Introduction to Argument

World LiteratureFlorence Johnson

Provide Argument Word List for note-taking.

An argument may suggest fighting, but that’s not what we mean here.

Argument = persuasive writing or speaking intended to CONVINCE the audience to accept a position on an issue

CONVINCE is a key word. Do not be wishy washy or “ride the fence” in an argument.

In the introduction of a written argument, you will engage the reader (“hook” the reader) with something interesting, provide background information on the issue, and most importantly:

STATE YOUR CLAIM.

CLAIM = the writer’s position on the issue

For our purposes in this class, your claim should be:• Clear and definite• At the end of the introduction• A statement (NOT a question)• Stated without self-references NO:

I believe… My essay will show… I will prove….

Good introductions with background information and clear claim:

In America and most Western culture child marriage has become something illegal and morally unthinkable. Yet halfway across the world in Yemen, little girls are suffering in silence as they are married off as young as the age of nine. There, child marriage is a tradition embedded in the culture and has yet to be outlawed due to the conservative Islamic parties in the government (Jamjoom and Almasmar). Now, due to a famous case in 2008, a perfect climate for the winds of change has aided the fight to end child marriage. Child marriage in Yemen should be outlawed because it is morally wrong and it takes away a woman’s right to choose whom to marry and when.

Have you turned on the television or opened a newspaper in recent weeks to see news about Ebola? This story has been covered by many news agencies because this year has seen the most severe outbreak of Ebola, a highly fatal virus, ever recorded. The outbreak is believed to have begun in Guinea in March of 2014 and has since spread to Liberia, Nigeria, Senegal, and Sierra Leone. Since March, over 5,300 people have become infected, with over 2,600 of these resulting in death (Cite). So what is the role of the United States in this epidemic? As doctors and other personnel struggle to control the disease and more people become sick, it is left to more developed countries to decide whether or not to contribute to the effort. The United States should increase the amount of supplies and resources sent to the region of the outbreak because it is beneficial not only for our country, but for the world.

Support your claim with reasons and EVIDENCE in eachof your body paragraphs.

EVIDENCE comes in different types, for example:

FactsStatisticsAnecdotesExpert opinion

FACTS – information accepted as true and real (Most people would not disagree with an accurate fact. A fact can be proved to be true.)

OPINION – a personal view or judgment

FACT – Martin Luther King, Jr., was killed in Memphis on April 4, 1968.

OPINION – Martin Luther King, Jr., was the greatest leader of the Civil Rights Movement of the 1960s.

Florida State’s mascot is Chief Osceola, a nineteenth century Seminole warrior.

Examples of facts used in student papers:

ZMapp, an experimental treatment for Ebola, is being developed and has been recommended by WHO for trial use in West Africa.

Utah state laws allow anyone with a concealed weapon permit to take a loaded firearm to school.

STATISTICS – data including numbers and percentages, often from research studies or surveys

Caution: Cite the source of statistics. Be sure that the source is reliable and that the survey/study was conducted well.

Examples:As of August 16, 2014, Ebola has infected about 2,000 people in West Africa, and over 1,000 of them have died, according to the World Health Organization (WHO).

According to data from the Center for Homicide Research, in 30 cases where teachers discharged firearms, 96.7% (29) were intentional shootings, and 74.3% of victims died.

ANECDOTE – examples from your personal experience or the experience of others (“little stories”)

Anecdotes can bring your argument to life, but don’t rely ONLY on these. Anecdotes are often used in the introduction in a “hook,” but they can also be used in the body of the essay.

Student examples:

When I went to the Braves game with my friends, we participated happily in the “tomahawk chop” without meaning any disrespect.

My teachers say that they need new computers, not firearms. Some worry that a gun could fall into the wrong hands even if they lock it safely in a drawer at school

EXPERT OPINION – evidence provide by someone veryknowledgeable in a subject (usuallyin the form of a quote)

Be sure to state the name and title of the expert to add credibility.

Student example:

According to Nili Raam, a renowned expert in the field of communication and body language, both girls and women go through cosmetic surgery so they can look like Barbie and “resemble her” (“Teens and Cosmetic Surgery”).

Kenneth S. Trump, President of National School Safety and Security Services, says, “The vast majority of teachers want to be armed with textbooks and computers, not guns” (“Arming Teachers”).

“We are caring for these patients because it is the right thing to do,” explains Susan Grant, the chief nursing officer at Emory Healthcare, “and we can also export our new knowledge to treat Ebola globally” (Grant).

More well-integrated quotes from experts:

COUNTERARGUMENT –After presenting your argument FOR your claim, you must anticipate the reader’s objections and refute them.This acknowledgement of the opposition, followed byreasonable refutation, strengthens your argument. It also adds to the impression that you are objective and have done your research.

I know what you’re thinking,

but….

Begin the counterargument paragraph with a clear transition:

Others may say that…..

Some may disagree because….

On the other hand, supporters of ____ argue that….

Counterargument in an essay against single-gender classrooms:

On the other hand, supporters of single-sex education argue that when girls and boys are separated, teachers can overcome traditional gender stereotyping that may keep students from pursuing, and doing well in, particular subjects. For example, they claim that girls are more likely to pursue math and science in a single-gender classroom. However, critics say that educating students separately strengthens gender stereotypes rather than eliminating them. Girls do not need to be taught math in a “special” way that is perhaps “dumbed down.” For the same reasons that racial segregation in schools has been outlawed, gender segregation should be. There is no such thing as "separate but equal" in education, for races or for genders.

Be sure to include a strong conclusion. Save time to write a good one!

Emphasize your claim and remind readers of the important points of your argument without simply restating them.

Answer the “So what?” question. Let the readers know why the issue is so important, why they should care.

If appropriate, include a “call to action.” Tell the reader what to do next to follow up on the issue. (Note: Sometimes you just want to change an opinion, so not all papers will include a “call to action” for the reader.)

If possible, finish with a “zinger.” This may be the place for an emotional or ethical appeal to the reader.

Good conclusion:

In conclusion, the Ebola outbreak continues to claim lives and destroy African communities. If the efforts to control the diffusion of the virus continue at the same rate of effectiveness, without improvement, it is estimated that by October 19, 2014, a total of more than 15,000 people will become infected (Doucleff). The longer the United States waits to take action, the faster this number will cease to be a prediction and become reality. Heightened efforts to produce and transport ZMapp, an experimental drug shown to have tremendous potential to effectively treat the infection, to areas in need would greatly aid in preventing spread of the disease. Despite its effectiveness, ZMapp has not yet been used to treat a single African patient or doctor (Pollack). This negligence cannot continue. The people of West Africa need our help to control the Ebola outbreak, and we must reach out and help our fellow humans by sending supplies to them.

Racism can be defined as generalizing or assuming that all members of a specific race have certain characteristics, whether positive or negative. While it can be difficult to determine what is racist and what is not, it is clear that defining the expansive Native American culture here in the United States by silly halftime shows and offensive cheers will lead to a destruction of true Native American culture. The culture will be replaced by a cartoon-like mess of stereotypes. Replace the “Redskins” with “Jews” or the “Negroes,” and it becomes apparent that these names should not be allowed in American sports. It is time to cleanse American culture of this ignorance and change these mascot names.

Those are the basics -- Also need to know:

What to avoid: logical fallacies (often used deviously and cleverly in advertising and political campaigns)

Do handout on fallacies for homework.

Read the side on ethos, logos, and pathos – Aristotle’s argument terms