introduction to memory c:\documents and settings\fac6l170\my documents\my videos c:\documents and...
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Introduction to Memory C:\Documents and Settings\fac6l170\My Documents\My Videos
Why do we process certain Information when other stimuli passes us by.We will be looking at
1. Short term memory
2. Long term memory
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Think time
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The difference between STM and LTM
Capacity Duration Encoding Forgetting
STM Very limited(7 items)
Very limited Mainly acoustic(By sound)
MainlyDisplacement
LTM Unlimited Unlimited(A lifetime)
Mainly semantic(By meaning)
MainlyInterference
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Evidence for separate storesBrain Damage: Shows some people lose the Ability of one type of memory but not the other.
Case Study of Clive Wearing STM damaged, but some of LTM intact
What aspect of Clive Wearing’s memory remained fully intact?
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Evidence For separate stores
The Case of H.M. (Milner, 1966) – STM damaged, LTM intact
Hypothalamus Removed
“Some aspects of H. M.’s memory remained intact. He could, for example, learn basic motor tasks, but had to be reminded that he knew how to perform them!
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Questions Outline the evidence for a division between
STM and LTM (2 marks)
Explain how studies of Brain Damage can support the argument for a division between STM and LTM (2 marks)
Give one criticism when using studies into Brain Damage (2 marks)
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Capacity – how many can you remember?
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Can you remember: The capacity of STM and LTM?
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Check your Capacity in STM Write down 8 strings of numbers first with
three numbers then add one more for each following string E.g. 265,2768, 86097 …and so on. Use different numbers each time
In pairs : One person read out your no’s while your partner writes them down immediately after hearing them.
Now swap roles. Note down your scores
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Results of your STM 1: What is your score ( this is the longest strip
of numbers you recalled )
2: The class mean =
STM suggested capacity (Jacobs, 1887 and Miller, 1956) is 7+/-2
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We call this ‘Digit Span Technique’
Jacobs carried out this study (1887) and George Miller repeated this (1957) with similar findings, naming his study “The Magical Number Seven”
Capacity in STM = 7 +/- 2 digits
Miller believed it was the number
of chunks of information that was
important
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Miller termed this: Chunking
C B T U O D S A G I L E P N G
CBT UOD SAG ILE PNG
CAT SUN LEG DOT PIG
Showing that capacity can appear to increase by chunking
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Measuring the Capacity in STM Simon (1974): argued
That it depended on the sizeof the chunks. Small chunks More capacity, larger chunks smaller capacity.
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Factors Affecting Capacity:Rehearsal and storage in LTM: This will increase the capacity
for STM
Reading digits aloud: Strengthens memory trace
Pronunciation time: Lower capacity for Arabic words than English as they take longer to pronounce
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Real Life Application Baddeley discovered that e can chunk
information, better if we using meaning at the beginning and then alternated using numbers and letters together.
i.e SW6 8PQ = South West London then some random numbers between more letters.
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Questions 2) Outline one characteristics of short-term
memory (2 marks)
3) Outline one study supporting the capacity of STM (2 marks)
4) Give one criticisms of the above study (2 marks)
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Duration – how long can you remember for?
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Duration in STM Peterson and Peterson:
Found that STM Deteriorated by 90% after
18 seconds
When rehearsal was prevented
information decayed or
disappeared more quickly
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Peterson & Peterson Stimulus list: Distant Cottage Stable Bargain Cabbage Finger Mattress Landscape Uncle Future Minstrel Question
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This time after you have looked at the words. You need to count back in 3’s from 100
Velvet Village Stomach Carpet Flower Favour Gossip Lawful Chamber Started Sandal Warehouse
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Studies in Duration Peterson and Peterson (1959)
found that when participants
were given a 3-second interval
they could remember 90% of data.
However, when there was an
18- second interval retention
reduced.
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Methodological Issues
Laboratory study using Repeated measures…
1. In groups, criticise this study (use your research
methods terms)
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Factors Affecting Duration in STM Rehearsal: increases duration.
Intention to recall: When we are
under pressure to remember.
Relevance of information: - is the
information important to you?
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Duration in LTMIt is generally
accepted that LTM
lasts a lifetime.
Bahrick et al (1975)
tested memory and
found that after 34 years
memory was good, but
after 47 years there was
a decided dip.
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Factors affecting duration in LTM
Feedback around the room: Cues in experiments
Depth of learning
Pattern of learning
Nature of Material to be learned
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Factors affecting duration in LTM Cues in experiments: Cues (things that remind us) help recall, example
recognition tasks were higher than recall tasks.
Depth of learning: The more time spent learning, the longer information stays.
Pattern of learning: Spaced out learning hold longer than intensive learning
Nature of Material to be learned: Meaningful information is better retained
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True or False? (duration)1. The less time spent learning, the longer information stays.
2. It is generally accepted that LTM lasts a lifetime.
3. Rehearsal: increases duration in LTM
4. Spaced out learning hold longer than intensive learning
5. The relevance of information to us is not important
6. We remember the same amount of information whether we are given cues or not
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True or False ANSWERS1. The less time spent learning, the longer information stays: FALSE
2. It is generally accepted that LTM lasts a lifetime: TRUE
3. Rehearsal: increases duration in LTM: FALSE (IT IS TRUE FOR STM)
4. Spaced out learning hold longer than intensive learning: TRUE
5. The relevance of information to us is not important: FALSE
6. We remember the same amount of information whether we are given cues or not: FALSE (CUES HELP US REMEMBER)
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As stimuli reaches memory it is in it’s raw form. i.e. a visual picture or a sound
It is believed that STM and LTM have different methods of encoding information
Encoding
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3 Main Types of EncodingAcoustic: The sound
of the stimulus
Visual: The physical
appearance of the stimulus
Semantic: The
meaning of the stimulus
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Task: In pairs Explain how you could adapt your notes from
class so that they are in an:
Acoustically memorable form Visually memorable form Semantically memorable form
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Acoustic Coding in STM Conrad ran a number of tests. Write these
letters down in the correct serial order
Acoustically similar
B G C T DV
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Second Condition. Acoustically dissimilar
Now write these letters down in the correct serial order
J G X M SF
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Conclusion Conclusion: Conrad believed that we must convert information FLOWERthat is visual into acoustic to store it in STM
Therefore, participants were confused when faced with letters that sounded the same
Methodology: A little low in validity, not everyday chore to place letters in order
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Evidence for Encoding: STM and LTM Baddeley suggested STM used Acoustic coding
because we confuse acoustically similar words
He also found that words that were similar in meaning were poorly recalled in LTM.
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Evidence for Encoding: Baddeley Method: Baddeley gave participants lists of
words that pertained to either one of these categories: accoustically similar, accoustically dissimilar, semantically similar, and semantically dissimilar.
Participants were tested on immediate recall and on delayed recall.
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Baddeley’s lists List A AS: Mad, map, mad, mat, cad,
cap, cat. List B AD: pen, cow, pit, sup, day , wet,
ran List C SS: tall, high, broad, wide, big,
large, fat List B SD: foul, thin, late, safe, strong,
back, look
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Evidence for Encoding: Results: Immediate recall showed that the most confusion arose between the
acoustically similar words as opposed to the words that were acoustically dissimilar. There was no difference in recall for the semantically similar and dissimilar words.
In the delayed recall test, the most confusion arose between semantically similar words as opposed to words that were semantically dissimilar. There was no difference in recall for the acoustically similar and dissimilar words.
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Task Write a conclusion for Baddeley’s study into
encoding, describing what can be concluded about encoding in STM and LTM. (4 marks)
Explain one criticism of Baddeley’s lab study (2 marks)
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Evidence for different Encoding Conrad (1964) found that STM used acoustic
coding.
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Multi Store Model
Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968) created The information-processing system to help explain how memory works
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What is a Model ?Psychologists have used flow charts to try and explain how memory works
Information-processing systems are similar to the workings of acomputer.
There is a temporary store, a STM and LTM store. Temporary store = buffer on a
computer
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The Multi Store ModelStimulus input
Attention Rehearsal
Sensory memory STMLTM
Visual, auditory Acoustic coding semantic coding ‘Haptic’ coding limited capacity Unlimited capacity Limited capacity brief duration Unlimited duration Very brief duration
Rehearsal Loop
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Evidence for a distinction between STM and LTM
Glanzer and Cunitz (1966): When participants were distracted they lost the recency effect but not the primacy effect
Long term memory: The Primacy effect
( beginning of a word list)
Short term memory: Recency effect ( the end of a word list)
Their work showed that there was a difference between STM store and LTM store
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Evaluating Glanzer and Cunitz (1966): Laboratory studies: ?
Validity: ?
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Weaknesses Different types of information:
Some data is a lot more exciting and therefore easier to remember. It’s not always about how much!
Repetition vs Semantic: Craik and Lockhart found that information is remembered better if it is processed with meaning rather than simple rehearsal.
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Weaknesses Flashbulb memory:
This supports Semantic
inputting Kulik and Brown
argue that shocking events
are imputed without rehearsal.
Linear: Ruchkin (1999)
Information in LTM helps
to improve recall from STM.
(words with meaning vs words
without)
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WeaknessesBrain Damage: It has been
shown that people with damaged
STM do not necessarily have
impairment to their LTM.
Artificial Experiments: Laboratory
experiments do not necessarily
show us how we behave in the
real world.
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The Working Memory Model
Baddeley and Hitch believe that memory is much more complex than the Multi-story model suggests. They focused on short-term memory as an active process with different components
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The Working Memory Model Baddeley and Hitch believed that there was more than one component
to STM.
One for information that we hear
One for information that we see.
Therefore we can do two tasks at once, i.e. driving a car and having a conversation at the same time
attention test - Google Video
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The Components of working memory
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The Working Memory Model There are three different components
The Central Executive: Responsible for all the processing and attention tasks.
The Phonological Loop: The temporary storage system for verbal information.
The Visuo-spatial sketchpad: The temporary storage system for visual information
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Recent model
Baddeley (2000)
Phonological store
(Inner ear)
ArticulatoryControl system(Inner voice)
1.Central Executive
4.Visio-spatial sketch pad
(Inner eye)
3.Phonological loop
2.EpisodicBuffer
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Phonological store:This part of the loop holds the words you hear, like
an inner ear.
Articulatory control system:This is where words are silently repeated or rehearsed, like an inner voice.
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Evidence for Working Memory
Baddeley et al ran numerous
experiments and found evidence
to support the existence of the Phonological loop, the Visuo-spatial sketchpad and the Central Executive
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Evidence for the Visuo-Spatial Baddeley et al (1973) showed two tasks
F H L Task one: identify the angles on a letter
Task two: Follow a spotlight
They could not do both tasks together. They could do one visual task and one auditory task.
This shows that there is a difference between the phonological loop and the visual-spatial sketchpad
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Evidence for the Phonological loop Baddeley et al (1975): presented lists of words
With one syllable: Harm, Wit, Twice With multi syllables: Organisation, University
It takes longer to say multi syllable word, therefore participant remembered more single syllable words
This shows that we remember information by listening to the word in our heads. Shorter words take shorter time to rehearse
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Strength and Weaknesses of Working memory.This model is generally accepted throughout the psychological world. It has a much more in-depth and logical interpretation of STM
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WMM Information Tasks1. Read and highlight the information on the
WMM and as a group summarise 10 key points
2. Explain one case study and two lab studies that support the WMM.
3. Identify a criticism of each of the above research methods
4. Explain two weaknesses of the model (4 marks)
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Evidence for the Central Executive Some evidence from Neurological investigation
shows that brain activity is increased when doing two tasks that require attention and rehearsal.
It is difficult to test the existence of a central executive.
There has been limited evidence given and this is one of the weaknesses of this theory
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Lesson Objectives Understand the concept that
eyewitness testimony is not always reliable.
Know the procedures of experimental research into eyewitness testimony
Understand Reconstructive Memory
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Eye Witness Testimony
How accurate do we recall details of events witnessed.
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Psychological Experiment
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=x6fRH5MLBIU&feature=related
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Misleading Information Loftus discovered that a problem we have in recalling events
often comes from stimuli experienced after the event.
Participants were Shown a
Video clip of a car accident.
misleading information Caused errors
in recall http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=K9oNxolBzE0
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Loftus’ Experiments.
Experiment 1: After watching the car Crash Participants were asked
how fast the car was going.
Some questionnaires said how fast Was the car going when it hit others
others used the word smashed or Contacted instead or hit.
Experiment 2: Students were shown aVideo of a multiple car crash. One weekLater they were brought back and askedWas there any broken glass? Again usingThe various verbs; hit, smashed, or contacted
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Results – Experiment 1 VERBMEAN
ESTIMATE OF SPEED (mph)
Smashed 40.8
Collided 39.3
Bumped 38.1
Hit 34.0
Contacted 31.8
.
Response Smashed Hit Control
Yes 16 7 6
No 34 43 44
Results – Experiment 2
Did you see any broken glass?
How fast was the car going?
The Results of Both Experiments
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Discussion
Reconstructive memory
Information processing for an event:
1: The person’s own perception, during the event
2: Information supplied after the event
Response Bias: critical words
bias a person’s response.
Memory is altered: The critical
word changes a person’s memory.
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Demand Characteristics Participants might have guessed the aim of the experiment and changed
their behaviour
To reduce demand
characteristics Loftus
offered money to
participants who got
The recall correct.
Despite this incentive
over 70% still got
the recall details wrong.
Black et al
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Methodology and Ethics Laboratory experiments are high in reliability.
Although films of real events
were shown participants would
have experienced things
differently if they had been
present at the car crash.
Lack of validity/ emotional
response
Ethics: Participants were
deceived therefore debriefing
would be necessary afterwards
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The Accuracy of EWT
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SchemasSchema: Is our Preconceived ideas about certain experiences. i.e. eating in a restaurant
Tuckey and Brewer (2003) did an experiment on ourideas about bank robbers
Participants recalled more details if they were in line with their schema of such events.
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AnxietyLoftus and Burns (1982) found that high levels of anxiety negatively effect
memory.
When people witnessed a Man with a knife covered in blood leaving a room Identification was poor.
To busy looking at the knife.
Christianson and Hubinette discovered that in real life experiences of anxiety often heighten recall. Witness bank robbery > Being threatened by robbers.
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Age of Participant Children seem to accept what others tell them as part of their
own memories (Poole and Lindsay 2001 = incorporate stories into real events)
Flin et al (1992) found that children forget details much quicker than adults.
Elderly people: Recall of events is less accurate
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Methodology and Ethics There is difficulties in eliminating extraneous variable with children
There are also ethical issues when using children. Need informed consent from parent.
In the real world when events happen we are not expecting them therefore not prepared to try and remember every detail . + demand Characteristics.
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Improving EWT
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Method of QuestioningIf misleading information has an affect of EWT then it is important that the policeare careful not to misdirectwitnesses.
Fisher (1987) discoveredthat police asked closed questions which seems toconflict with the witnesses testimony. They also frequently interrupted breaking concentration.
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The Cognitive InterviewInstructions to witness
Context reinstatement
Recall what you were thinking, feeling and the scene beforehand
Report everything Report everything, even trivia
Recall from changedPerspective
Recall it from another’s point of view.
Recall in reverse order
Report from different ways moving backwards and forwards in time
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Evidence for the Cognitive Interview Geiselman et al (1985) found that the cognitive interview was
better than the original method and hypnosis. More correct
details were recalled
But there was also
more mistakes
Fisher et al (1990) discovered that police
in Miami were impressed with results.
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Evidence for the Cognitive Interview Police have expressed a concern, with the
increase incorrect detail, when using CI.
They believe that the context reinstatement and reporting everything are more useful than the other two categories
This has been backed up by psychologists Milne and Bull (2002)
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Improving MemoryTeaching strategies for memory improvement is a useful tool for future exams
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Mnemonics based on Visual Imagery The Peg Word
System
One is bun
Two is Shoe
Three is tree
Four is a door
Five is a hive
Six are Sticks
Seven is Heaven
Eight is a Gate
Nine is a Line
Ten is Hen
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• One is bun
• Two is Shoe
• Three is tree
• Four is a door
• Five is a hive
• Six are Sticks
• Seven is Heaven
• Eight is a Gate
• Nine is a Line
• Ten is Hen
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Mnemonics based on Visual Imagery The Peg Word
System
Eggs
Bread
Biscuits
Tomatoes
Potatoes
Cheese
Jam
Pasta
Juice
Cornflakes
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One is bun
Two is Shoe
Three is tree
Four is a door
Five is a hive
Six are Sticks
Seven is Heaven
Eight is a Gate
Nine is a Line
Ten is Hen
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Mnemonics based on Visual Imagery The Peg-word system: Where you thing
of one word and then peg another on to help recall
The Method of Loci: Thing of things you see on your route to college. Then attach a list of item to each of the things on your route
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Visual Imagery Paivio (1965): found that people could
remember words that were easy to put pictures to – concrete V abstract nouns
Beni and Moe (2003): Present words + images together,
rather than words + words
or images + images
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Improving Memory
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Organisation and Understanding Bransford and Johnson gave a passage to
participant.
One with a title to the piece One with no title (Content was not clear)
People remembered the title and that coupled with their schema helped recall.
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Organisation in memory Bransford and Johnson (1972) found that
participants who were given a title to a passage of information found it easier to recall than those not given a title, as participants applied already stored knowledge on the topic to their understanding of the passage. This enhanced their recall later.
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Chunking As already noted, chunking increases the
amount we can recall and also reduces the load on memory. A difficult task can be reduced to a simpler task for STM.
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Encoding and retrieval strategies We recall things better if we try and retrieve
the information in the same context or situation as when we learnt it.
(Geiselman and Glenny (1977)
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Active processing We are more likely to remember material that we
have actively processed. Simple rehearsal is not enough to lay down long-lasting memories.
Craik (1977) investigated recall of a word list under different conditions e.g. Is a word written in capital letters, does the word rhyme with another word, is it the name of a living thing.
They found that group 3 remembered more than groups 1 and 2 because they had to think about the meaning of the word rather than just look at its structure.
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Attention and practice If we don’t pay attention to material we cannot
remember it (as looked at in EWT). Practice is also important in order to remember large
amounts of information for an exam, for example. Ericsson and Chase (1981) studied SF who could memorise up to 80 digits in one go – he had to practice for an hour a day over a two year period to do this!
However, you need to be aware of your own memory and what works best for you!
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