 7.5cm across, except for the first and fifth which were 13.5 cm diameter (Cunliffe 1972:300; Dorset County Museum 2020).

5.2 Priestside Anchor, Scotland

A large iron anchor, measuring 0.84m long, was found at Priestside, Ruthwell (Claggett 2017: 39; Dumfries and Galloway Council 2012). It had a straight shaft, with the curved section tapering to a point, although there were losses to each tip and so it is unknown if flukes were ever present, and it is likely that there was a crown ring hole (Claggett 2017:39, 40; Dumfries and Galloway Council 2012). It is missing much of the original material, but from what survives, it is likely that it was similar in design to the Bulbury Camp anchor (Claggett 2017:40). As the anchor was found on its


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own, there is no definite dating evidence, but it is believed to be Roman and date to the 2nd century AD (Claggett 2017:40; Dumfries and Galloway Council 2012).

5.3 Porth Felen, North Wales

Although not an anchor itself, a lead anchor stock was found at just off the coast of Porth Felen. The stock is 1.18m long, 71.5kg weight and came from a small ship (Boon 1977:239; Claggett 2017:21; Green 2015). It is of the same type of anchor stock used throughout the Mediterranean from the mid-3rd century BC to the mid-1st century AD, and it is known that fixed lead stock became obsolete in the 1st century AD (Boon 1977:240; Claggett 2017:21; Green 2015).

5.4 Ein Gedi, Israel

In the Mediterranean, two wooden anchors were found at Ein Gedi, Israel. The saline water of the Dead Sea preserved wood and ropes of two anchors, but the metal had corroded (Hadas, Liphschitz and Bonani 2005: 299). Probably these were typical Roman anchors, for they were made mostly of wood with a large, heavy lead stock, and a small lead collar (Hadas, Liphschitz and Bonani 2005:303).

The wooden anchors were made of a shank which a stock and two arms measuring 0.52m long attached to it, with the remains of a rope found in a hole at the head of the anchor (Hadas, Liphschitz and Bonani 2005:301). The teeth at the tips of the arms were made of iron or bronze, and fastened to the anchor with nails (Hadas, Liphschitz and Bonani 2005:303). The lead stock weighed 1850kg, and pulled down the wooden anchor so that one arm would always stick in sea bed (Hadas, Liphschitz and Bonani 2005: 303). The rope was made of four strands of date-palm fibres, with a strand diameter of 6-8mm, with three twists of the rope every 10cm (Hadas, Liphschitz and Bonani 2005:304).

6 Viking Anchors

The largest source of information for iron anchors in Northern Europe come from finds of the Viking Period, although finds of ‘ancient’ Scandinavian anchors are rare, and no typology exists (Claggett 2017:27; Edberg 2012:203).

Anchors were the largest item to be forged during the Scandinavian Iron Age, and required great skill and quality materials, and so are thought to have been prestigious items (Edberg 2012:203; 2013). Indeed, an anchor was recovered from a Norwegian bog, suggesting that there was some form of ritual involved with the disposal of anchors, and so may explain the lack of finds (Westerdahl 2008:21).

It is evident that there were many different types of ships and boats throughout Northern Europe in the Viking Age, but establishing typologies of these vessels is problematic, especially as the number of preserved ships from 550 -1050 AD is small compared to the number of vessels that must have existed (Bani-Sadr 2016:58; Paasche 2020:46). The most well-preserved Viking anchors have been found in ship burials, and from these finds it has been possible to identify a shift in anchor design in the 10th century (Claggett 2017:45, 57). Type 1 anchors date from the 8th-10th centuries AD, and have curved arms, tapering ‘spearhead’ points, and wooden fastened stock, while Type 2 anchors date from the 10th-13th centuries AD, and differ from Type 1 anchors as they have small almond shaped flukes Claggett 2017:38).

It should be noted that the size of anchors appears to decrease during the Viking European expansion, although this may be due to the increased demand of iron leading to smaller anchors due to a lack of available material (Claggett 2017:56). It is also possible that the Vikings did not rely solely on iron anchors, for chapter 30 of the Egil Saga mentions a boat anchor made of stone and wood (Moll 1927:311).


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Moll (1927:314, 315) thinks the anchor was lowered and raised as follows, The anchor lay on deck or hung over the board by one palm, and was thrown overboard by men, with the anchor-rope leading over the same side or tied to the stem.

6.1 Nydam, Denmark

The Nydam ship dates to the first half of the 5th century AD, and was found to contain an anchor, although this no longer survives (Claggett 2017:39). However, archaeological work in 1993 revealed a small section of the anchor’s shank, and in 1997 a large portion of the anchor’s stock was recovered (Claggett 2017:39). The stock was cylindrical in shape and tapers to each end (Claggett 2017:39). The anchor’s curved arms and shape of shank and stock are similar to that of later Viking anchors, which suggests that many features of Viking anchors were developed by the 5 th century AD (Claggett 2017:39, 58)

6.2 Ribe, Denmark

The earliest Viking Age town and port in Denmark, Ribe was a major trading centre, though the landing place for the ships has not yet been found (Bani-Sadr 2016:2). It has been suggested by McGrail that beaching may have been more common in Jutland due to the lesser gradient of beaches, and certainly the evidence of protective false keels on boats such as the Kvalsund boat, suggests that regular beaching must have been considered when constructing vessels (Bani-Sadr 2016:61).

However, numerous rivets and an anchor found in the marketplace at Ribe suggests that shipbuilding or repairs were undertaken during the Viking Period (Bani-Sadr 2016:84).The Ribe iron anchor was deposited around 750-800 AD, and is 1.5m long, 0.95m wide, and weighs 27.5kg (Claggett 2017:44). It had a small crown with curved tapering arms, and an anchor ring at the crown to which an iron chain was attached (Claggett 2017:44). It would originally have had a wooden stock fastened over it, although this has not yet been found (Claggett 2017:44). It is similar in design to both the Sigtuna and Oseberg anchors (Claggett 2017:44; Edberg 2012:203).

6.3 Oseberg, Norway

One of the best preserved and well dated Viking anchors known is the one recovered from the Oseberg ship burial (Claggett 2017:40; Moll 1927:311). The ship itself had ninety percent of the original material surviving, measuring 22 metres long, and dates to 820 AD (Bonde 1997:199; Claggett 28, 40, 41).

The anchor is complete, measuring 1.08m long, 0.668m wide and weighs 9.8kg (Claggett 2017:41; Moll 1927:312). The arms have blunt spearheaded ends, while the shank has a crown and shank ring (Claggett 2017:28, 41). Along with the anchor were two wooden stocks which were similar to those found at Gokstad, and suggests that the anchors were of similar design (Claggett 2017:28).

However, it is likely that the anchor was not part of the original ship as it would not have been enough to hold the ship, or it may have been one of a number of anchors of similar size used by the vessel, as there is evidence of ships using more than one anchor (Claggett 2017:41).

6.4 Gokstad, Norway

An intact wooden anchor was found in the ship burial at Gokstad, and dates to 890AD (Claggett 2017:27). Unfortunately, the anchor disintegrated before it could be recorded, but it is known to have been 2.75m long (Claggett 2917:27). The anchor had a cylindrical oak stock which tapers from the middle towards the end, and had a rectangular hole through the centre through which the iron shank of anchor would pass (Claggett 2017:27).


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6.5 Ladby, Denmark

The Ladby Ship formed part of a Viking burial, and dates to the first quarter of the 10th century AD (Bill 2020; Bischoff 2003:71; Claggett 2017:28, 46). Although very little of the wood survived, the shape of the vessel was evident from the finds of rivets, and these revealed that the ship was 21.5 metres long, with space for thirty oarsmen (Bischoff 2003:72).

An iron anchor measuring 1.26 metres long, 0.84m wide, and weighing 27.95 kg was found resting against the portside of the ship in the burial, along with an 11 metre iron chain attached to the top of the shank (Bill 2020; Claggett 2017:28, 46). The anchor had curved arms and is the first Viking example to have small almond-shaped flukes (Claggett 2017:28).

The chain itself is a unique find from Viking ships, and had two swivels inserted into the chain to prevent it from kinking if the ship caused it to twist (Bill 2020). The chain also ensured that in deeper water the end of the anchor rope was drawn down onto the seabed, and reduced the risk of the anchor being torn loose (Bill 2020).

6.6 Tune, Norway

The Tune ship dates to the early 10th century, and measured 15-20 m long (Bonde 1997:199; Paasche 2020:31). It was excavated in 1867, but earlier plundering had destroyed the stern, and records show that there were items too damaged to be saved (Bonde 1997:195; Paasche 2020:29, 31). One of these items was a large lump of iron that was found at the southern stem, and thought to be the remains of an anchor (Paasche 2020:31).

6.7 Sigtuna, Sweden

Established around 980 AD, Sigtuna was a Viking settlement located on Lake Mälar, with possible shipbuilding and repair taking place as evidence of rivets and nails have been found (Claggett 2017:48; Edberg 2000:31, 34, 38; 2012:197). Though no complete ships have been found, an anchor was found among pieces of planking, frames and boat details during excavations in the 20th century (Edberg 2000:35). The anchor has a simple but functional design, measuring 1.69m long, 0.82m wide, and weighed 25kg, and is thought to have been deposited between 980 and 1100 AD (Claggett 2017:48; Edberg 2012:202; 2013). It may have belonged to one of the largest ships of the time (Edberg 2012:203).

7 11th century AD Anchors

11th Century anchors are briefly considered here, for depictions of anchors have been found in the Bayeux Tapestry, and the construction of larger ships meant that these required larger anchors, and therefore a means to lower and raise them (Claggett 2017:55). Medieval anchors in Northern Europe share several common features, including curved arms, rings at the crown or upper shank end, wooden stocks that were fitted over the anchor, and small proto-flukes, or no flukes at all (Claggett 2017:28).

7.1 The Bayeux Tapestry

The Bayeux Tapestry was made around 1088 AD and depicts events leading up to the Norman Conquest. In among the panels are depictions of anchors being used by ships, with sections focusing on the English ships travelling across the English Channel (Claggett 2017:18; Moll 1927:303, 315). It is interesting to note that anchors are only shown on English ships, and are not included in images of Norman vessels.

There are five English ships which are depicted with metal anchors, with each ship having only one anchor, although these are in different positions on each vessel (Claggett 2017:18; Moll 1927:315). On one ship, the hook anchor hangs with one palm over the side and has a stock, and is similar to those used in shallow water and ashore, while on


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another vessel, the anchor is held by a man behind the stem, ready for casting (Moll 1927:303, 315; Wilson 1985: Plate 5). On a third ship, the anchor is held by a man by the stem, while the fourth vessel has the anchor already in the ground, connected to the vessel by a rope which is wound round the stem post (Moll 1927:315; Wilson 1985: Plate 6, 7). The fifth anchor is depicted on an English ship arriving in Normandy, and is carried by a man in the shallows, ready to be placed in a suitable location ashore (Wilson 1985: Plate 34). On all of the panels, diagnostic features such as curved arms, flukes and pronounced anchor crowns are visible, indicating that these anchor types were in use by the late Anglo-Saxons (Claggett 2017:18).

7.2 Serçe Limani, Turkey

Nine y-shaped iron anchors dating to AD 1025 were recovered from a wreck at Serçe Limani (Bass, Carlson and Polzer 2006:145). They thought that the shape was based on a need to increase the weight of an anchor to suit larger ships without lengthening the anchor shanks. Eight of the anchors were found on the shipwreck, and the ninth was a distance forward of the site with a broken shank, which suggests that this was broken due to the sharp gust of wind which led to the ship sinking (Bass, Carlson and Polzer 2006:146). It is interesting to note that all of the anchors had wooden stocks and had standardized weights and dimensions (Bass, Carlson and Polzer 2006:146).

8 Limitations: What we don’t know

There is much that is not known about anchors in the Early Medieval Period. Certainly, evidence for the first half of the Anglo-Saxon period is lacking, and literary evidence is not as informative as a physical anchor. However, we do know that anchors were in use both before and after the Anglo-Saxon period, and so it is plausible that the Anglo-Saxons used some form of anchors for their vessels. As a whole, the study of anchors in Early Medieval Northern Europe is lacking, and there is limited archaeological and primary literary evidence to refer to (Claggett 2017:13). The lack of archaeological finds may be due to the fact that anchors were lost at sea, or reused by other vessels, or they were melted down and turned into other items and so do not survive in the archaeological record (Claggett 2017:13, 57).

In terms of how the anchors were stored or cast overboard, the lack of ship finds means that this is unknown. It is possible that they were kept onboard vessels and thrown overboard by hand, for no sign of a mechanism prior to the 11th century have been found (Moll 1927:303). There is only mention of the rope being tied to the stem or windlass in sagas, and there is limited evidence to suggest otherwise (Moll 1927:311, 312). Indeed, depictions in the Bayeux Tapestry show that the anchor was placed by hand into the shallows, so it is plausible that there were no mechanisms in use prior to the 11th century AD (Claggett 2017:18; Moll 1927:303, 315; Wilson 1985: Plate 34).

We do not know if light auxiliary anchors – kedge anchors – were ever carried, although it seems an obvious resource to have on larger ships. The operation of kedging, which is dropping an anchor some distance away from the ship, and then pulling on the rope in order to manoeuvre the ship, is not recorded. Neither is ‘kedging off’, when grounded on a shoal.

It is also notoriously difficult to date isolated anchor finds, for they broadly share the same design over a long period of time. As stone, metal and wooden anchors are all in use even today, it is possible that these were also used throughout the Anglo-Saxon period, and if so, these may have been missed. Certainly, wooden anchors may have limited remains, and stone anchors could easily be dismissed or hidden among other rocks on the seabed.

9 Conclusion

Overall, it is evident that anchors have been in use for thousands of years, and have been made of stone, wood and metal. The design of wood and metal anchors has remained broadly similar, and Claggett (2017:25) believes that the design of Northern European anchors was heavily influenced by Mediterranean examples during the Roman Period.


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However, the designs of anchors change in the 5th century AD, with different developments occurring in the Mediterranean as opposed to Northern Europe (Claggett 2017:38). It may be that the appearance of iron anchors in Northern Europe lead to the use of iron chains, for these were strong enough to keep the anchor in place in the rough North Sea, but there is limited evidence for chain usage (Claggett 2017:58). The only possible Anglo-Saxon anchor found so far dates to the 9th-11th century AD, and is rather Viking-like in design (Claggett 2017:41; Medieval London 2020). Therefore, the best evidence for anchors of this period is found in the Viking Age anchors in Scandinavia (Claggett 2017:66).

There is a limited record of iron anchors in Early Medieval Northern Europe, but from the anchors found, it is possible to show some consistency in the design and development of anchors in this region. The most consistent features are curved arms, the presence of a crown ring hole, and wooden fastened stock (Claggett 2017:65). It would appear that there was a change in the design of the flukes of Viking anchors in the 10th century, and so it is possible to develop a simple typology for Northern European anchors (Claggett 2017:38). The main examples of anchors have been found in ship burials, although individual finds have been discovered in trade centres such as Ribe, Denmark and Sigtuna, Sweden (Claggett 2017: 45, 57; Kapitän 1984:33).

However, there are limitations in terms of knowledge regarding Early Medieval anchors in Northern Europe. First of all is that it is unknown if a mechanism was used to cast the anchor, or if this was done by hand. Certainly the Bayeux Tapestry shows anchors being cast overboard by men, but some Viking sagas suggest the use of windlasses (Claggett 2017:18; Moll 1927: 303, 311-2, 315). Secondly is the relative lack of finds compared to the Mediterranean, and thus a lack of an established typological sequence (Claggett 2017:13). Finally, the lack of complete ship finds means that any methods of launching anchors may have been lost. The literary evidence is also limited, and does not reveal more than the archaeology.

10 History

Status Date Author Details of changeDraft 0.1 7/11/20 Victoria Fleming First draft

Draft 0.2 7/12/20 Victoria Fleming Edits made according to Philip Leech’s comments to clarify section 2.1. Restored section 1.1 on ‘Anatomy of an Anchor’, which got dropped accidentally from V0.1 sent out for review.

Issue 1.0 18/2/21 Victoria Fleming A new paragraph on kedge anchors in section 8, prompted by Philip Leech. Other minor edits. Raised to issue status following review.

11 Sources of Information

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Bani-Sadr, N. 2016. A Study of the Evidence for the Viking Age Harbur at Ribe, Denmark. MA Thesis: University of Southern Denmark.

Baum, P.F. 1963. Anglo-Saxon Riddles of the Exeter Book. Duke University Press: Durham.


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Bill, J. The Ladby Ship Burial. https://www.vikingeskibsmuseet.dk/en/professions/education/viking-knowledge/the-longships/findings-of-longships-from-the-viking-age/ladby Accessed on 12/09/2020.

Bischoff, V. 2003. The Reconstruction of the Ladby Ship- Using a Working Spline Model and Computer. In Beltrame, C. (Ed.) 2003. Boats, Ships and Shipyards: Proceedings of the Ninth International Symposium on Boat and Ship Archaeology Venice 2000. Venice. P71-80.

Bonde, N. 1997. Dendrochronological Dating of the Viking Age Ship Burials at Oseberg, Gokstad and Tune, Norway. In Sinclair, A., Slater, E., and Gowlett, J. (Eds.) 1997. Archaeological Sciences 1995: Proceedings of a Conference on the Application of Scientific Techniques on the Study of Archaeology. Oxbow Books: Oxford. P195-200.Boon, G.C. 1977. The Porth Felen Anchor-Stock. The International Journal of Nautical Archaeology and Underwater Exploration. 6:3. P239-241.

Claggett, D. 2017. A Typological Assessment of Anchors Used in Northern Europe During the Early and High Middle Ages, CE 750-1300. Unpublished MA Thesis: Flinders University of South Australia.

Cunliffe, B. 1972. The Late Iron Age Metalwork from Bulbury, Dorset. The Antiquaries Journal. 52:2. P293-308.

Dorset County Museum. 2020. Hidden Gems: Anchors Aweigh! Accessed on 12/09/2020 via: https://www.dorsetcountymuseum.org/hidden-gems-anchors-aweigh

Dumfries and Galloway Council. 2012. Priestside Anchor. Accessed on 12/09/2020 via; https://www.futuremuseum.co.uk/collections/people/lives-in-key-periods/archaeology/roman/craft-industry-and-trade/priestside-anchor.aspx

Edberg, R. 2000. Maritime Sigtuna: A Different Archaeological View of Sweden’s Oldest Town. In Cederlund, C.O. (Ed.) 2000. The Marine Archaeology of the Baltic Sea Area. Södertörn University College: Sweden. P31-39.

Edberg, R. 2012. Subterranean Maritime Archaeology in Sigtuna, Sweden: Excavated Evidence of Viking Age Boat Building and Repair. International Journal of Nautical Archaeology. 42:1. P196-204.

Edberg, R. 2013. The Maritime Life of a Viking Age Town: Subterranean Testimony of Sigtuna’s Boats, Boatyards and Jetties. Stockholm University: Sweden.

Frost, H. 1963. From Rope to Chain: On the Development of Anchors in the Mediterranean. The Mariner’s Mirror. 49:1. P1-20.

Frost, H. 1982. The Birth of the Stocked Anchor and the Maximum Size of Early Ships: Thoughts Prompted by Discoveries at Kition Bamboulay, Cyprus. The Mariner’s Mirror. 68. P263-273.

Green, C. 2015. A Mediterranean Anchor Stock of the Fifth to Mid Second Century BC Found Off the Coast of Britain. www.caitlingreen.org/2015/08/a-mediterranean-anchor.html#fn2 Accessed on 12/09/2020

Hadas, G., Liphschitz, N., and Bonani, G. 2005. Two Wooden Ancient Anchors from Ein Gedi, on the Dead Sea, Israel. International Journal of Nautical Archaeology. 34:2. P299-307.

Kapitän, G. 1984. Ancient Anchors - Technology and Classification. International Journal of Nautical Archaeology and Underwater Exploration. 13:1. P33-44.

Medieval London. 2020. The Blackfriars Anchor, London. https://medievallondon.ace.fordham.edu/items/show/92 Accessed on 12/09/2020.


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Moll, F. 1927. The History of the Anchor. The Mariner’s Mirror. 13:4. P293-332.

Paasche, K. 2020. The Tune Viking Ship Reconsidered. International Journal of Nautical Archaeology. 49:1. P29-48.

Rosen, B., and Galili, E. 2007. Lead Use on Roman Ships and its Environmental Effects. International Journal of Nautical Archaeology. 36:2. P300-307.

Vortruba, G.F. 2019. Building Upon Honor Frost’s Anchor-Stone Foundations. In Blue, L. (ed.) 2019. In the Footsteps of Honor Frost: The Life and Legacy of a Pioneer in Maritime Archaeology. Leiden: Sidestone Press. P213-244.

Westerdahl, C. 2008. Boats Apart- Building and Equipping an Iron-Age and Early-Medieval Ship in Northern Europe. International Journal of Nautical Archaeology. 37:1. P17-31.

Wilson, D.M. 1985. The Bayeux Tapestry. Thames and Hudson: London.


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