Anas Suray

IPG Kampus Tuanku Bainun

A scientific and systematic process of gathering information in order to answer the question(s) or the hypothesis posted objectively (example: the relationship between phenomena like motivation & academic achievement)

Educational research - a scientific and systematic process of gathering

information about the hypothesized relations between phenomena in the field of education with the aim of improving student learning.

What is Research?What is Research?

Research is scientific because the knowledge acquired is based on empirical evidence through the scientific process of gathering information/knowledge as follows:

(1) Formulate a hypothesis about the relationship between certain constructs

(2) Test the hypothesis by designing an empirical study

(3) Collect data(4) Make decision to accept or reject the

hypothesisInformation/Knowledge acquisition is NOT based on Information/Knowledge acquisition is NOT based on AUTHORITY, TRADITION, COMMONSENSE, MEDIA AUTHORITY, TRADITION, COMMONSENSE, MEDIA MYTHS, PERSONAL EXPERIENCE MYTHS, PERSONAL EXPERIENCE but EVIDENCEbut EVIDENCE

Research is systematic in the sense that it follows several definite sequential steps. These steps make up the Research Process.

(1) Generating research ideas(2) Formulating the research problem(3) Developing hypotheses/research questions(4) Designing a study to test hypotheses/answer research questions(5) Collecting data(6) Analysing and interpreting data(7) Communicating results

Characteristics of Research

Research begins with a problemResearch requires a planResearch demands a clear problem

statementResearch deals with the main problem

through subproblems operationalised as research questions/hypotheses

Research seeks direction through research questions/hypotheses

Research deals with facts and their meaning

RESEARCH

QUANTITATIVE(Positivist Approach)

QUALITATIVE

(Phenomenological Approach)

STATUS

STUDY

INTERVENTIONSTUDY

STATUS STUDY

Survey

Experimental

Case Study

Ethnography

Action Research

Generic Qualitative method

INTERVENTIONSTUDY

Correlational

Causal-comparative

Quasi-

Experimental

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY:

An overview

Preliminary Understanding of Quantitative & Qualitative ResearchExamine the two research studies on “Reasons for discipline problems in school” and decide which is quantitative and which is qualitative. Justify your answers.

Researcher A identifies factors that influence/ affect discipline, develop a questionnaire and administer it to a sample of problem students. He then analyses the data and identify significant factors or rank the factors

in order of dominance.

Researcher B interviews a sample of problem students individually or as a small group. He interacts with them and observes their behaviours. He also examines counsellors’ reports and school report cards. He records all the information obtained and analyses it for patterns that emerge.

Quantitative ResearchQuantitative Research Qualitative ResearchQualitative ResearchPhilosophyPhilosophy Positivism:Positivism:

Knowledge can only come from Knowledge can only come from positive affirmation of theories positive affirmation of theories through strict scientific methodthrough strict scientific method

PhenomenologyPhenomenology

Knowledge is discovered through an open, Knowledge is discovered through an open, unbiased description of experienceunbiased description of experience

Purpose/Purpose/

GoalGoalTo study relationship, cause and To study relationship, cause and effecteffect

To test hypotheses & to make To test hypotheses & to make predictionspredictions

To study social phenomena or things as To study social phenomena or things as they appear in our experience.they appear in our experience.

To explain, interpret and describe To explain, interpret and describe phenomenaphenomena

FocusFocus Quantity (Variables - How much & Quantity (Variables - How much & How many)How many)

Quality (Features- What)Quality (Features- What)

DesignDesign Structured, predeterminedStructured, predetermined

(Developed prior to study)(Developed prior to study)Flexible, emergingFlexible, emerging

(Evolves during study)(Evolves during study)

MethodMethod Experiment, quasi-experimental, Experiment, quasi-experimental, survey, etcsurvey, etc

Ethnography, case study, etcEthnography, case study, etc

SampleSample Large, random, representationLarge, random, representation Small, purposefulSmall, purposeful

Data Data CollectionCollection

Tests, questionnaires, controlled Tests, questionnaires, controlled interventionintervention

Interviews, observation, documents, Interviews, observation, documents, artifactsartifacts

Analysis Analysis Deductive (by statistical methods)Deductive (by statistical methods) Inductive (narrative and interpretation by Inductive (narrative and interpretation by researcher)researcher)

FindingsFindings Specific, precise & numericalSpecific, precise & numerical Holistic, detailed & descriptiveHolistic, detailed & descriptive

ResearcheResearcherr

DetachedDetached ImmersedImmersed

DEDUCTIVE APPROACH IN QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

4. Confirm or revise theory based on the hypotheses tested

3. Conduct the study to collect data

2. Design an empirical study to test hypotheses

1. Formulate hypotheses based on available theory/theories

INDUCTIVE APPROACH IN INDUCTIVE APPROACH IN QUALITATIVE RESEARCHQUALITATIVE RESEARCH

4. Formulate and 4. Formulate and generate theory based generate theory based on rich descriptive on rich descriptive data data

3. Formulate tentative 3. Formulate tentative hypotheses & gather hypotheses & gather further informationfurther information

2. Look for patterns in the 2. Look for patterns in the forms of themes, categories forms of themes, categories that emergethat emerge

1. Conduct observation 1. Conduct observation (Participant/non-participant)(Participant/non-participant)

Research Design

The outline, plan or strategy specifying the procedure to be used in seeking an answer to the research question (or to do the research)

The design indicates: how to collect and analyse the data (esp. the type of analysis needed to answer the res. questions) how extraneous variables are controlled or included in the study how conclusions can be drawn

Research Design

Weak Design

True Design

Experimental

Quasi-Experimental

Non-Equivalent Control-Group Design

One-Shot Design

One-group Pretest-Posttest Design

Non-equivalent Posttest-only Design

After-only Research Design (Posttest-only Control Group Design)

Factorial Design

Before-After Research Design (Pretest-Posttest Control Group Design)

TYPES OF TYPES OF RESEARCH RESEARCH DESIGNSDESIGNS

Interrupted Time Series Design

Ethics in Research

Respect human values & protect human rightsDetermine the degree of risks involvedPrincipal researcher undertakes full

responsibility of the studyInform the subject before or after, the nature of

the experimentRespect individual’s freedom to decline

participationAll information collected & subjects involved

should bekept confidential. Report group performance, not individual performance.

RESEARCH PROCESS: BASIC 5 STEPSIDENTIFYING THE PROBLEM /FOCUS

PLANNING TO ANSWER QUESTIONS ABOUT THE PROBLEM

IMPLEMENTING THE PLAN

COLLECTING DATA TO ANSWER THE QUESTIONS

CONCLUSION

Can be more elaborate steps like:

(1) Generating research ideas(2) Formulating the research problem(3) Developing hypotheses/research questions(4) Designing a study to test hypotheses/answer research questions(5) Collecting data(6) Analysing and interpreting data(7) Communicating results

IMPORTANT OF LITERATURE REVIEW IN IDENTIFYING RESEARCH PROBLEM

To understand in depth about the problem to be studied

To know what has been done about this problem

To gain insights into the theories, approaches and methodologies adopted by different researchers. (This will provide sound theoretical and methodological frameworks for the intended study.)

To identify gaps in the literature so that the intended study can focus on a research area that is significant and that has not been explored adequately. This will ensure that the research done will contribute towards knowledge and/or theory development.

PURPOSE OF LITERATURE REVIEW

To help researchers to delimit the research problem (narrow the scope) and define it clearly so that it has the right focus.

To ensure that research to be done is on the right track in line with the current trends. (Such information can be obtained from the Recommendations for further research section of every research study. These recommendations are useful because they represent the insights of the researcher after he/she has studied the phenomenon.)

To provide the intellectual context for the research to be done, enabling the researcher to position his/her work relative to other work. This is possible because the review will show what has been done in the field and how the new study relates to earlier research.

Theory & Review of Literature

Theory a statement or set of statements that explain and predict phenomena. a statement that indicates the relationship between two or more events

Ausubel’s Meaningful Learning TheoryMeaningful Learning takes place when a learner integrate new information with old information

What does Ausubel.s Theory predict?

What variables does the theory try to relate?

THE ROLE OF THEORY IN EDUCATIONAL RESEARCHTheory provides an important guide or focus for

the direction of research by pointing to areas in which meaningful relationships of events (variables) are likely to be found.

Theory provides a rational basis for explaining or interpreting the results of the research.

Theory enables the researcher to make predictions about a wide range of situations

Review of LiteratureGive an in-depth account of key works and information available on a research topic

Aspects normally covered:Aspects normally covered:

specific areas investigatedspecific areas investigated theories & approaches usedtheories & approaches used samples involvedsamples involved variables examinedvariables examined analyses usedanalyses used findings obtainedfindings obtained

Sources: Sources: research articles (e.g. Journals) research articles (e.g. Journals) & academic writings (e.g. & academic writings (e.g. books)books)

How are the studies related to your research?

What has been researched & what needs further research?

What insights have you obtained about the area to be studied (e.g. approaches, methodologies. analyses and interpretation of findings) and the trends that have emerged?

Sources of Literature ReviewSecondary Sources (Sumber Sekunder)

Materials written based on the works of others (e.g. reference books, text books, published academic writings, etc)

Primary Sources (Sumber Asli)

Materials written by someone who actually conducted the investigation – 1st hand information. (e.g. research articles published in journals.)

Note: Research articles also contain information from secondary sources when the writers quote the works of other people

Common weaknesses in Lit. ReviewMere presentation of research information

without relating it to the intended study

Mere presentation of research information without any critical evaluation

Mere listing of past studies in isolation without making any connection among them – differences & similarities

Heavy reliance on secondary sources and/or outdated studies

Poor citations (Refer to APA)

Plagiarism