A HANDBOOK ON

INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN

SETTLEMEN AND HOUSING

PREPARED BY: AKINROGUNDE O.O

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© 2016

INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN SETTLEMENT

Settlements are specifically located on the earth surface where human habitants agglomerate. In many

respects, settlements are important in all facets of life, because it is through their development that man

can explore the environment for his needs. They are the most visible sign that human culture has imposed

on the natural world. Settlements, forms, patterns, distributions, types and sizes and their tendency

towards change with time have fascinated geographers (Whynne-Hamond and Charles, 1979). Several

factors notably influence location and distribution of settlements over space. These factors are regarded as

the cardinal directives in geographic study of pattern in human activities, such as; industries and services,

all which are rotated round the settlement. Hence, the connotation; why are settlements distributed the

way they are? (Abler et al., 1971).

All over the world, several factors always influence location of settlements the way they are and these

include; relief, climate, vegetation, political, socio-economic, historical and mythical origin. As a result of

these factors, the degree of concentration of people, the extent of planning for the people and attainment

of the people varies from one region to another. Whereas, the functions which these settlements (large or

small) performs, varies in their various locations. Settlements come in different sizes, types and locations.

You can learn about the history and function of a settlement by studying its shape and size, its placement

in the landscape, and its situation in relation to surrounding features. If you group and classify settlements

according to their size and shape, the result is a settlement hierarchy. However, settlement classification

will be discussed in the later part of this course.

What is a settlement?

A human settlement is defined as a place inhabited more or less permanently. It includes buildings in

which they live or use and the paths and streets over which they travel. It also includes the temporary

camps of the hunters and herders. It may consists of only a few dwelling units called hamlets or big

cluster of buildings called urban cities. The Advanced learner’s dictionary of current English simply

defines settlement as the process of ‘settling in a colony’. But more conceptually, human settlement may

be defined as an assembly of person settled in a locality. Thus, it could be a village, collection of huts or

even houses. The term human settlement is used to cover all groups of human habitation, bearing in mind

that different form of settlements exists. However, settlements could comprise of dispersed houses,

clustered houses farm stead, hamlets, villages, towns, cities, metropolis, conurbation and megalopolis.

More so, a settlement is a place where people live. A settlement may be as small as a single house in a

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remote area or as a large as a mega city (a city with over 10 million residents). A settlement may be

permanent or temporary. An example of a temporary settlement is a refugee camp.

However, a temporary settlement may become permanent over time. This has happened to many refugee

camps that have been built in conflict zones. The reason a settlement was developed or built can be

thought of as its function. For example, the settlement of Southampton is a port.

EVOLUTION OF HUMAN SETTLEMENTS

Five major phases were identified by C.T Lakshmanan, (2012). These phases include the following:

Primitive non-organised human settlements (started with the evolution of man.) Primitive organised

settlements (the period of villages - eopolis - which lasted about 10,000 years.) Static urban settlements

or cities (polis - which lasted about 5,000-6,000 years.) Dynamic urban settlements (dynapolis - which

lasted 200 - 400 years.) The universal city (ecumenopolis - which is now beginning.)

Primitive non-organised human settlements

In this particular phase, the communities take up a smaller area where they are agricultural, and a

larger one where they are hunting and cattle-breeding communities.

On a macro scale, they consists of a nucleus which is the built up part of the human settlement,

and several parts which lead out into the open, thinning out until they disappear.

There is no physical lines connecting this primitive settlement with others; there are no networks

between settlements.

Primitive organised settlements

This phase is an era of organised agriculture, settlements also began to show some characteristics

of organisation.

In initial the human had one-room dwelling in circular form, to organise the relationship of his

community with other communities he expanded his dwelling by placing many round forms side

by side.

Due to the loss of space between them, they developed more regular shapes with no space lost

between them. The evolution reached the stage at which a rectilinear pattern develops into a

regular grid - iron one.

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Static urban settlements

As settlements grew in size, man came to realise that the principle of the single-nucleus was not

always valid in the internal organisation of the total shells of the community, at this single nodal

point, which was adequate for the village and for small cities, no longer sufficed.

The first thing to happen was the expansion of the nucleus in one or more directions; it was no

longer limited to the settlement's centre of gravity. Example: The small settlement of Priene, in

ancient Greece, where the central nucleus expanded in two ways:

First in a linear form along a main street which contained shops that would normally be clustered

in the central agora and secondly through the decentralisation of some functions, such as temples.

Dynamic urban settlement

In the dynamic urban phase, settlements in space are characterised by continuous growth.

Hence, all their problems are continuously intensified and new ones continuously created.

Dynamic settlements, created as a result of an industrial technological revolution, multiplying in

number and form, and now being created at an even higher rate.

The evils described in them are the evils of yesterday which are being multiplied today in a very

dangerous manner.

This makes the dynamic settlement completely different from any other category of settlements

and a real threat to humanity itself.

Early Dynapolis

This is the phase when small independent human settlements with independent administrative

units are beginning to grow beyond their initial boundaries.

From the economic point of view this development is related to industrialisation, and from the

technological point of view to the railroad era, which first made commuting from distance points

possible.

Metropolis/Dynametropolis

Fate of the historical metropolises has been dynamic growth,

A static phase, and then death static phase for a metropolis is the prelude of its decline and death

Dynamic metropolis, after losing its momentum for growth, becomes negatively dynamic.

Megalopolis/Dynamegalopolis

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A megalopolis has the same external characteristics as the metropolis, the only difference

being that every phenomenon appears on a much larger scale.

It is characteristic that all phenomenon of the development of human settlements up to the

metropolis shown on a 100 sq.km. Scale, for megalopolis would be 1,000sq.km.

Ecumenopolis (the universal city)

Regardless of whether dynamic settlements are simple (Dynapolis), or composite (metropolises

and megalopolises), they have been growing continuously during the last centuries and this is

apparent everywhere at present i.e. the whole Earth will be covered by one human settlement.

SETTLEMENTS AND EVOLUTION OF TOWNS

Most anthropologists believe humans first appeared in the Great Rift Valley in East Africa hundreds of

thousands of years ago. From there, they spread to the Middle East, Asia, Europe, the Americas and

Oceania. Neolithic Revolution (Agricultural Revolution) occurred in Mesopotamia, people went from

hunter-gatherers and nomads to domestication (12,000 and 8,000 B.C.) BCE. The Population grew

relatively quickly. The emergence of urban populations occurred also in some areas. Agriculture became

especially successful largely in the river valleys of:

1. Egypt

2. Mesopotamia

3. India

4. China

This area had fertile soil from annual flooding which led to abundant harvests. First cities arose in these

areas and People were able to grow surplus food to feed a non-farming urban population thereby leading

to Specialization among the population. The following were some other areas people ventured in. 1.

Priests 2. Scribes 3. Architects 4. Farmers 5. Soldiers 6. Traders 7. Blacksmiths, etc.

Environmental factors greatly affected where people settled. Three important environmental factors are

water, topography (the shape and elevation of the surface features of the land), and vegetation (plant

life). These three factors were determined by each area’s physical geography. Physical geography

includes mountains, rivers, valleys, deserts, climate, and the fertility of the soil. Water, topography, and

vegetation were so important to early human settlement. Environmental factors influenced where people

chose to settle in ancient times.

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Water:

The most important environmental factor in early human settlement was water. Physical features like

rivers, lakes, and inland seas are good sources of fresh water. Water is important for many reasons.

People need fresh drinking water to live. They also bathe and wash things in fresh water. Bathing and

washing help to prevent disease. Water is also a source of food. People catch the fish that live in rivers,

lakes, and seas. They hunt water birds and other animals that gather near water. In addition, farmers need

water to grow their crops. For this reason, farmers often settled near rivers. The river’s natural flooding

could help to irrigate their farms. Farmers could also dig canals or trenches to direct the rivers water to

their crops. Farmers in Mesopotamia dug canals for this purpose. Water can also be used for

transportation. Cities and towns often used rivers as “highways.” People travelled in boats to visit

relatives and trade goods. Towns near the sea could trade goods with countries far away.

Topography:

The second environmental factor was topography. Topography refers to the shape of the land. It includes

features like mountains, hills, plains, and deserts. The topography of an area was important for early

human settlement. Farmers usually settled in flat, open areas such as plains and valleys. Large, flat spaces

gave them room to grow crops. Also, the rich soil in coastal plains and river valleys was excellent for

growing crops. Mountains and deserts were less friendly to human settlement. Steep mountains were hard

to cross. Their jagged peaks and rocky land made farming difficult. Deserts were hot and dry. They

contained very little water for farming. The intense heat and lack of water made travel difficult. People

who settled in mountains and deserts faced many challenges.

Vegetation:

A third environmental factor was vegetation, or plant life. There are many kinds of vegetation, such a

trees, bushes, flowers, grass, and reeds. The crops people grow are also a type of vegetation. Many

physical features affect vegetation. Mild weather, regular rain, and fresh water are good for plant life. The

areas around rivers and lakes are usually green and lush. Mountains are often covered with thick groves

of trees. Deserts, being dry and hot, have very little vegetation. The vegetation in an area influenced early

human settlement in several ways. Most important, plants were a source of food. People ate both wild

plants and crops they had planted. But vegetation had other uses as well. People learned to make many

useful products out of plants, including medicine, baskets, rope, tools, and even paper. Trees provided

shade from the hot sun. And plants and flowers helped to make a place beautiful. The Egyptians settled

near the Nile River. They lived along the northern part of the river.

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Why did settlements in this area cluster around the Nile? Let’s look at the physical features of Egypt and

then see how environmental factors favoured settlement near the Nile. The most important physical

feature in ancient Egypt was the Nile River. Flowing north from deep in Africa, the Nile created a long,

fertile valley that ended in a marshy delta by the Mediterranean Sea. The Nile River valley was

surrounded by the Libyan Desert, the Arabian Desert, and the Nubian Desert.

These sandy deserts were extremely hot and dry. Most people avoided them, yet the deserts did play one

important role in the settlement of Egypt. They formed a natural barrier that helped protect people living

in the Nile River valley. The deserts did not support large settlements, and few invaders wanted to cross

them.

On the north, Egypt was bordered by the Mediterranean Sea. Settlers could not drink its sparkling salt

water, but the sea was rich in fish and other kinds of life. It was also a waterway that linked ancient Egypt

to other civilizations. To the east of Egypt was a long, thin channel of very salty water called the red sea.

The climate in this area was hot and dry. Much of the land near the Red Sea was desert.

Environmental factors in ancient Egypt greatly favoured settlement near the Nile River. Most important,

the Nile was a source of fresh water in an area that was mostly desert. The lack of water in the deserts

made them useless for farming. But in the Nile River valley, the river provided natural irrigation and

fertilization. Every summer, the river overflowed its banks. The floodwaters soaked the dry ground. After

several weeks, the waters went down. A thin ribbon of silt (rich soil) was left behind. This soil was

perfect for farming. Where there is fresh water, there are usually fish to catch and animals to hunt. The

abundant wildlife in the Nile region included fish, ducks, geese, hippos, crocodiles, giraffes, and

ostriches.

The topography of the river valley also encouraged human settlement. In the south, parts of the Nile ran

through narrow valleys and hills. But there were also wide areas of flat land around deep bends in the

river. These flat areas were good for farming. In the north, wide plains were watered by the Nile’s annual

flooding.

Vegetation was rare in the dry deserts, but it was plentiful in the Nile River valley. Useful plants included

reeds and a tough water plant called papyrus. People wove reeds into baskets and roofs for their huts.

They used papyrus to make rope and paper. And the rich farmland made it easy to grow crops like wheat

and barley. From the foregoing Environmental factors influenced the early settlement of ancient Egypt.

Environmental Factors Three important environmental factors are water, topography, and vegetation.

These factors greatly affected where ancient people settled. Early Settlement of Egypt in Egypt, most

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people farmed in the fertile Nile River valley. The Nile River provided fresh water in an area that was

mostly desert. The topography of the Nile River valley made the land good for farming. The valley also

supported useful vegetation like reeds and papyrus.

Kinds of settlements according to size

A conurbation is a region comprising a number of cities, large towns, and other urban areas that,

through population growth and physical expansion, have merged to form one continuous urban and

industrially developed area.

Kinds of Settlements according to shape

• A nucleated settlement is where the buildings are grouped together.

• A linear shape is where the settlement has developed along a line such as road networks, rail line

etc.

• A dispersed settlement is where the buildings are spread apart or scattered.

• A planned settlement is a settlement that is deliberately planned such as residential estates.

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Kinds of Settlements according to function

• Industrial Towns

▫ has railways and canals for transports

▫ has housing and industry mixed together

▫ Newer industrial town planning ensures the housing and industry are apart.

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Kinds of Settlements according to function

• Market Towns

▫ Found in fertile farming sites

▫ Many services e.g. shops and offices

▫ Good transport links – often they are route centers

Kinds of Settlements according to function

• Seaside Resorts

▫ Close to industrial areas with large populations, with good rail and roads

▫ On the sea−front are hotels and entertainments such as pubs and bingo

▫ Guest houses are found inland where the land is cheaper to buy

▫ Housing found further inland, with industry on the outskirts

▫ Promenades pedestrian roads along the front of the resort

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FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE SETTLEMENT PARTTERN IN A PARTICULAR REGION

Generally, the factors that influence patterns of settlement are four specific variables that exert the most

influence on the nature of human settlement of all kinds, from rural to maritime to urban. These variables

generally dictate the desire of settlers to move to a different location in order to gain rewards and to begin

anew. The first variable listed is the necessary cause of settlement, the remaining three are the sufficient

causes of settlement.

Economic and Human Influences

Generally, the promise of material reward is the most important factor in human settlement. In this case,

the interest in gaining more profit in proportion to labour exerted is central in dictating settlement

patterns. These are necessary, but not sufficient causes of settlement. Parts of this variable include the

promise of employment and a stable economy.

Physical Influences

The physical environment is next in importance. In agricultural settlement, the nature of the soil and

access to both water and transport are essential ingredients in making sense out of settlement patterns. But

even further, things such as the safety and stability of the existing settlement is equally important.

Technological Influences

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A more specific consideration is the existence of well-established patterns of communication,

transportation system and markets, which are all central to this variable. To some extent, it is connected to

the physical environment, as the technological makeup of the existing settlement exists as an adaptation

to the nature of the topography and the availability of resources.

Historical /Cultural Influences

Ethnic compatibility, speaking the same language and the basic cultural forms of co-existence cannot be

left out of this discussion. The historic nature of settlement speaks to the specific language and cultural

norms that make up a society, making it easier for one that shares these to fit in, and discouraging

strangers. This not only makes it easy for similar settlers to fit in, but also makes the community more and

more cohesive

FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR HUMAN SETTLEMENT

After food, shelter is the most important need of man. Men construct houses and develop settlements to

protect themselves against the erratic nature of weather and to enjoy social life. In fact, settlement is

Man’s important step towards adapting himself to his physical environment. The problem of rural and

urban settlements has increasingly been probed by anthropologists, sociologists, ethnographers,

economists and geographers. They, however, examine this issue with different objectives and

methodologies. Few people live in isolation. Most people of the world reside in some form of settlement;

a permanent collection of houses, buildings and inhabitants. Settlements occupy a very small percentage

of the earth’s surface but exerts a far greater influence on the world’s culture.

Settlements are both the storage centre of the world’s cultural heritage and the point of origin for the

dissemination of innovative economic, social and political patterns. It is because of cultural functions that

the study of settlement is most basic to human geography. In fact, settlement in any particular region

reflects man’s relationship with his natural environment. However, the creation of settlement all over the

globe rages from both the micro and macro elements. Generally, all these factors are grouped into six (6).

Geographical attribute, site of settlement, social attribute, cultural attribute, economic attribute and

political/defence.

Geographical/Environmental attribute:

This is a very important factor that influences human settlements. It has to do with the geographical

location of such settlement by considering these elements such as climatic condition, topographical

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characteristics, soil component/fertility, prevailing wind direction, rainfall, altitude, nearness to source of

water etc. which can make lives better and the settlement liveable for the inhabitants. All these can be

seen in the earlier part of our discussion where the presence of the Nile River greatly influenced the

ancient Egyptian settlement.

Site of settlements:

The site, growth and development of human settlements are closely influenced by the available soil,

water, forest and mineral resources. Depending on the nature and quality of resources, the settlements

may be temporary or permanent and from the rural settlements they may acquire the status of urban

settlements.

Social attribute:

This is however another factor that influence human settlement. It is connected with the social aspect of

life of the people. This exists as their ways of life, and the ways the people usually relates with one

another. Human settlement is structured; they resemble buildings rather than piles or rock. It therefore

provide the building block of any society. These institutions within human settlement are models of

human relationships upon which relationship are patterned, thereby acquiring stability, durability and

cohesiveness within the settlement.

Cultural attribute:

Culture covers all aspect of man’s life. In this regards, culture can be material in terms of its components.

Material culture includes man-made physical things (artefacts). These are objects like technology

inventions e.g. motor cars, tools, clothing, utensils, work of arts etc. On the other hand, nonmaterial

culture includes language, social institution, values and norms; ideas, beliefs and philosophies. These are

“things’’ which the individual acquire to determine his personality .This factor has greater effect in

influencing the establishment of settlement because this is used to govern the settlement and the people in

general. This aspect forms the law and administration to check and balance behaviours of the people.

Economic attribute:

This is simply the economic activities available or the ways which the people generate income for the

sustainability of the settlement. Here, economic activities range from primary, secondary, to tertiary

economy depending on the availability of mineral resources or nearness of settlement to raw materials.

The presence of good source of economy determines the growth of a settlement, most settlements still

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exist today because they have good source of economy. Therefore, people prefer to settle where they

derive economic gains to improve their socio-economic wellbeing.

Political/Defence attribute :

In ancient settlements, the priests, teachers, women and children were vulnerable to attack from the other

tribes. To protect them, youths (soldiers) were stationed in the settlement.

The settlements were also the base for political leaders, who needed a strategic location from which to

protect the tribe’s land claim. Because the military and religious leaders lived there, the settlement needed

adequate defence. How could the settlement best be protected? The answer was to build a surrounding

wall, strong enough to withstand the attack. Thus, settlements became citadels centres of military power.

People sometimes prefer to settle where there is political stability devoid of external aggressor to make

life easy for them.

Importance of influencing factors on human settlement

Indigenous culture and traditional way of doing things form a strong cohesion among individuals

in the settlement and to co-exist together for a very long time of their existence. They are often

not enthusiastic to abandon the custom, beliefs prejudices and practices inherited from their fore-

fathers and which has held their families and communities together in favour of unfamiliar and

untrue innovation.

The presence of economic activities in a particular settlement aids its growth and sustainability.

Most old rural/urban settlements still exist because of the economic activities peculiar to such

places and this has greatly affected the growth of such settlement. In Nigeria for example, some

settlements around the coastal area still exists till date because of the presence of the river. The

people around there greatly enjoy fishing which is their main occupation and source of economy.

It also promotes mass production of food for the consumption of the people. Especially

settlement that is located on a climatically friendly location; with good and fertile soil, source of

water for irrigation purposes and other geographical features that aids the cultivation of food

crops. This however aids quick and early development/establishment of human settlement. Some

rural settlements in Africa still exist till date because of their sustainability which is derived from

good geographical location of the settlement.

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ELEMENTS OF HUMAN SETTLEMENT

In order to study the science/element of human settlement, we will look at a model by Konstantinos

Apostolos Doxiadis in 1942 termed Ekistics. It involves the study of all kinds of human settlement, with a

view to geography and ecology - the physical environment - and human psychology and anthropology

and cultural, political, and occasionally aesthetics. The most usual ordinate consists of five Ekistics

elements: NATURE, ANTHROPOS (MAN), SOCIETY, SHELLS (dwellings or buildings), and

NETWORKS, with a sixth line denoting their SYNTHESIS. See the diagram below:

Elements of human settlement and the optimization of the quality of man’s relationship with his environment

Nature:

The first element represents the ecosystem within which a settlements must exist. It involves a number of

component processes including the hydrologic cycle, bio-systems, air-sheds, climatic zones, etc.

Archaeological studies show that even primitive man with limited tools made profound changes in natural

systems. Over cultivation and overgrazing are examples of how early cultivations weighted the natural

balance and tipped it towards an uninhabitable landscape.

If such significant changes in the natural system could be brought about by such limited numbers of men,

it seems logical to suppose that today's 6,000 million persons must have far greater effectiveness in

fouling the planet. And, if the earth is to support 30,000 million people in the future, the inter-

relationships and ranges of adaptability of human settlements and natural processes must be very clearly

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understood and observed, for neither can survive without the other. At another level we cannot forget

man's psychological and physical needs for contact with the world of nature.

Anthropos:

The second ekistics here is Anthropos (man). Man himself is also constantly adapting and changing to the

vagarities of climate and other environmental challenges within the eco-system. The medical profession,

in its move from "barbarism" to concepts of the constitution of the healthy individual, can contribute

many important inputs to the better organization of urban life. Studies have shown that certain physical

and psychological diseases are directly associated with urbanization. These include obesity, respiratory

ailments and alienation (anomie). This gives rise to many questions, such as whether it is possible for

mankind to adapt to a completely urban world with no rural escapes; what urban densities "are tolerable";

and how the city may be made a satisfactory environment for the growing child. Thus, just as forward-

looking medical and public health schools find a need to study the city, city builders must turn to study

man too in order to have a balanced man-environment relationship.

Society:

This ekistics comprises all those aspects of the urban or rural scene that are commonly dealt with by

sociologists, economists and administrators e.g. population trends, social customs, income and

occupations, and the systems of urban government. One of the most urgent aspects of society seems to be

the problem of the retention, or reorganization, of values inherent in independent small communities after

these have become incorporated in megalopolis in other words, the place of the neighbourhood in

megalopolis.

Shell:

This is the built environment; it is related to all the spatial system or structures within which man lives

and carries out all his different activities. The shell is the traditional domain of the architectural, town and

country planning and engineering professions. Here a central problem is how mass-produced, anonymous

housing can cater for the needs of very diverse individuals and family groupings. Where can man make

his own mark? Where can he leave the touch of his own hand?

Network:

This provides the glue or cohesion for all systems of urbanization within the ecosystem. Their changes

profoundly affect urban patterns and urban scale. We have only to think of the effect of the advent of the

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railroad, or of piped water supplies, or of the telephone, upon the extent, the texture and the densities of

human settlements. The increasingly rapid developments of all types of network coupled with population

pressures have been the most potent heralds of megalopolis.

The enormous growth in the uses of energy for the communication of ideas has stimulated man’s appetite

for participating in all sorts of things that was formerly outside his ken. The television screen has

stimulated desires both to participate in new sports, such as skiing, etc., and to participate in debates,

political representation, etc. To respond to man's demands, transportation, communication and utility

networks must all expand even faster than the anticipated growth of settlements.

More importantly the line that connects these elements together is known as the synthesis line.

SETTLEMENT HIERARCHY

A settlement hierarchy is a way of arranging settlements into a hierarchical order based upon their

population or some other criteria. The greater the population in a settlement, the larger geographic area,

the higher the status and the greater the availability of services. Position in a settlement hierarchy can also

depend on the sphere of influence (This is how far people will travel to use the services in the settlement,

if people travel further the town becomes more important and ranks higher in settlement hierarchy)

Example of a settlement hierarchy

In this example, an isolated building is at the lowest point, and the ecumenopolis is at the top with the

greatest number of people: Note: (This settlement hierarchy is adapted from the work of Konstantinos

Apostolos Doxiadis for the actual current world situation as of 2010 as opposed to Doxiadis' idealized

settlement hierarchy for the year 2100 that he outlined in his 1968 book Ekistics.)

Ecumenopolis: Theoretical construction in which the entire area of Earth that is taken up by human

settlements, or at least, that those are linked so that to create urban areas so big that they can shape an

urban continuum through thousands of kilometres which cannot be considered as a megalopolis. As of the

year 2009, the United Nations estimated that for the first time more than 50% of the world's populations

lived in cities, so if these were linked, the total population of this area would be about 3,400,000,000

people as of 2010.

Megalopolis: A group of conurbations, consisting of more than ten million people each.

Conurbation: A group of large cities and their suburbs, consisting of three to ten million people.

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Metropolis: A large city and its suburbs consisting of multiple cities and towns. The population is usually

one to three million.

Large city: A city with a large population and many services. The population is <1 million people but

over 300,000 people.

City: A city would have abundant services, but not as many as a large city. The population of a city is

over 100,000 people up to 300,000.

Large town: A large town has a population of 20,000 to 100,000.

Town: A town has a population of 1,000 to 20,000.

Village: A village generally does not have many services, possibly only a small corner shop or post

office. A village has a population of 100 to 1,000.

Hamlet: A hamlet has a tiny population (<100) and very few (if any) services, and few buildings.

Isolated dwelling: An isolated dwelling would only have 1 or 2 buildings or families in it. It would have

negligible services, if any.

CLASSIFICATION OF SETTLEMENTS

Generally no two settlements are alike but many of them have some similarities and basic characteristics

that is used to classify them into basic categories. Four (4) identified characteristics is used to classify

settlements are as follows; (1) size (2) permanency (3) method of creation (4) function and purpose.

Size:

This is the first classification of all human settlements. There are single settlements consisting of farm

house, a military camp or other function or composite settlements made up of many house, camps and

other function. Apart for looking at this from the point of view of residences or house, it also has to do

with the population size of settlements.

Permanency:

This is the second classification that is based upon the degree of their permanency. There are temporary

settlements such as tents that belongs to nomads and huts belonging to shepherds or fishermen. Also,

there are semi-permanent settlements such as nomadic camps or army camps which are not inhabited

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throughout the year but only during certain periods. Also there are permanent settlements inhabited

throughout the year likewise, the permanency depends on the material for construction.

Method of creation:

This is another classification that is based upon the method by which human settlements have emerged or

created. In this classification, there are ‘natural settlements’ which emerged themselves naturally and

there are ‘planned settlements’ which have been built or created on the basis of pre-conceived or

deliberate plans. There are very few planned settlements in comparison with the total number of

settlements.

Function and purpose:

This is the most important classifications of settlements because the idea behind every settlement is the

purpose and function that such settlement is being established. It is this classification that gives the

settlement it’s most important characteristics and also influences other elements correspondingly.

RURAL SETTLEMENTS VS URBAN SETTLEMENTS

Urban and rural settlements differ in demographics, land area and usage, population

density, transportation networks and economic dependencies. These characteristics are the defining

differences that geographers and city planners observe between rural and urban centers. (US Census

2000)

• Demographics

Urban settlements contain a heterogeneous population consisting of different ages, cultures and

ethnicities, whereas rural areas contain a more homogenous population based on family, similar

ethnicities and fewer cultural influences.

• Land Area and Usage

Urban settlements are more expansive and contain a wide range of land uses. For instance, major

metropolitan areas use density zoning to indicate different levels of development. In contrast, rural

settlements are more or less self-contained and may not use zoning controls or have limited planning and

development regulations.

• Population Density

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For instance, the U.S. Census Bureau defines urban settlements as areas with more than 50,000 people

and at least 1,000 people per square mile; including contiguous census tracts or blocks with at least 500

people per square mile. In contrast, rural settlements contain less than 2,500 people, at a density between

one and 999 people per square mile. Whereas, in Nigeria context, any settlement with at least 20,000

people is regarded as an urban settlement, while any settlement below 20,000 people is a rural settlement

(according to 1996 population census). Also, any settlement that falls within a 10km radius of a local

government headquarters is an urban settlement.

• Transportation Network

Rural transportation networks consist of local and county or local roads with limited interconnectivity to

rail and bus lines. Urban settlements contain highway infrastructure as well as airports and light or heavy

commuter rail.

• Economy

Urban areas are dependent on a global economy of import and export, whereas rural economies rely on a

local and agricultural-based economy with dependencies on services, such as hospitals and educational

establishments in nearby urban centers.

Urban Settlements

Most governments define urban settlements based on one or a combination of criteria, including

population size, population density, and social and economic factors, such as the proportion of the labor

force engaged in non-agricultural activities; the administrative or political status of a locality, such as

national, provincial, or district capitals, or census designations. (Hardoy et al., 2001)

Rural Settlement

Rural settlements are most closely and directly related to land. They are dominated by primary activities

such as agriculture, animal husbandry, fishing etc. The settlements size is relatively small.

The factors which influence the location of rural settlements

Rural settlements are influenced by following factors:

i. Water Supply: Usually rural settlements are located near water bodies such as rivers, lakes, and

springs where water can be easily obtained. The need for water drives people to settle in islands

20

surrounded by swamps or low lying river banks. Water supply is main factor because water is

used for drinking, cooking and washing, rivers and lakes can be used to irrigate farm land, water

bodies also have fish which can be caught for diet and navigable rivers and lakes can be used for

transportation.

ii. Land: People choose to settle near fertile lands suitable for agriculture. Early settlers chose plain

areas with fertile soils. In Europe villages are found near gently sloping land, in south East Asia

villages are near low lying river valleys and coastal plains suited for wet rice cultivation.

iii. Terrain: Villages are located on uplands which is not prone to flooding. Thus, in low lying river

basins people chose to settle on terraces and levees which are “dry points”. In tropical countries

people build their houses on stilts near marshy lands to protect themselves from flood, insects

and animal pests.

iv. Building Material: The availability of building materials such as wood and stone near

settlements is another factor. Early villages were built in forests where wood was plentiful. In

African Savannahs, mud bricks are used as building materials and the Eskimos, in Polar Regions,

use ice blocks to construct igloos.

v. Defence: During the times of political instability, war, aggression of neighbouring group villages

were built on defensive hills and islands. In Nigeria, villages are built on upstanding rocks; in

India most of the forts are located on hills.

There are different types of rural settlements patterns. Patterns of rural settlements is influenced by the

site of the village, the surrounding topography and terrain.

i. On the basis of setting : The main types are

a. Plain villages

b. Plateau villages

c. Coastal villages

d. Forest villages

e. Desert villages

ii. On the basis of functions : There may be

a. Farming villages,

b. Fishermen’s villages,

c. Lumberjack villages,

d. Pastoral villages etc.

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iii. On the basis of forms or shapes of the settlements : These may be a number of geometrical

forms and shapes such as:

a. Linear pattern: In such settlements houses are located along a road, railway line, river, canal edge

valley or along a levee.

b. Rectangular pattern: Such patterns of rural settlements are found in plain areas or wide inter-

montane valleys. The roads are rectangular and cut each other at right angles.

c. Circular pattern: Circular villages develop around lakes, tanks and sometimes the village is

planned in such a way that the central part remains open and is used for keeping the animals to

protect them from wild animals.

d. Star like pattern: Where several roads converge, star shaped settlements develop by the houses

built along the roads.

e. T-shaped, Y-shaped, Cross-shaped or cruciform settlements: T –shaped settlements develop at tri-

junctions of the roads. Y–shaped settlements emerge as the places where two roads converge on

the third one and houses are built along these roads. Cruciform settlements develop on the cross-

roads and houses extend in all the four direction.

f. Double village: These settlements extend on both sides of a river where there is a bridge or a

ferry.

Urban Settlements

Generally, urban settlements are classified around the world on three common bases as explained earlier.

Urban settlements are classified on the basis of the population size, occupational structure and

administration.

1. Population size: - in Nigeria, a settlement having population more than 20,000 persons is regarded as

an urban settlement. Also, every local government area is known as an urban centre. Again, all other

settlements of 10km radius away from it is a rural settlement as earlier said. In India, it is 5,000, in

Japan it is 30,000 persons whereas in Sweden it is 250 persons. The population threshold figure

depends on the density of population in the country. There are four types of urban settlement on the

basis of its size, service and function. This however depends on the size and the services available

and functions rendered. Urban centres are designated as town, city, million city, conurbation, and

megalopolis.

i. Town: Population size in town is higher than the village. Functions such as, manufacturing,

retail and wholesale trade, and professional services exist in towns.

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ii. City: A city may be regarded as a leading town. Cities are much larger than towns and have

a greater number of economic functions. They tend to have transport terminals, major

financial institutions and regional administrative offices. When the population crosses the one

million mark it is designated as a million city

iii. Conurbation: The term conurbation was coined by Patrick Geddes in 1915 and applied to a

large area of urban development that resulted from the merging of originally separate towns

or cities. Greater London, Greater Mumbai, Manchester, Lagos, Chicago and Tokyo are

examples.

iv. Megalopolis: This Greek word meaning “great city”, was popularized by Jean Gottman

(1957) and signifies ‘super- metropolitan’ region extending, as union of conurbations. The

urban landscape stretching from Boston in the north to south of Washington in U.S.A. is the

best known example of a megalopolis.

v. Occupational structure: - besides population size, occupation is also taken as the criteria. In

India, if more than 75 percent of workforce is engaged in non- agricultural activities then the

settlement is called as urban. Other countries have their own criteria for e.g. in Italy it is 50

percent.

vi. Administrative structure: - in India a settlement is classified as urban if it has a

municipality, cantonment board or a notified area. In Nigeria and Brazil any administrative

centre such as local government headquarters is termed as urban.

In advance countries these classification is essential to town planning and very efficient too, but there is

usually lack of accurate/ adequate population data in developing countries which has overtime affected

physical development in these regions.

Classification of Urban Settlements

Classification based on their function: Here the dominant function is used to describe the settlement

e.g. Abuja is described as an administrative town, Lagos as port city, Ajaokuta as an industrial town,

Enugu as coal city and Jos the tin city. In describing the functional classifications of towns in the world,

there are about 6 distinct classes which are listed as follows:

1. Administrative Towns: - National capitals, which have headquarters of the administrative

offices of Central Government, are called administrative towns, such as Abuja, New Delhi,

Canberra, Moscow and Washington.

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2. Defence Towns: - Centres of military activities are known as defence towns. E.g. Ojo military

Cantonment is an example in Nigeria

3. Cultural Towns: - Towns famous for religious, educational or recreational functions are called

cultural towns. Places of pilgrimage, such as Jerusalem, Mecca, Jagannath Puri and Varanasi etc.

are considered as religious towns. There are also recreational towns such as Badagry in Nigeria

and Las Vegas in the USA.

4. Industrial Towns: These are mining and manufacturing regions. Ajaokuta in Nigeria, Detroit in

USA Dhanbad and Khetri in India are examples of mining towns. Towns which have developed

due to setting up of industries are called industrial towns.

5. Trading and Commercial Towns: - Many old towns were famous as trade centres such as

Lahore in Pakistan, Baghdad in Iraq, Agra in India and Aba in Nigeria. Some towns have

developed as transport towns such as Rotterdam in the Netherlands and Aden in Yemen. Also

Mumbai in India and Tin Can Island in Lagos, Nigeria are both port towns.

Classification based on their formation: This is based on the structures and features of the settlement.

E.g. Ore is regarded as a nodal town because of its peculiar mode of formation as a nodal town that link

some other notable towns such as Ondo town, Lagos, Benin town Akure etc.

Characteristics of urban and rural settlements

1. Urban settlements:

i. These types of settlement are nodal in character and have secondary and tertiary activities.

ii. The chief occupation of the people of urban areas is non-agricultural i.e. industry, trade and

services.

iii. The major function of an urban area is trades and commerce, transport and communication,

mining and manufacturing, defence, administration, cultural and recreational activities.

iv. Population density is high and the settlement size is large.

2. Rural settlements:

i. These settlements are chiefly concerned with primary activities such as agriculture, mining,

fishing, forestry etc.

ii. Most of the people of rural settlement are engaged in agricultural work.

iii. The major function of rural settlement is agriculture and each settlement specializes in

various activities.

iv. Both the population density and the settlement size is small.

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However, it should be noted that ‘there is no consensus on what exactly defines a village or a town based

on some reasons. Some of these reasons will be highlighted below:

i. Population size is small in rural settlement than urban settlements but it is not a universally

applied because many villages in India and China have population exceeding that of some

towns of Western Europe and United States.

ii. People living in villages pursued agriculture or other primary activities, but presently in

developed countries, large sections of urban populations prefer to live in villages even though

they work in the city

iii. Petrol pumps (filling stations) are considered as a rural function in the United States while it

is an urban function in Nigeria, India and some developing countries.

iv. Facilities available in the villages of developed countries may be considered rare in villages

of developing and less developed countries.

RURAL URBAN MIGRATION (INTERNAL MIGRATION)

internal migration is defined as ‘a movement of people from one area of a country (especially one local

government area) to another area of the same country for the purpose or with the effect of establishing a

new residence’ (IOM, 2011 as recommended in ACP Observatory Research Guide, 2011a) either

temporarily or permanently, is a complex and multidimensional process. With more than 140 million

people (NPC, 2012c) and a growth rate estimated at 2.5 per cent in 2010, Nigeria has a high urban growth

rate (UNPD 2010). This urban growth, estimated at 3.84 per cent for the period 2005–2010 (UNPD,

2009), cannot be dissociated from migration, especially internal migration.

Given the above conceptualization of internal migration, the movement, especially of members of sub ‐ethnic groups that may have been grouped with other ethnic groups to form a nation‐state during the

colonial rule, into their main ethnic group in another country is considered to be international migration.

This is in spite of the fact that to such people, no international migration had occurred. Besides familial

ties, Africa’s porous borders, linguistic and cultural similarities, among others, have ensured that these

splintered subgroups moved across borders as if no international borders exist. Given these factors, this

intra‐ethnic migration, on which not much has been written, imposes considerable difficulties in

identifying and distinguishing ‘international migrants’ entering Nigeria to reunite with familial or ethnic

relations from Nigerian nationals, including ‘internal migrants’.

In view of the foregoing, the actual movement of people is across geographical boundaries political units,

resulting in change of the absolute members of population of both sending and receiving areas.

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Invariably, migration cannot be viewed as an end in itself. It arises in a very real sense as a result of what

could be termed as ‘PUSH’ and ‘PULL’ factors. The relationships between these two factors has

provided one focus of attention which is related to the adverse conditions in the sending area and the

attractions at the receiving area.

The reason why people migrate from rural areas to urban areas will be discussed below under the ‘pull’

and ‘push’ factors:

PUSH FACTOR

a. Employment Prospect

As a result of lack of job opportunities in most rural areas. Those whose ages ranges from 21-41 tends to

seek for jobs in towns and cities to sustain themselves and their family members. Thus the general

conception of these people is that, it is only in the urban centre where large industrial firms and

government offices abound that their needs and aspirations would be met. Therefore, in order to secure

good job, prospective job seekers move out of their rural communities to the urban areas in search of

greener pastures in order to increase their socio-economic status.

b. Lack of Social Amenities and Infrastructural Facilities

Social amenities and other infrastructural facilities is mainly concentrated in the urban areas which is

more superior to that of the rural areas. In the contrary, major rural areas in Nigeria are characterized by

poverty and deprivation of basic human needs. Hence for a settlement to develop and attract more people,

there are certain level of social amenities/infrastructures that must be put in place. However, the non-

availability of these social amenities/infrastructural facilities in the rural areas resulted to the movement

of people. This situation obviously repel or push people away from the rural areas to the urban areas.

c. Monolithic Economic Base

The income earned by most families in the rural communities is not enough to sustain their livelihood,

since their economic base is purely agriculture (subsistence farming). If they should wholly rely on only

one source of income generation, it may directly or indirectly result in poor standards of living. Therefore,

the rural population, majorly the youths migrate from the rural areas to the urban areas where they could

have the opportunity to take up more than one job or acquire the relevant skills that will yield an attractive

financial returns for their survival and that of their family members. Since opportunities abound in towns

26

and cities, thus prospective migrants from the rural settlements target the urban areas as an available point

of call to meet their pressing needs and aspirations to live a fulfil life.

d. Social Change

The fourth factor which repel people away from the rural areas relate to social change. Rural urban

migration has been stimulated by the prestige which the people in the rural areas attached to it and the

respect it confers on those who have been to the urban areas. Thus going to the city has become a fashion;

individuals who stays in the villages suffer a loss of status, whether or not going to the city have increased

their income. People who have never left the villages, especially the young feel inferior to the people who

have left for the city and come back to display city’s life which tends to boost the social ego of such

individual.

e. Low Income Level

The neglect of the rural areas over time has not only increased rural unemployment but has also widened

the gap between rural urban incomes. As a result, there has been an increase in rural urban drift resulting

to overpopulation of the urban areas. More so, the bane of poverty in the rural areas lies on poor capital

base and non-availability of modern farm inputs to embark on large scale farming. However, if the capital

base of the rural economy is enhanced via the provision of loan facilities with low interest rate and

introduction of modern farming implements, those who migrated would rather prefer the rural landscape

to the urban wonder land.

PULL FACTOR

These are factors that attract or stimulate a person to migrate. Some of these factors will be extensively

discussed below:

a. Economic Opportunities

The existence of low income at the place of origin and the expectations of increasing it at the place of

destination has largely influenced individual to migrate. In a number of situation, people have adapted to

prevailing low level of income but the general trend in out migration is stimulated once there are

prospects of high income elsewhere. It is well known that economic factor plays a major role in the

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decision to migrate. It has been noted that a significant and widening gap between rural and urban income

has encouraged rural urban migration to a large extent. Majority of people in the rural areas move out of

their areas to make ends meet by migrating to the urban area where all economic opportunity abound.

b. Better Social Amenities and Infrastructural Facilities

The desire for better infrastructural facilities and social amenities is another a pull factor influencing the

desire to migrate. These facilities such as; pipe borne water, electricity supply, good road network,

provision of schools, town halls, playground, fire station etc. abound in the urban areas which invariably

is lacking in the rural communities.

This factor is particularly obvious in developing countries including Nigeria, where social

amenities/services are not equitably distributed within the various regions. Consequently, many migrants

are attracted to the urban communities where these essential social amenities/infrastructural facilities are

located and provided without giving consideration to the maximum population threshold these existing

infrastructures could serve, thereby leading to shortfalls and overutilization of these infrastructures.

c. Availability Of Transportation Means

The availability of transportation means plays an important role in the stimulation of internal migration.

Virtually, everywhere in the urban centres are well serviced with road networks. These improvements in

transportation network are closely associated with the volume of migration rate in the urban areas. This

has contributed to the high traffic volume of major urban centres in the country.

Conclusively, migration is also stimulated by a variety of reasons in the rural areas such as marriage,

death of family members, presence of friends and relatives at the prospective new place of residence, etc.

however, studies in Nigeria and other parts of the developing world indicate the important role of these

factors in the migration process at the local level.

CONSEQUENCIES OF RURAL URBAN MIGRATION AND ITS PLANNING IMPLICATIONS

Migration between rural and urban areas in Nigeria has had a significant impact on both rural and urban

areas because of the numbers of people involved and the fact that most migrants consist the young, often

male, most productive members of the rural population. This implies that the rural areas from where they

came have often been left with a demographically unbalanced population of women, young children and

28

the older people. This process has affected the rural economy in the area of migration by creating a great

consequential effect and planning implications to both settlements.

The rapid growth of urban population has created great challenges in most urban centres of Nigeria. Some

of these challenges pose by migration is as follows:

1. Congestion, leading to urban squalor, housing shortage, invasion of urban open space and buffer

zone with sub-standard housing.

2. A rapid accumulation of urban waste and break down of urban infrastructures (including

transport, water and electricity).

3. Pollution of all kinds; land, water, noise and air.

4. Lack of adequate infrastructure and housing with ancillary facilities, sanitation, water supply and

open space amenities. Most of these is due to the absence of land planning statutes that

encompasses evolving functions and responsibilities of urban area.

On the other way, with respect to the areas of origin of migrants a number of consequences are also

obvious. These consequences are as follows:

1. Loss of manpower to the economy of the area of migrants’ origin.

2. The age-selectivity of the migrant population often lead to economic and social problems in the

source areas (rural area). It tend to lead to shortage of food production in the rural areas because

of labour shortage. Although, this is not a universal phenomenon. It may vary from one country

to another.

3. Out migration is known to have contributed to weakening of tribal cohesion and an undermining

of the authority of the traditional ruler and chiefs in the areas. Also, out migration of male has

influenced the prevalence of broken marriages in the source areas.

Although, the consequential effects of rural-urban migration is significantly reflected on both the sending

and receiving areas. But to a very large extent, these implication tends to be more obvious in the receiving

areas. Based on the above, detailed study of these problems will be examined as they emerged in the

urban area where internal migration trend seems to be very high.

a. Urban Sprawl and Slum Creation

In Ondo State for instance, the declaration of Akure as the capital of Ondo state in 1976, tremendously

escalated the economic and living condition of people, hence the natural increase in the population and

the steady rural-urban drift culminated to bring about acute housing problem. In response to the great

29

demand for houses, unplanned and substandard private housing districts continue to emerge in the town.

This explains why some areas in Akure Township and some other urban centres in Nigeria are

characterised by shanty dwellings, squatter settlements too small to allow for a decent family life.

There is enough evidence to conclude that slum creation remains a major feature of the inner core of most

urban areas, which remains the habitat of poor prospective migrants.

b. Inadequacy of Social Services and Infrastructures

This in fact, is the unsatisfactory state of affairs in many urban centres. Larger part of the housing

environment has been rendered unattractive for lack of basic infrastructure, like good roads, water supply,

stable electricity, recreational facilities and open spaces etc. The shortage of these facilities on the other

hand, deter liveability and on the other hand hamper the operation of government agency responsible for

housing or the private individual who wish to invest in housing provision and supply the present trend in

urbanization is likely to continue with more pressure of population on the limited facilities. Conversely,

provision of basic services and infrastructures is still envisage to staggering dimensions; as long as the

present city population escalates.

c. Poor Sanitary Environment

The conglomeration of heterogeneous individuals, in the urban areas lead to poor sanitary environment.

Several problems have been identified in the urban areas, especially the one concerning sanitation. In

most urban areas high house occupancy ratio ranging from 5 to 7 persons per room is noticeable. Majority

of the houses in the urban centres in most developing countries including Nigeria, are liable to slum lack

toilet facilities, where most of the bathrooms are located outside the main building without drainages,

likewise the roads and where drainages are provided, they are constantly blocked by indiscriminate

dumping of refuse, thereby creating swimming ponds for pigs and ducks, which harbour mosquitoes

breeding ground if not properly drained, so also the problem of flooding.

d. Traffic Congestion

The concentration of people and activities in the urban centres with the rapidly increasing number of

complexity of functions they perform coupled with the competition for space have brought about ever

increasing separation between work places and residential areas. It is apparent that majority of the roads

in our cities are in a severe state of disrepair, as a result of which there is concentration of urban traffic on

the main corridors, which sometimes may be of longer distance to individual destinations. On-street

parking and the activities of street traders and hawkers made the situation worse most often. The slow and

30

progressive delay in movement in the cities does not only reduce efficiency at work but also increases

boredom in transportation and environmental pollution.

e. Uncontrolled Intensified Land Use at the City Core

The Central Business District (CBD) in our major urban areas is a major commercial axis incorporating

the main market i.e. wholesale or warehouse, banking institutions as well as professional chambers. It is a

designated business core of high intensity where pressure from interest groups prompt many more

development projects. On account of the fact that most of these urban centres were initially pre-colonial

cities which did not undergo proper physical planning from the onset. All new development or extensions

within this core area now constitute intensified land use which indeed is a major cause of land use conflict

in our cities today.

Even though, majority of the buildings in this area are meant for residential purpose at the beginning

before such area became urbanized, many of these buildings are now used multi-purposely (especially for

residential and commercial uses). The issue of illegal redevelopment, partitioning, attachments or

building extensions and new constructions are pervasive throughout the city centre. Most of our city

centres now have other minor structures like kiosk or temporary sheds, all jam-packed along major roads.

The consequence of this is the unyielding and spurious development as well as creation of extensive high

density growth which make accessibility and habitation in grater parts of the CBD difficult.

f. High Standard of Living

Rural urban migration brings about high standard of living in the urban areas. As people migrate to the

urban areas, population would be on the increase and the rental price of houses and other commodities

will be increased. A situation where more than 30% of workers salary is spent on rent is quite unsuitable

and this is exactly what is obtainable in most urban centres.

g. Unemployment

Rural urban drift causes two folds of problems as regards employment index. First, it has immensely

contributed to unemployment in the urban areas while in the rural areas underemployment. More people

migrate to the urban areas with the hope of securing jobs where none is in existence. The available jobs

could not even cater for the existing population in the urban areas. This singular factor is responsible for

31

the ever increasing level of unemployment in the urban area and shortage of able hands (youths) in the

agricultural sector of the rural areas.

h. High Crime Rate and Anti-Social Activities

Migration has led to the increase in crime rate and anti-social activities. Many people who migrated to the

urban areas found it difficult to secure jobs for themselves and as this problem persisted for a long time,

such migrants will be frustrated and may find other illegitimate means of survival. Hence they may end

up joining armed robbery gang or other criminal activities, just to make ends meet at all cost.

Relationship between Rural and Urban settlements

The mutual relationship between the rural and urban settlements cannot be overemphasized. The

relationship exist in a symbiotic form i.e. they are inter-dependent on one another. The rural settlements

serve as the food basket for most developing countries, also they sometimes provide source of raw

materials such as rubber, timber, food crops such as cocoa, maize, cassava, groundnut etc. for most

industries located in the urban areas, these industries engage in the production of finished products

usually for local consumption and larger part of it for exports.

On the other way round, most patronage for these farm produce from the rural settlements mainly come

from the urban settlements thereby leading to sustained economy in the rural settlement. However, this

mutual relationship can only be sustained if care is taken to ensure equilibrium in terms of development in

the rural areas through the provision of social amenities such as good roads, electricity, health facilities

and domestic water supply. But unfortunately, in many developing countries including Nigeria, the urban

settlements are mostly favoured and the rural areas are neglected in terms of distribution of amenities.

Hence, the rural population is forced to migrate to the urban areas to enjoy these amenities thereby,

leading to rural-urban migration in many developing countries. Thus the consequential effects posed on

the urban areas are; over-utilization of amenities, housing problems, overcrowding, slum creation,

transportation problems, high crime rate amongst others.

Approaches to solve rural and urban inequalities

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Different research works have highlighted ways to solve the inequalities that exist between the rural and

urban settlements especially in the developing countries like Nigeria, which have further encourage rural-

urban drift. Some of these approaches will be highlighted below:

Modern agricultural development

As agriculture is known to be the economic main stay in the rural areas. Prioritisation of

agricultural development should be embraced to reduce rural-urban wages gap which usually

involve income policies to keep urban wage rate from rising and price supports for agricultural

produce to raise rural income.

Also, local equipment are still being used by the farmers in most rural communities which can

only yield little food crops, cash crops at the end of the harvest season. The use of sustainable

farm implement should be encourage in the rural areas in order to replace the old /primitive

ways of farming. This would encourage the youths to actively take part in venturing in the

agricultural sector. Farmers should also be encourage to form a co-operative societies in order to

generate the capital to use in embarking on large scale farming activities. The joint effort of the

state and federal ministries of agriculture for the establishment of farm settlements in the rural

areas should be coordinated and implemented as a policy to develop the rural communities.

Rural self-help and government aid projects

Rural self-help in community development is a strategy by which the inhabitants of the rural

community cooperatively undertake the development and rehabilitation of their neighbourhoods

or their community, using their own efforts and resources. Also, government on their part should

help the realities in the technical and financial fields to direct external assistance in the nature of

recognizing agriculture as a tool for socio-economic development. The government should also

assist to set up economic and social substructures, encouraging the establishment of different

types of co-operative society, providing the technical of the rural population. This strategy is

complimentary to government development effort, including increased social welfare schemes.

Nigeria should adopt this strategy as it is an indispensable source of economic and social

advancement.

Financing rural women farmers

In corporative societies, the men folks seems to be more active unlike the women folk. Women

are less likely to have access to adequate loan volume and the effect is striking on the household

33

and the wellbeing of the individual. There are therefore, an urgent need to evolve effective and

efficient credit system that will balance gender inequalities.

Women play pivotal role in agricultural production processing and marketing. Post-harvest

activities such as threshing, drying, storage and milling call for the use of modern equipment,

which requires high capital outlay usually beyond the reach of most rural women. Herein lies the

essence of the new concept of micro-credit scheme which should involve women groups at

various levels.

A lot of rural women farmers in the rural areas can be improved thereby educating them on

sustainable rural communities through socio-economic development strategies below:

a. Participatory rural appraisal with government making capital and manpower available

b. Improvement of existing rural women farmers’ co-operative and formation of new ones.

c. Establishment of small scale animal and food processing industries.

d. Lending of revolving loans

e. Provision of technical know-how

f. Provision of market outlet for farm produce

g. Assistance in the storage of farm produce.

Improvement of infrastructural facilities

The government faces immense challenges in improving urban infrastructures and related public

services whereas the rural communities are left behind. Some of the infrastructural facilities in

the rural areas are grossly inadequate or even not provided for. There should be an integral rural

development programme developed by government designed to reduce rural-urban drift through

the provision of social services such as transport, electrification, education, health facilities and

standard housing in the rural areas. It is believed that many migrants from the rural communities

move to the urban areas because of these facilities, thus they will be forced to remain in the rural

areas once these basic infrastructures are in place. More so, continued privatization and policies

that will promote private funding of some ventures, such as rural water supply, rural

electrification, waste disposal management and housing provision that will be affordable must be

put in place.

Provision of employment opportunities

At the more general level, there should also be an all embracing rural development programme

by the government that will generate employment opportunities for the rural dwellers in Nigeria.

The purpose of such development programme is to raise income relative to those in urban areas

34

which. However, employment opportunities will abound in the rural areas through the

establishment of agro-allied industries with the optimum use of natural resources in such rural

community so as to assure the inhabitants an improved constant income generation.

Improvement in industrial development

Government at all levels and private organizations should develop the spirit of commitment and

endeavour to establish industries that can process local materials which should enhance

productively considerably. For instance, the establishment of industries like ethanol factory in

Igbesa because of its status as a cultivator of cassava. As it is known that ethanol is the cheapest

source of alcohol for pharmaceutical companies and also distilling industries. All these

industries can be introduce to the rural system, since the source of raw material, which is cassava

is readily available for prospective industries. Provision of some industries such as cocoa

processing industry, textile industries, distilling industries, cassava processing industries etc. can

serve as a complimentary source of livelihood to provide succour for the rural population whose

daily yawning is to seek employment in the urban areas.

This development will encourage farmers to have great interest in farming activities and will

equally encourage the teeming youths to stay in their places of origin. Small or medium scale

industries in the rural areas should be supported and upgraded by the government through loans

for further expansion thereby creating massive employment for the rural population.

Decentralization of industries

The localization of industries which is the concentration of large numbers of industries in a

particular place especially in the urban areas is one of the factor attributed to the ‘pull factors’

that resulted to the inequalities. Government at all levels should try all means for possible

relocation of some industries to other rural areas such that it can reduce the proportion of the

rural migrants moving to the urban areas. By so doing the problem of rural urban area

inequalities will be considerably reduced.

Decentralization of government administrative offices

Administrative decentralization of government office to local areas should be adopted which is

good mechanism to reduce congestion in the major administrative capitals. Since majority of the

government offices are concentrated in the major urban centres (CBD). This is a strategy of

redistributing population to selected growth centres.

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Adherence to town planning regulations and formulation of internal migration policies

Since the impact of migration is felt on the physical environment and the socio-economic

situation of both the sending and receiving areas. These should be an articulated measures to

control the physical environment of the urban area. Town planning regulations such as creation

of green belts around cities, zoning laws, land use and density control should be used to curtail

and rationalise urban growth posed by rural urban migration. Also, the land use Decree of 1978

has the potential to significantly improve the efficiency of land use in both rural and urban areas.

More importantly, there should be the formulation of internal migration policies to some

selected areas since migration cannot be out rightly stopped. These policies should be designed

to modify or guide the spatial distribution of population. The indirect policies affecting the

pattern of rural-urban migration are quite varied. Some major ones include efforts to narrow the

rural urban wage inequality; attempt to increase the relative disposition of public services in

rural service in rural areas regional development and general town planning principle of

sustainable development for settlement (rural and urban).

LOCATION OF SETTLEMENTS

The location and growth of a settlement depended upon its site and situation. The site factor is the actual

place where people decided to locate their settlement. The growth of that settlement then depended upon

its situation factor in relation to accessibility and availability of natural resources to ease the lives of the

settlers.

Site Factors: these include the below:

reliable water supply

away from flood risks

defence

building materials (stone or wood)

fertile land

sheltered from winds

fuel supply (wood)

south-facing slope (aspect)

flat land, easy to build on

natural harbour

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Situation Factors: these includes the below

route centre i.e. (nodal point) that joins other settlement

gap town

lowest bridging point on a river port

and minerals for export

URBANIZATION

Urbanization: - is the process of change from rural to urban population. Most cities in developing

countries are unplanned which later resulted to slums within the urban areas of most developing

countries.

Major problems of urban areas in developing countries are:

1. Economic Problems:

a) Over urbanization or the uncontrolled urbanization in developing countries is due to large-scale

in-migration of rural people.

b) Decreasing employment opportunities in the rural as well as smaller urban areas has caused large

scale rural to urban migration.

c) The huge migrant population in urban areas creates stagnation and generates a pool of unskilled

and semi-skilled labour force.

d) Urban areas suffer from shortage of housing, transport, health and civic amenities.

e) A large number of people live in substandard housing i.e. slums and squatter settlements or on the

streets.

f) Illegal settlements called squatter settlement are growing as fast as the city.

1. Socio-cultural Problems :

Cities in the developing countries suffer from several social ills.

a) Inadequate social infrastructure and basic facilities is due to lack of financial resources and over-

population in the cities.

b) The available educational and health facilities remain beyond the reach of the urban poor.

c) Cities suffer from poor health conditions.

d) Lack of employment and education tends to aggravate the crime rates.

e) Male selective migration to the urban areas distorts the sex ratio in these cities.

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2. Environmental Problems :

a) The large urban population in developing countries uses and disposes off a huge quantity of water

and all types of waste materials.

b) Many cities of the developing countries do not provide the minimum required quantity of

drinkable water and water for domestic and industrial uses.

c) An improper sewerage system creates unhealthy conditions.

d) Massive use of traditional fuel in the domestic as well as the industrial sector severely pollutes

the air.

e) The domestic and industrial wastes are either let into the general sewerages or dumped without

treatment at unspecified locations.

f) Huge concrete structures of buildings create heat in the city environment.

Measures to be taken to ease the problems of urban areas in developing countries

Major problem of urban areas is the large-scale immigration of rural people. It is due to high population

growth than the generation of employment and economic opportunities in rural areas.

i. It is urgent to eradicate rural poverty to bring about equilibrium in the living standards of both the

urban and rural area

ii. Improve the quality of living conditions as well as create employment and educational

opportunities in rural areas.

iii. Balance must be created between rural and urban areas in their different economic, social and

environmental conditions.

STUDY OF SOME NIGERIA SELECTED SETTLEMENTS

The discussion on concept, pattern and growth of some Nigeria selected settlements will be viewed from

two (2) broad scope of rural urban settlement. Despite the rapid rate of urbanization in Nigeria within the

last three decades, the country is still dominated by rural settlements which probably accommodate some

80% of the population. But the rural settlement could be arranged in a kind of ranking order from

dispersed compounds which enclosures are containing probably the houses of a man, his wives and

brothers to hamlets separated by vegetation and villages representing group of hamlets occupied by some

origin usually between the populations of 1,000-5,000.

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The rural settlement pattern varies across the Nigeria geographical configuration (boundary); these may

be partly due to historical, cultural, economic and ecological factors. However, in the southern forest zone

of Nigeria, 5 types of rural settlement can be identified. These include: nucleated villages, small walled

villages, hamlets/fishing camps, dispersed rural settlements and satellite farm villages.

1. Nucleated Rural Settlement

These types of rural settlements is marked with close developments of dwelling/buildings forming

clusters that varies across the southern belt. With different factors affecting its morphology, some of them

were found in Ogoja and its environs, others are found in the Niger/Delta area. In the Ogoja nucleated

villages it is common to see small but highly nucleated villages, their houses are grouped into compound

on either side of one/two narrow streets while in Owerri compounds are grouped in a circle so that their

walls formed a continuous outer screen in the centre of the circle. Also, in the Niger/Delta area there are

different compound pattern found. Here, nucleated villages are characterized by clustering on few areas

of dry land above flood level and the ethnic affinity encourage by fisherman and trader influence the

cluster

2. Moderately Dispersed/ Small Walled Villages

This is mostly common in the Igbo land of Akwensa in Nsuka division. It consist of scattered, small but

defensively walled villages. Settlements here are often separated by patches, compound land, and oil palm

field or fallow land.

3. Hamlets and Fishing Camps

This is found predominantly in the coastal strip fronting Bight of Benin mostly occupied by the Ijaws

ethnic group. They are made up of people who engaged in sea fishing and also the Ilajes. These people

often settle in small hamlets and fishing camps along the coastal sand while the Igbos and the Urhobos

among them do grow cassava and garden of oil palm trees. These settlements are temporary very small

sometimes accommodating 10-15 people.

4. Dispersed Settlement

The dispersed settlements types are usually product of gradual disintegration of nucleated settlement, may

be brought about by the increasing in demand of farm land population growth. This type of settlement

pattern is mostly common in the Igbo and the Ibibio, Afiko, Delta and Eket area.

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5. Satellite Farm Villages and Hamlets

These can be found in the entire area of the highly urbanized of the Yoruba land, because of the dominant

cash crop in these area e.g. cocoa. And because of the highly urbanized area, it is common the cocoa farm

land are often sited at substantial distances from the settlement centre. But in order to reduce the cost of

transport and time expended in travelling between towns and farms, many hamlets and villages have

emerged at the farm. With settlers visiting their main urban centre’s/villages during festive periods

commonly with the Ondo and Osun areas.

However, in the northern savannah part of Nigeria, two broad categories of rural settlement were found.

They include nucleated and dispersed settlement. The nucleated form of settlements are found in the

Hausa area and dominated by old nucleated villages with dispersed compound. The old nucleated villages

were usually walled for defence purposes. Beyond the walled villages are hamlets of several compounds

and far beyond there is the isolated compound. Nucleated form of settlement is common in the Nupe land

in the south western savannah. The Kanuri are on the north eastern savannah.

The dispersed settlement types are seen in the Tivi land where they open grazing landscape. The area is

dotted with neatly thatched farm stead usually set within trees and in the midst of farm land. This

settlement pattern is also found in the Idoma land.

Urban settlements in Nigeria

These will be discussed under 3 broad subdivision using case studies as highlighted by M.A.O Ayeni:

1. Traditional cities, Modern Cities and Traditional Modern Cities

Traditional cities: Maiduguri, Sokoto, Oyo and Badagry

Modern cities: Jos, Kaduna, Aba, Portharcourt, Enugun, Markurdi and Kafanchan

Traditional modern cities: Ibadan, Kano, Benin and Zaria

A. Traditional cities

1. MAIDUGURI:

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Maiduguri is a traditional city with population close to 150,000 in the 80’s. It is the capital of Borno

State, despite the decline of the Borno Empire; Maiduguri-Yerwa grew rapidly after 1908 when it was

chosen by lord Lugard as the administrative headquarters of Borno.

Overtime, Maiduguri emerged as a commercial centre because it has been enhanced by the creation of

railway links with Lagos and Portharcourt in 1964. Although recent insecurity situation in the region has

eroded this status. Maiduguri towns reveal a typical Hausa/Fulani urban centre with the Emir palace in the

centre of the town together with the chief mosque and an open space called Dandan. This open space is

often used for religious ceremonies and Durban (where the Knights of Borno parade on their bravely

decorated horses). New developments are found in the out-skirt of the town to the south are the market

and Motor Park and beyond it lies the Government Reservation Area (GRA) separated from the old city

by wide open spaces which is now a zoological garden.

Like Kano, Maiduguri is cosmopolitan centre with the communities of Chadians, Syrians and the

Sudanese and all other Arabs. Furthermore, the establishment of the University of Maiduguri has

enhanced the influence of the town as an educational centre.

2. BADAGRY:

Badagry the 10,000 population stands as one of the Yoruba towns which has experience great change of

fortune in the past 400 years. The town lies 65km west of Lagos, and was an important town during the

slave trade period when ships do anchor on shore to collect slaves. Richard lancer visited Badagry in

1827 to put an end to slave trade.

When the slave trade stopped finally, many missionaries including Bishop Ajayi Crowder passed there

and established stations at Badagry with high business in oil palm and expanding his missionary work.

The peace experience a boom in economy and development in the first half of the 19th century, but with

the defeat of King Kosoko and the British took over Lagos in 1851. Ships no longer anchor at Badagry

and thus the decline of Badagry for 100 years. But in the past 6 decades, Badagry is been re-awake and it

is fast becoming a tourist centre and a dormitory town for the city of Lagos which is now linked by the

Lagos-Badagry expressway. It also serves a purpose of a nodal town that links other African countries

such as the Republic of Benin, Ghana and Togo etc.

B. Modern Cities

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The modern cities are new to Nigeria, having been founded in direct response to administrative and

economic initiatives of the colonial administration. Examples of these modern cities are Kaduna, Jos, and

Aba etc.

1. KADUNA (Modern city):

Kaduna was founded in 1917 along river Kaduna by lord Lugard as the administrative centre of the

Protectorate of the Northern Nigeria, where the Kaduna River was crossed by the Lagos-Kano railway. It

was seen as a convenient site than the previous centre at Lokoja and Zungeru. Kaduna developed because

of the colonial economy in 1927; it became a major rail junction. Subsequently, Kaduna became the

regional headquarter of the Northern Nigeria in 1954, Kaduna has since grown to be a major commercial,

industrial and administrative centre and now the state capital of Kaduna state.

The population of Kaduna arose from mere 3,000 in 1919 to 150,000 in 1963. Kaduna north was the seat

of the Europeans and commercial, administrative, educational and military institution zone till today. On

the south lies a gridiron pattern of settlement with the Sabongeri zone inhabited by lower class workers.

Furthermore, the main industrial estate is located in Kaduna south. Kaduna stands as a major industrial

centre for textile mills, beer and soft drink, pulp and paper industries etc. Also, a Peugeot automobile

assembly plant began to function in 1975.

Then, the population analysis of Kaduna shows that 36% of the labour force engages in manufacturing,

another 30% in commerce. But in recent times, some of these manufacturing outfits had been out of

existence due to changes in government policies.

2. ABA :

Aba is a city that owes its origin to the functional transformation of the pre-colonial village into an

administrative headquarters of various political units created during the colonial period. When railway

came in 1915; the nodal position of Aba was strengthened and improved. In recent years, large

commercial companies have exploited the location advantages of the city to site their headquarters. Aba

grows rapidly from a small village in the early part of the century; Aba has about 57,787 populations in

1952 and increased to 350,000 in 1978. The town grows up around an old nucleus now called the Aba

market.

Over the years the pattern of growth was along the three major roads (Owerri, Portharcourt and Ekot-

Ekpeme), that converged on the city commercial and industrial centre. The city industrial estate is located

to the railway, to the north of the city where most of its educational institution are located. Industries in

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Aba are; soap making, textile mills, food processing etc. Aba has 25% of its labour force in the industrial

sector and 60% in regional and inter-regional commerce.

3. Traditional/ Modern Cities

The impact of colonial activities in Nigeria traditionally important cities especially those that were not

fortunate enough to be located on the new transport network led to the creation of “twin cities’’ (1)

traditional and (2) modern e.g. Ibadan.

The traditional city is usually surrounded by defensive walls with the Emir’s or Oba’s Palace as well as

market are located in the centre. Beyond this the modern cities is symbolised by high class residential

areas, new administrative and industrial estate which normally constitute a back log to an essentially

urban civilization e.g. Ibadan, Kano Benin etc.

IBADAN:

Ibadan has grown from a small 19 th century war camp to African most populous indigenous city. With a

population of about a million around 80’s and an urbanized area of nearly 390km 2, the setting of the city

reflect the traditional culture of the Yoruba’s. The old city formerly surrounded by walls is built around

the southern extreme of a long quartzite ridge and essentially an area of crafts and focus of hinterland

agricultural practices at the outskirt.

For historical reasons, the earliest industrial establishment were located in the older section of the city and

so the old Ibadan is today characterized by mixtures of residential structures and industrial and continuous

strips of long shops along major roads and subsequently, industrial units sprang up in the outskirt of

settled area.

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HOUSING STUDIES

Basic Concepts in Housing

The term housing has been viewed and conceptualised in different way by different authors. Many

Writer’s viewed housing as an important component of human settlement, which render tremendous

services to humanity. Its conception has therefore transcended the conservative view of four walls and a

roof structure meant to protect men from the elements of weather (Jinadu, 1995).

Housing is viewed as a “bundle of services or a basket of goods which include the physical structure

itself, the ancillary facilities and services within and around it, as well as the general environmental

qualities and amenities that surround the building’’ Igwe, (1987) sees the concept of housing as the total

environment of man and further argue that housing represents an extended womb during the formative

years of child’s physical, psychological, educational and emotional development. This view suggests that

housing is the maker of human identity, which determine the success of a man in life.

The totality of ideas and views expressed about what housing entails brought out two clear definitional

dimensions of the term housing.

First, housing is seen as an economic process and product. Second, it is also seen as a social symbol.

Housing as an economic process:

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Turner (1976) describe housing as the ways and means by which housing goods and services are

produced through the interactive construction process of land acquisition, housing finance mobilization,

material assemblage and the actual construction.

Housing as an economic product:

This represents the commodity traded in the housing market. Housing stands as a product of investment

and a means of income generation.

Housing as a social symbol:

This expressed the importance attached to housing as a product. It emphasises the fact that every member

of a society desire to own a house as a source of prestige, self-recognition and self-respect.

In conclusion, the various definitions and conceptions given to housing shows it as an important and

indispensable element of human settlement. Housing is therefore seen as a basic human need as well as

social requirements. Housing comes next to food and clothing. Housing is in fact, recognised as a basic

right by the United Nations Article25 (1) of universal declaration of human right. It is a product that must

be provided for all to ensure good life and security.

THE ROLE OF HOUSING IN THE NATIONAL ECONOMY

The innovation for housing is not only social but also for economic purpose. Housing can be viewed in

the context of overall national development in relation to the following:

1. Urban improvement

2. Improved standard of living

3. Protection against all the element of weather such as rain, sun, wind etc.

4. Generation of employment opportunities

5. Establishment and expansion of building industries

6. Family income increased

7. Increase in voluntary savings

8. Increase taxes

9. Demand for household and domestic consumer goods increases.

10. Housing could stand as a security and collateral to acquire loan form financial institution(banks)

Merits of housing

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It enhances the political status and the popularity of the government involved in housing provision.

a. Improve the standard of living of the people.

b. It is a catalyst to national development

c. It leads to the generation of employment opportunities

d. It leads to social development and foster interaction between people of different ethnic groups

e. It leads to geographical distribution of population

f. It leads to the location of industrial, commercial and agricultural activities.

Demerits of housing

a. It is capital intensive

b. The financial return is slow and low sometimes

c. It leads to class segregation

d. It increases land value

e. It reduces the quantities of available land for other human activities e.g. agricultural

f. It leads to fragment litigation on land dispute

Housing need

Housing need refers to the inadequacy of the provision of accommodation when compared with the

socially acceptable norm. In other words, housing need is the extent to which the quality of the existing

residential accommodation falls short of that required by households. To express it in a simple term, the

housing need of a nation, state or city is the difference between the total numbers of household and

number of dwellings supplied. In same vein, Robinson, (1997) sees housing need as an expression of

human desire for decent and affordable accommodation. It is the quantity of housing that is required to

provide accommodation of an agreed minimum standard for a population of a given size, household

composition, age distribution, etc., without taking into account the individual household’s ability to pay

for the housing assigned to it.

Terms peculiar to housing conditions

There are many problems affecting houses which necessitated renewal process. These poor situations

come under different terminologies as discussed below:

Urban slum: This is an area of urban blight usually requiring clearing or re-building as the most effective

corrective measure. It is also a poor, dirty, crowded area in urban centres that lacks basic infrastructures.

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Urban blight: This is described as a condition in a part of urban area or the whole of an urban area which

because of premature obsolesce and physical deterioration or other factors has become undesirable or

impossible for normal development or redevelopment to take place. Urban blight ranges from simple to

complex which is of three main types:

1. Physical

2. Social and

3. Economic blight.

There are several causes of physical urban blight:

(i) structural deterioration (ii) lack / deterioration of amenities (iii) lack of sanitary facilities (iv) poor

maintenance of structures and lack of access roads which depreciates the housing values (v) high

environmental influences such as pollution (noise, air and water).

Social urban blight include: (i) abnormal high rate of juvenile delinquency, (ii) divorce (iii) break down of

social norms (iii) spread of venereal diseases (iv) high crime rate e.tc.

Economic blight includes:

(i) high depreciation of property value (ii) high incidence of building vacancies (iii) concentration of tax

evaders, dodgers and avoidance of tax in particular location.

Urban squalid: This is an unkempt and an untidy environment. It is an area in which all elements of

pollution such as noise, air, water; visual and other physical hazards are present.

Squatter settlement: These are developments in an area occupied by people who do not have legal rights

to occupy these areas. Most buildings here are shanty structures built with plastics, rubber sheets etc.

Urban sprawl: This is a formless dispersal of congested urban area with little or no regard for inter-

relationship of factors such as: transportation, employment, health and recreation needs.

Sub-urban development: These are additional development in an area that takes place on the fringes of

the urban and metropolitan centres.

Some Housing concepts

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Housing supply

This is the quantity of housing units available at the housing market at appoint in time and at a given

price. The supply of housing is affected by the population size, construction cost; state of economy, etc.

housing supply is demand responsive.

Housing demand

Housing demand has an economic connotation. Two aspects of housing demand are recognised. The first

one is what generally refers to as “effective demand’’ which expresses a desire for housing. In other

words, it is the number of households which have the ability to pay for housing at a pre- determined price

or rent. The second refers to an “ineffective demand’’ which express an equal desire for housing but in

the case the household does not have the economic ability to satisfy this desire. However, it is important

to conduct a housing survey to determine the proportion of the population which can afford housing at a

predetermined price or rent i.e. effective demand.

Housing market

This is a place or a continuum where the units in standard stock are in close chain of substitution. It is a

market for the exchange of housing products and it is characterized by numerous buyers/renters and

sellers/landlords. This is usually large depending on the level of conception.

Housing habitability

The concept of habitability is the degree of satisfaction that is derived by tenants or residents from his

place of abode. However, to evaluate housing habitability, several approaches can be adopted and this is

based on the user’s reaction. One of the approaches used to determine housing habitability is the system

approach. This concept looks interweaves the reactions of four main subsystem namely; the tenant (man),

shelter (dwelling), the environment and the institutional management (managerial arrangement).

Housing affordability

In order to define housing affordability, we need to draw attention back to the concept of effective

demand and ineffective demand as explained above. Consequently, housing affordability can be defined

as the number of households which has the ability to pay for housing at a predetermined price or rent. In

other words housing affordability is the effective housing demand. The concept of housing affordability

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emanates from the fact that everybody wants a house but not everyone can afford to pay for the cost to

build or even rent a house.

Housing gentrification

This is the wide spread emergence of middle and upper class residences or enclaves in the formerly

deteriorating inner city neighbourhood. This is a situation in which the old and dilapidated structures in

the inner city gives way to more modern buildings through the process of invasion by succession.

Housing policy

Policy can be defined as a plan or course of action in directing affairs on a particular issue, especially

those that are made by the government. Housing policy can therefore be refers to as the series of

statements of intensions, ideas, action plans, philosophies put forward by government to address and

solve housing problems of the citizens of a particular country. For instance, the Nigerian housing policy is

a document that contains the thoughts, aims, objectives, actions, strategies and programmes of the

government toward solving her housing problems.

The federal Republic of Nigeria housing policy of February, 1991 is an example of such document called

housing policy. The goal of a country housing policy has to do with the peculiarity of housing problems

the country in question is facing. Ideally a good housing policy should seek to provide and attain adequate

housing for every citizen in the country in a good environment and at an affordable price. There is need

to say a nation housing policy depend on historical background, general economic policy, political set up,

population and financial resources amongst others.

Housing administration

In housing administration, the administrative machinery may take the form of political and technical

institutions that enables legislations and regulatory instruments to harness the available resources

(housing). Housing administration and management is the responsibilities of the three level of

government (federal, state and local).

At the federal level, housing administration lies in the care of: LEDB in 1928, NBS 1956; NCH 1971;

FHA 1973, FMUDE 1975; FMWH 1985; FMH & UD 2003. Where at the state level, there are regional

Housing Corporation & state housing and property corporations between 1960 and 1979. State Housing

Corporation in 1980 in each state of the federation. At the local government level, we have LPA in 1946.

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Housing delivery

This is a function of multiple actors who plays different roles to ensure that houses get to the citizens

Housing development

This is a long process involving activities ranging from land assemblage to the actual construction of

buildings, where each of these activities involve policy formulation, strategy development, plans and

programmes implementations etc. which require institutional framework for management.

Housing design

This is an important primary step in the process of housing provision. It determines the success or failure

of any housing project. It must therefore be well conceptualized and actualise to provide the necessary

services and satisfaction for the users.

Housing redevelopment

This involves the maintenance and physical reconstruction of houses and facilities in deteriorated areas of

human settlements. This however can also be refers to as urban renewal which is a very popular method

of maintaining the long standing structures in the housing stock. This method is adopted by different past

and present governments of Nigeria. For instance, the on-going urban renewal exercise within Abeokuta

and some other states of the federation.

Housing maintenance

This can be described as a periodic renovation exercise performed on public or private buildings in order

to keep them in their original or desired form. Maintenance is an important aspect of the building process,

which is aimed at avoiding decay, thereby expanding the life span of buildings. This process involves the

preservation of building infrastructures to prevent obsolesce through proper routine repairs on both

physical structure and supporting services. Consequently, most traces of urban decay/slums in some of

developing countries including Nigeria is because of lack of Maintenance culture on the part of the

government and the private house owners.

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Housing cooperatives

This is defined as a society, which corporately owns a group of houses, or flats in which each member

occupies a dwelling. In the same vein, it is a collection of like-minded individuals who are interested in

housing. Most organizations forms a housing corporation within themselves to ease the rigorous means of

owning a house for instance, the NUJ housing estate at Arepo, Ogun state, is a good example.

Housing survey

Survey generally is carried out to expose range of core topics depending on the survey broad and specific

objectives through the collection of relevant data as it affect the topic at hand. Such information gotten

from these surveys can form important indicators to inform and monitor development policies. Survey

can be carried out through questionnaire and interview method depending on the depth of information the

researcher wants.

Haven said that, there are different types of housing survey. It could cover the realm of housing types,

material components, ancillary services within and outside the house, housing prices and rent, building

condition and density surveys. In other words, housing survey is usually carried out within the confine of

the housing problems peculiar to the case study. These problems can be qualitative, quantitative,

psychological or socio-cultural as earlier mentioned.

HOUSING STANDARDS

The word standard can be defined as the level or degree of quality considered proper or excellent, correct

and acceptable. It is something fixed as a rule for measuring weight, valuable purity, and quality etc.

There are different standards used by different establishment. In Town planning particularly in housing

construction, it is the responsibility of Town Planning Authority to control land use and since housing is a

major land use (i.e. residential land-use), then it implies that town planning authorities in collaboration

with their agencies should form housing standard. Generally speaking, all standards in Urban and

Regional Planning falls under what we call space standard. There is for instance, space standards for

residential land use, industrial, facilities, utilities and all other land uses.

Determinants of housing standards

The following are some of the determinants when setting housing standards. These are:

1. Culture

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2. Population

3. Climatic variation

4. General land use pattern and availability of land

5. Topography

6. Available technology in building industries

7. The general level of development

8. Political structure.

Generally, standards that are related to housing can be of different categories. It should be noted

therefore, that various Town Planning Authorities in the country adopt their own different standards, each

according to the determinants mentioned above. These standards are based on Town Planning Laws

modified to suit local conditions. The building adoptive bye-law for example provides useful guides for

defining housing minimum standard.

The primary aim of setting housing standards

1. To protect the interests of other people from being abused

2. To ensure safety

3. To ensure healthy living

4. To ensure privacy

5. To discourage misuse

6. To ensure orderliness

COMMON HOUSING TYPES IN NIGERIA

Houses in different parts of the world or within a given economy differ in many respects. The differences

are often accounted for by variability in location setting e.g. climate, weather and topography, economic

and socio-cultural background.

Generally, housing could be categorised depending on location, physical structure tenure or mode of

ownership, main building material components, functions performed and mode of production. Based on

all these criteria, the different types of housing include:

1. Housing based on location and setting:

In order to discuss this, we will look at it from the two settlement types.

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Rural housing

These are houses that are located within the rural are and they are usually characterised by simplicity of

design structure and the use of local building materials such as mud, raffia palm bamboo and wood.

Meanwhile, in the context of most developing countries, rural houses are mostly characterised by the

absence or inadequacy of basic services such as pipe borne water and sanitary facilities etc.

Urban housing

These are houses located in the urban areas. They are in most case characterised by modern design and

the use of modern building materials. However, elements of simplicity of structure and materials may be

found especially in the case of old houses in the city core areas and informal housing on urban marginal

lands.

2. Housing types based on ownership structure:

Private housing

These are houses managed and owned by private individuals in the society. These private houses

accounted for the bulk of housing stock in most economies.

Public housing

These are houses constructed and owned by public outfits such as government and its agencies e.g.

Amuwo Odofin low cost housing estate Lagos, Ijapo housing estate, Akure and so on.

Co-operative housing

These are houses owned and managed by corporative societies. They are products of private corporative

efforts. Individuals who belongs to this society owns the right to occupy this apartments built by the

corporative society by the virtue of having bought shares in the corporation and by paying his shares of

charges usually for building maintenance, services and repairs.

Community housing

These are houses owned by the a particular community example of such houses include community town

halls and guest inns, such houses may be constructed through community effort or built by community

based organization (CBOs) and town unions.

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3. Housing types based on structure, design or layout

Single detached housing

These are houses which are independent completely of any other structure. The garage may be located

within the house or in a separate structure. Detached houses are generally owner-occupied and maybe one

or two storey building.

Semi-detached housing

These are one or two-family houses, with a common wall between houses. They are characterised by

separate and independent entrances. Semi-detached houses are similar to the detached ones but are

located on a smaller lot; also the construction cost in semi-detached houses is cheaper than in single

detached house but it provides for less privacy.

Multiple row housing

These are roomy apartments found mainly in many cities and rural settlements in Nigeria. In multiple row

housing, common walls are used on both sides of row houses for economy, they are narrow in shape to

maximise the numbers of units in a row and are cheaper to build. A typical row housing may contain 8-14

rooms separated by a narrow lobby. This is also called the Brazilian type of building.

4. Housing types based on internal composition/height

Bungalow housing

This is the type of house which is all on one level and it is a type of house that is characterised by Low–

lying structure on the ground without upper floor(s). A bungalow type of building could be a detached,

semi-detached or row housing and it is most common type of residential house found in most towns and

cities of developing countries.

Low-rise housing

These are single floor e.g. (duplexes) or two to three storey buildings, which may be detached, semi-

detached or rooming apartments.

High rise building

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These are normally constructed in built-up areas of urban centres e.g. the CBDs due to land shortage and

cost. They range from 5-40 stories with lot coverage less than the low rise type. This is characterised by

elevators to ease up and down movement of people, they are referred to as apartment houses and they

provide common parks, playgrounds, shops and community centre for users. Examples are 1004 housing

estate in Lagos, cocoa house in Ibadan, UBA, UNION, FIRST Bank, etc. building in Lagos.

5. Housing types based on building materials

Wooden house are mainly constructed with wood

Mud house are constructed with mud

Brick house this are houses constructed with bricks

Block house houses constructed with block

HOUSING SITUATION IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES (NIGERIA)

The housing problems in Nigeria are numerous and are characterised by regional variations. This can be

seen particularly in terms of urban and rural difference. A number of studies have shown that

considerable numbers of housing problems exist both in the rural and urban settlement. There are

different dimensions of housing problems peculiar to both urban and rural settlement. However, in the

urban settlements, the housing problems are quantitative and qualitative, while in the rural areas there is a

qualitative housing problem. The rapid urbanization has characterised most developing countries and this

has been so since 1950s. The rapid urban growth in most developing countries is due to high birth rate

and high rural urban drift. This consequently has resulted in shortfall in housing; that is supply of housing

could not cater for the urban population which in turns resulted to overcrowding and other environmental

issues.

The situation above can be seen in most of our urban centres in Nigeria. About 50% live in a single room

in most Nigeria urban centres Ozo (1991). The fourth national development plan (1980-1985) asserts that

Nigeria needs about 300,000 housing units on an annual basis to overcome this housing deficit. This

statement is an indication that there is housing shortage. As earlier pointed out, housing shortfalls result to

overcrowding and overcrowding in turns erodes human privacy and encourages encroachments on

environmental amenities.

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Housing shortfall also lead to high rent in accommodation in our cities. For example, a room now goes

for between 2,000 and 3,000 Naira in Lagos. To worsen the whole problem is the collaboration of the

Estate Agents and landlords demanding for the payment of 2-3 years house rent with an agreement fee

and 10% estate agent fee. For the flat apartment, prices go from 200,000 Naira to as high as 1 million

Naira (P/A) depending on the area and taste.

Because of this high cost of rent, inaccessibility to land and loan, there is the formation of slum, sprawl

and squatter settlements, which has become visible throughout the country. However, all these problems

pose a negative effect on the environment at large i.e. on health and their productivity of the people.

Causes of housing problems

Broad generalizations of causes of housing problems include:

1. Rural urban migration

2. Increase in population as a result of high fertility rate and low mortality rate

3. Economic recession which hinders housing supply

4. Lack of access to land

5. Lack of mortgage facilities

6. High cost of building construction materials

7. Bureaucratic delays by planning authorities and delay in plan approval etc.

Categories of housing problems

Housing problems can be broadly categorised under four headings:

1. Qualitative housing problem

2. Quantitative housing problem

3. Psychological housing problem

4. Socio-cultural housing problem

Qualitative housing problem

This category of housing problem exists as the most obvious housing problems. The reason why it is so is

that, most settlements especially the urban settlements are characterised with buildings of poor qualities.

The techniques used in construction is poor, likewise there are poor planning and design principles;

coupled with this problem is the absence or poor infrastructural and social amenities such as; water

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supply, road, electricity, schools, hospitals, and markets etc. This category of housing problem has to do

with the quality of structure/buildings within a settlement.

The physical appearance of houses in some of these settlements wear blistering looks while most of the

door and window fittings are worn out with poor sanitary facilities, leaking roofs, falling shutters and

sagging casements etc.

Quantitative housing problem

As the name suggests, this category of housing problem has to do with the shortage or shortfall in housing

supply compared to the total demand. In other words, when the total number of houses provided fails to

cater for the total population of a given settlement. Housing shortages overtime can lead to other

problems.

Psychological housing problem

This is another category of housing problem that has to do with deprivation or neglect. Most of our cities

have two towns in one, by this; we have the core, planned and semi-planned areas. Some researchers have

argued that people living in the unplanned core areas of our cities usually feel bad about where they are

living and they develop some sort of psychological problem for this.

For instance, people that reside in poorly built houses or under the bridge develop psychological problem

as a result of where they are living. They are of low income, low education, they lack opportunity to earn

a decent way of life, they feel less privileged. All these psychological effects on people have impact on

their housing desire. Thus another consequence for this is the increase in crime rate and other vices.

Socio-cultural problem

This category of housing problem has many variables that are attached to it. These variables includes

taste, value, culture, tradition, education, labour cost and attachment to family house amongst others. All

these may one way or the other cause housing problem in a particular settlement. However, it is pertinent

to key in these variables when planning, constructing and providing houses for the people.

Some suggested solutions to housing problems

Overtime, many solutions and suggestions to housing problems has been proffered by different

researcher’s works books, conferences and seminars. Some of these solutions are outlined below:

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Land should be made available for people to build.

Financial institutions should be made accessible. Banks, mortgage institution, housing

Corporations should be ready to render assistance.

Financial institutions should make interest rate on housing load more relaxed to attract more

people to build.

The use and introduction of local building materials should be introduced to reduce cost of

building.

Introduction of planning scheme and site and services scheme to make land available to

prospective developers.

Establishment of more co-operative housing societies.

Companies should provide their workers with houses and should acquire land to build houses for

their workers on owner-occupier basis.

There should be a legislative mechanism that should be in place, to curb the excesses of estate

agents and dubious landlords. If possible government should re-introduce rent tribunal.

The government at all levels (federal, state and local) should invest in the provision of houses.

They should rather see housing provision as part of their socio and welfare responsibilities to the

people and not for economic gains.

People’s culture should be considered when formulating housing policies, construction and

provision of housing. This has not been factored in by past and present governments and has led

to the failure of addressing housing problems.

Some past research work shows that some housing estate (especially the low cost housing

Estates) in the country are in deplorable condition. Government should correct the deplorable

state of these houses to improve their standards also public enlightenment and awareness should

be adopted so as to effect a positive attitude in the use of some facilities within the houses and

imbibe maintenance culture.

PLANNED AND SPONTANEOUS SETTLEMENTS

Planned settlement as the name implies, means a settlement which is developed through deliberate effort

of both public and private developer to provide habitable housing units with all ancillary facilities within

the houses and also infrastructural facilities/social facilities such as good roads, water supply, electricity,

schools, market, hospital etc. the occupiers of these settlement possess legal claims to the land and/or

permission from the concerned authorities to build.

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On the other way, let us examine a spontaneous settlement. The definition of a spontaneous settlement

varies widely from country to country and depends on a variety of defining parameters. In general, it is

considered as a residential area in an urban locality inhabited by the very poor who have no access to

tenured land of their own, and hence "squat" on vacant land, either private or public. There are a number

of names by which squatter settlement are described by various authors, which highlight the attitudes and

approaches towards them, ranging from a positive to neutral to negative outlook. These are:

Informal settlements

Low-income settlements

Semi-permanent settlements

Shanty towns

Squatter settlements

Unauthorized settlements

Unplanned settlements

Uncontrolled settlements

For the millions of poor in developing areas of the world, urban areas have always been a means for

improving their quality of living and environment, besides getting better jobs and incomes. This, in

contrast to deteriorating conditions in the rural areas has generated a considerable flow of migrants to

cities, particularly in the last three decades. Priorities of urban migrants change over time, depending on

various conditions that they find themselves. But one of the first dilemmas that they face and which

persists for a long period, is the question of an adequate house.

With little resources, financial or otherwise, skills or access to them, the drastic option of illegally

occupying a vacant piece of land to build a rudimentary shelter is the only one available to them. The

problem is further compounded by the apathy and even anti-apathy of various government agencies who

view the "invasion" of urban areas by "the masses" and the development of squatter settlements as a

social "evil" that has to be "eradicated". Such a confusing and knee-jerk reaction and attitude towards

squatter settlements has not helped the more basic question of "adequate housing for all".

Definition of a Squatter Settlement: A squatter settlement therefore, can be defined as a residential area

which has developed without legal claims to the land and/or permission from the concerned authorities to

build; as a result of their illegal or semi-legal status, infrastructure and services are usually inadequate.

There are essentially three defining characteristics that helps us understand squatter settlement: the

Physical, the Social and the legal with the reasons behind them being interrelated.

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a. Physical Characteristics:

A squatter settlement, due to its inherent "non-legal" status, has services and infrastructure below the

"adequate" or minimum levels. Such services are both network and social infrastructure, like water

supply, sanitation, electricity, roads and drainage; schools, health centres, market places etc. Water

supply, for example, to individual households may be absent, or a few public or community stand pipes

may have been provided, using either the city networks, or a hand pump itself. Informal networks for the

supply of water may also be in place. Similar arrangements may be made for electricity, drainage, toilet

facilities etc. with little dependence on public authorities or formal channels.

b. Social Characteristics:

Squatter settlement household belong to the lower income group, either working as wage labour or in

various informal sector enterprises. On an average, most earn wages at or near the minimum wage level.

But household income levels can also be high due to many income earners and part-time jobs.

Squatters are predominantly migrants, either rural-urban or urban-urban. But many are also second or

third generation squatters.

c. Legal Characteristics:

The key characteristic that delineates a squatter settlement is its lack of ownership of the land parcel on

which they have built their house. These could be vacant government or public land, or marginal land

parcels like railway setbacks or "undesirable" marshy land. Thus when the land is not under "productive"

use by the owner, it is appropriated by a squatter for building a house. It has to be noted here that in many

parts of Asia, a land owner may "rent" out his land for a nominal fee to a family or families, with an

informal or quasi-legal arrangement, which is not however valid under law.

The Development Process of a Squatter Settlement

The key question to be asked here is why do people squat? There are two reasons for this: one is internal

to the squatter, and the other is external. Internal reasons include, lack of collateral assets; lack of savings

and other financial assets; daily wage/low-income jobs (which in many cases are semi-permanent or

temporary). External reasons include, high cost of land and other housing services; apathy and anti-apathy

on the part of the government to assist them; high "acceptable" building standards and rules and

regulations; lopsided planning and zoning legislation.

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These reasons leave no option for the low-income householder to squat on a vacant piece of land. The

actual squatting is done either by a "slum lord" or simply an initial small group of core squatters. The

slum lord appropriates a piece of vacant land, subdivides it and "sells" it to various households for the

purpose of building a house. Services like water-supply or electricity may be provided either by this

person or by the organization of the squatters, usually at the community level. The core group squatters

are a small number of families who, almost overnight, occupy a piece of land and build a rudimentary and

temporary shelter. Later, depending on the degree of threat of eviction, this may be upgraded to a

permanent and more families may join this group. There are two distinct processes involved in the

formation of a settlement.

One is the organic and induced processes. The organic process refers to the forces and pressures which

are initiated from within the settlement and squatter. They evolve naturally, without any outside

intervention and using internal resources of the family or settlement for development, such as labour,

locally available materials etc.

The induced process refers to the "inducement" set up by agencies and organizations which are external to

the settlement. Operating with objectives and goals on a larger, city-wide scale, they initiate programmes

and projects for the overall development of the settlement. Both these put together act on the growth of a

squatter settlement, through a series of consolidative stages of development. These stages are conclusive

in their outcome, in the sense that they represent a continuum with one stage or process overlapping and

even running parallel to each other. They are also cumulative in their effects and not exclusive.

Approaches towards a Squatter Settlement

Considering the magnitude and scale of the housing deficit and the lack of concerted action or inadequate

response of government agencies, there is no doubt of the positive role that squatter housing plays in

housing the millions of poor families. The main question of land ownership and over-utilized

infrastructure and services will, however, always remain unanswered.

Successive generation of governments have recognized this and a number of approaches have been

adopted in finding a solution to the dilemma of squatting. The two popular approaches used by the

government have been settlement upgrading and sites-and-services. Settlement upgrading has been an

option where a compromise has been reached by the land owner and on a sharing basis, the squatter has

been allowed to continue on the land parcel, but with a significant upgrading of the settlement's

infrastructure and services, including, in some cases, land leases or ownerships.

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Where such land compromises or sharing has not been possible, the squatters have been relocated to

another location, where varying levels of "sites"-and-"services" have been provided, with, again land

lease or ownership. Land sharing is an approach which has brought about considerable settlement

improvement by the initiative of the people themselves. The squatter, after having organized themselves

into a viable organization, have initiated negotiations with the land owner and have "shared" the land,

giving the prime locations of the land (for example, the side facing a road) to the owner and using the

remaining for their housing, but in a more organized and improved manner. The role of non-governmental

and voluntary organizations has to be emphasized in this respect, in mobilization of the people into an

organization, in training and educating them, in forming a link with the authorities, and in various other

catalytic ways.

As a complement to this, the participation of the community of squatters, in improving the quality of their

settlement is also an important resource that has to be tapped for improvement. Commonly, community

credit programmes, for example, are used as a rallying point for bringing the squatters not only because

money itself is important, but also because of the externalities that it can generate.

ELEMENTS OF LAYOUT DESIGN

A great majority of layout designs work against the environmental factor, climatic, socio-economic status,

cultural and other factors relating to the inhabitants rather than with it. The Town recognises that it has

become imperative for building design to incorporate elements that create more sustainable development,

and to minimise impact on the environment.

Accordingly, the Town encourages the incorporation of sustainable features in residential layout design.

Sustainable residential design layout results in benefits for the householder, the community and the

environment. The ultimate objective in the creation of a layout is that it should be such that people would

wish to live, work and play there. This can only be achieved by taking into cognisance the socio-

economic, cultural, aesthetic values and convenience of the people to enhance liveability.

Moreover, layout design is an integral part of land use planning, involving the creation and management

of the built environment – buildings, streets, transport systems, parks and natural spaces that collectively

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help shape the form and pattern of municipalities. Carefully planned and thoughtfully executed, layout

design is vital in contributing to the attractiveness, vibrancy, health and sustainability of physical

landscapes. The focus of a layout design is the relationship between people and the built environment in

which everyday activities are undertaken. When environmental, economic and social considerations are

integrated into design decisions, positive community outcomes can be achieved, including:

safe, creative and attractive streets, neighbourhoods, business areas and public spaces

enhanced property values

Balanced needs between pedestrians and vehicular movement.

improved air quality and decreased greenhouse gas emissions

healthier and more resilient natural environment and biodiversity

healthier patterns of human activity

Walkable neighbourhoods with nearby services and facilities

strengthened community identity

increased economic vitality and resiliency

improved municipal fiscal performance

The layout system effectively defines the urban area in terms of its functionality and, hence, its

attractiveness to the inhabitants. To achieve all this, some layout elements should form an integral part of

the layout design to enhance sustainability, functionality and habitability in relation to the general

environment. These elements include the following:

Circulation: it is believed that ‘‘accessibility gives mobility’’. These are road networks within the layout

to provide accessibility for the inhabitants to enable them move from one location to another. It also gives

the layout form and shape. Features may include roads, parkways, drives and trails, walks paths, parking

areas, and canals. Such features may occur individually or be linked to form networks or systems. The

character of circulation features is defined by factors such as alignment, width, surface and edge

treatment, grade, materials, and infrastructure.

Land uses: This is the spatial distribution of different land in the layout. It is also seen as the use in which

land is put to. There are several land uses that must be part of a layout. Land uses such as residential,

circulation, recreational, open spaces, public utilities and services, commercial, agricultural etc. there are

specific percentage these land uses must cover within a layout. The type of layout determines the land use

that is predominant e.g. in a residential layout residential plots will carry the largest percentage of the

overall land distribution within the layout. The below table shows the allocation of land uses for a

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residential layout. This do not represent minimum or maximum standard. There may be reasonable

variations from them.

Land use Percentage

Residential (housing) plot 50-60 %

Circulation 15-25 %

Recreation 6-8 %

Utilities, facilities and services 10-15 %

Commercial 3-5 %

Source: Obateru, (2002)

Open spaces: open spaces are deliberately designed for within the layout. They serve different purposes.

Some are created for aesthetic purpose, while some are for recreation purpose. Open space is one of the

elements that contributed to the liveability of a layout. Open spaces may also serve as a buffer zone that is

used to shield the layout from pollution of all sort and/or harsh weather.

Public utilities/services: this is another element of a layout. These are utilities and services such as

electricity, water means, surface water drainages, sewerage system etc. the provision of all these makes

life easy for the eventual user of the layout.

Population: This is the total number of the inhabitants that is expected to reside within the layout. Here,

some measures must be taken to ensure that the layout enhances good habitability and sustainability. To

achieve this, the socio-economic status and culture of the people must be inculcated in the design.

Layout forms (Concepts)

Designing a site layout is an art not easily or rapidly acquired. It calls for skill, patience and much

practice; and seldom will a satisfactory solution be achieved at first attempt. It is hardly necessary to say

that no two sites are alike in size, shape, contours and character. A layout plan designed for any particular

site must be the subject of individual thought and individual treatment.

No competent site planner would consider imposing a pre-conceived layout pattern on the site without

detailed study of the lay of the land and its features as it is believed that “planning is not done in

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isolation”. However, study of the various layout patterns that have been used in the past and indeed, are

still in use at the present time, can be useful in affording ideas and precedents for solving particular

problems. Below are the layout concepts:

a. Rectangular concept

This is grid form layout. It comprises roads running parallel and at right angles to each other. This

concept has the advantage of simplicity, regularity, and the design of building plots of uniform area and

dimensions. Also it also has a lot of disadvantages. It can be very monotonous over large areas. It does

not take into account the variations of sites or of the natural features that can be an integral part of the

layout; it does not permit good aesthetic treatment to any great extent. It gives many direct roads

crossings which add to the danger of accident and it tends to encourage longer journeys.

b. Non rectangular

It is basically a variant of rectangular and geometric styles in that major roads in the system meet at right

angles and minor roads take the form of loops. It has fewer disadvantages, and can be adapted to sites of

irregular contours by allowing road to curve and fit into varying ground levels. Relaxation of formality is

nevertheless accompanied by some waste of space and inequality in size and shape of plots.

a. Cul-de-sac concept

Cul-de-sac is a short length of road closed to wheeled traffic at one end though it may be carefully

connected at the closed end by foot path that will connect the next road. It reuses normal development

cost by enabling the arrangement of houses around the closed end without occupying road frontage; it

affords the opportunity of varying the visual scene; it gives the residents more quietude and seclusion. It

generates minimum traffic and create good environment in terms of safety, quality and minimal air

pollution; it creates social identity. But it has the disadvantage of a single entry point and may also create

small pockets of people who may tend to get on each other nerves.

b. Closed concept

A close is a technically not a road but a foot path looping from a road with houses having only foot path

access to the road. It has the advantage of pleasant grouping of houses around an open space and

considerably economy in road cost per house plot. Its disadvantages of inconveniencies to car owning

residents and delivery roundsmen are reduced when no house in a close is more than 45meters away from

the road.

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c. Quadrangle concept

This concept is similar to that of a close, but each house is given direct access to a narrow carriageway

which leads to a road. Here, cost of road is increased over those for a close and the extra carriageway

serves houses on only one side.

d. Crescent concept

This concept has the advantage of a dual entry points. It creates visual congestion particularly in high

density use where provision of open spaces and play areas along the road is minimum. It is anonymous in

character and has the disadvantage of long monotonous vista where the crescents has long stretches.

e. Cluster concept

The cluster form has a short access collector which generated into a loop distributing traffic evenly. The

loop gives facilities to visitors parking without any hindrances to residential units. The cluster form

enhances social relations. The enclosed open space influences the micro climate and encourages natural

ventilation and also enhances the scenic value of the area. This concept has a disadvantage of a single

entry point and also gives rise to increased road length resulting in slightly higher cost of construction.

f. Radburn concept

Radburn concept of layout is also known as “service-cul-de-sac”. This layout form was introduced by two

Americans, Clarence Stein and Henry Jersey. The basic principle of this concept is that, houses should

front onto open spaces and pedestrian walkway. Road access for the residents’ cars, refuse disposal

vehicle can thus be kept to a minimum particularly because the pedestrians can gain access to shops and

schools by using a system of pedestrian walkways. This pattern is very flexible because the houses

themselves can be detached, semi-detached (duplex) or terraced and it can thus accommodate a variety of

types and size. One of the compromises of this concept is that, there has not always been complete

separation of footpaths and roads.

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REFERENCES

Ahmed Y. A (2009): Settlement pattern and functional distribution in an emerging communities.

Akinrogunde O.O (2004): An unpublished ND thesis on: Appraisal of low-cost housing estate, Amuwo

Odofin, Lagos. Ondo State Polytechnic, Owo.

Audrey Alamo: World geography

Electronic search engines: www.google.com , www.wikkipaedie.com , www.slideshare.com

Falade J. B and ‘Leke Oduwaye (1998): Essentials of landscape and site planning.

Ofunne Augustine Onyelisi: Household surveys in Africa, new challenges, Nigeria experience.

Omole F. K (2001): Basic issues in housing development.

Osunsanmi O. G (2003): History of town planning (an unpublished lecture note).

Remi I. Obateru (1982): Functional role of land subdivision plans in physical (land-use) planning

Suryaveer Singh (2009): Human settlements

Teachers’ curriculum institute: Geography and the early settlement of Egypt.

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