Introduction to Open Introduction to Open AccessAccess

Catherine DubbeldCatherine DubbeldUKZNUKZN

““When it first appeared, the internet When it first appeared, the internet seemed…[as though it] would enable the seemed…[as though it] would enable the

planet to become the ‘global village’ planet to become the ‘global village’ envisaged by Marshall McLuhan. Through envisaged by Marshall McLuhan. Through the Web, the poor countries would be able the Web, the poor countries would be able to benefit, with unprecedented ease, from a to benefit, with unprecedented ease, from a

myriad of databases, from training, from myriad of databases, from training, from online courses, all of which would provide online courses, all of which would provide access to the knowledge society and allow access to the knowledge society and allow these countries to catch up progressively these countries to catch up progressively

with the pack of prosperous nations”with the pack of prosperous nations”The New [Unesco] CourierThe New [Unesco] Courier, [2005, [2005]]

The North-South DivideThe North-South Divide Sociological/political division between Sociological/political division between

developed countries (“the North”) & developed countries (“the North”) & developing countries (“the South”)developing countries (“the South”)

Not really a geographical term:Not really a geographical term: North=rich, South=poorNorth=rich, South=poor Sometimes called the Development Sometimes called the Development

GapGap WikipediaWikipedia, June 2007, June 2007

The Digital DivideThe Digital Divide Technological gap between North Technological gap between North

and South, & between information-and South, & between information-rich and information-poorrich and information-poor

Often seen as closely related to Often seen as closely related to North-South DivideNorth-South Divide

Bridging the Digital DivideBridging the Digital Divide

WSIS – World Summit on the WSIS – World Summit on the Information Society, Geneva 2003 & Information Society, Geneva 2003 & Tunis 2005Tunis 2005• DD can be bridged if consensus on DD can be bridged if consensus on

meansmeans• Declaration of principles and 28-point Declaration of principles and 28-point

action planaction plan• Definition of the knowledge societyDefinition of the knowledge society• Digital solidarity fundDigital solidarity fund

Some definitions of OpenSome definitions of Open Open contentOpen content

• Any kind of creative work published in a format explicitly Any kind of creative work published in a format explicitly allowing copying and modification by anyoneallowing copying and modification by anyone

Open sourceOpen source• Set of principles & practices promoting access to Set of principles & practices promoting access to

production & design process, usually of source code production & design process, usually of source code software, & usually with relaxed or non-existent software, & usually with relaxed or non-existent intellectual property restrictionsintellectual property restrictions

Open source cultureOpen source culture• Collective decisions shared during development & made Collective decisions shared during development & made

generally available in the public domain to allow generally available in the public domain to allow modification & sharing with the communitymodification & sharing with the community

Open does not necessarily mean freeOpen does not necessarily mean free

Open AccessOpen Access Access to digital scholarly & research Access to digital scholarly & research

materialmaterial Immediate free and unrestricted Immediate free and unrestricted

online access via the Internet to online access via the Internet to published & peer-reviewed journal published & peer-reviewed journal articlesarticles

Either through open access journalsEither through open access journals (gold) or(gold) or Institutional repositories (green)Institutional repositories (green)

Brief History of Open AccessBrief History of Open Access A good way to promote scholarly communicationA good way to promote scholarly communication In the 17In the 17thth century, journals replaced letters as a way of sharing century, journals replaced letters as a way of sharing

discoveriesdiscoveries Authors took some persuading to publish their discoveries, but this Authors took some persuading to publish their discoveries, but this

helped to resolve disputes about first discoverieshelped to resolve disputes about first discoveries Content was extremely importantContent was extremely important No author paid – or was paidNo author paid – or was paid Other scientists read and responded to the published workOther scientists read and responded to the published work Formal peer review was in its infancy Formal peer review was in its infancy Costs were paid by patrons and subscriptionCosts were paid by patrons and subscription Journals without patrons found it difficult to surviveJournals without patrons found it difficult to survive Administration of publication was not highly paidAdministration of publication was not highly paid Booksellers played an important role at first, but were gradually Booksellers played an important role at first, but were gradually

replaced by academic societies and university pressesreplaced by academic societies and university presses Libraries were seen as good places to make the journals available Libraries were seen as good places to make the journals available

to others besides the subscribersto others besides the subscribers

The model in the 19The model in the 19thth century century Research originated mostly in the university context and Research originated mostly in the university context and

academic journals were firmly part of academic discourseacademic journals were firmly part of academic discourse Authors wrote articles and submitted them for review by Authors wrote articles and submitted them for review by

their peerstheir peers Publication was by learned societies and academic presses, Publication was by learned societies and academic presses,

who administered the processwho administered the process Subscriptions were more important revenue sources than Subscriptions were more important revenue sources than

patronagepatronage Prices rose, but were still reasonable & affordablePrices rose, but were still reasonable & affordable Libraries were very good agents for making the information Libraries were very good agents for making the information

availableavailable This model was collegial & altruistic - information was This model was collegial & altruistic - information was

passed on to those who could recognise its importancepassed on to those who could recognise its importance

Knowledge becomes a commodityKnowledge becomes a commodity After WWII, Robert Maxwell of Pergamon Press After WWII, Robert Maxwell of Pergamon Press

started buying up academic journals and small started buying up academic journals and small university pressesuniversity presses

He took over the “burden” of publishing & He took over the “burden” of publishing & administration, “so academics could concentrate administration, “so academics could concentrate on research”on research”

He charged them for publishing their articles He charged them for publishing their articles “ “to pay for the administrative costs”to pay for the administrative costs” He took over author copyrightHe took over author copyright Prices went up, especially for librariesPrices went up, especially for libraries Authors and reviewers remained unpaidAuthors and reviewers remained unpaid

ConsequencesConsequences Maxwell and other commercial publishers made huge profit Maxwell and other commercial publishers made huge profit

margins and their empires grewmargins and their empires grew Expensive journals became the place to publishExpensive journals became the place to publish Research councils funded research more highly in this kind Research councils funded research more highly in this kind

of journal, because everyone read themof journal, because everyone read them Library budgets became more and more strainedLibrary budgets became more and more strained Universities lost control of their own researchUniversities lost control of their own research Content became gradually less important than deliveryContent became gradually less important than delivery The situation was accepted by academics because of their The situation was accepted by academics because of their

need to publish their research as widely as possible, need to publish their research as widely as possible, because publishing research in a commercial journal because publishing research in a commercial journal certainly ensured access to an audience, and because there certainly ensured access to an audience, and because there seemed to be no alternative to the commercial modelseemed to be no alternative to the commercial model

Role of the internet and Role of the internet and the world wide webthe world wide web

Non-journal scholarly communication Non-journal scholarly communication started to use the developing started to use the developing internet to express ideasinternet to express ideas

With the World Wide Web in the early With the World Wide Web in the early nineties came opportunities to nineties came opportunities to publish in a new way, and a publish in a new way, and a potentially unlimited audiencepotentially unlimited audience

Major context changesMajor context changes Internet archiving initiatives such as arXiv, SPARC Internet archiving initiatives such as arXiv, SPARC

& OAI made it possible to archive research papers & OAI made it possible to archive research papers and share them with other researchers without and share them with other researchers without having to pay expensive page chargeshaving to pay expensive page charges

Libraries started cost-sharing consortiaLibraries started cost-sharing consortia The development of electronic journals made the The development of electronic journals made the

option of publishing in open access journals option of publishing in open access journals possiblepossible

Libraries began cancelling print journals in favour Libraries began cancelling print journals in favour of electronic journalsof electronic journals

Some libraries cancelled for-profit journals in Some libraries cancelled for-profit journals in favour of open access journals favour of open access journals

Reactions Reactions Academics were unwilling to lose Academics were unwilling to lose

research fundingresearch funding Research funders were not convinced Research funders were not convinced

of the worth and viability of open of the worth and viability of open access journalsaccess journals

Despite this, the Open Access Despite this, the Open Access Movement began to growMovement began to grow

Agents accelerating changeAgents accelerating change A number of studies showed that citations A number of studies showed that citations

for articles in open access journals were for articles in open access journals were higher than those in for-profit journalshigher than those in for-profit journals

A number of public bodies, such as the A number of public bodies, such as the National Library of Medicine (which made National Library of Medicine (which made PubMed available in 1997), made a stand PubMed available in 1997), made a stand on the issue of tax dollar-funded research on the issue of tax dollar-funded research having to be in the public domainhaving to be in the public domain

Open access advocacy became Open access advocacy became increasingly more effectiveincreasingly more effective

Developments in 2005 & 2006Developments in 2005 & 2006 In 2005 major health funders, US National Institutes of In 2005 major health funders, US National Institutes of

Health & Wellcome Trust, strongly encouraged self-Health & Wellcome Trust, strongly encouraged self-archiving of articles soon after publicationarchiving of articles soon after publication

Research councils began reviewing policies in favour of Research councils began reviewing policies in favour of open accessopen access• 2004 Canada Social Science & Humanities Research Council2004 Canada Social Science & Humanities Research Council• Research Councils UK reviewed policy on access to research Research Councils UK reviewed policy on access to research

outputsoutputs• 2006 (April) European Commission study on publicly funded 2006 (April) European Commission study on publicly funded

researchresearch• 2006 (May) US Federal Research Public Access Act introduced 2006 (May) US Federal Research Public Access Act introduced

in Congressin Congress OA peer-reviewed journals increased rapidly in numberOA peer-reviewed journals increased rapidly in number

• DOAJ 2600 in 2007 (25% increase over 2006)DOAJ 2600 in 2007 (25% increase over 2006)• Open J-Gate 2000Open J-Gate 2000

2005-2006 continued2005-2006 continued Many editorial boards of for-profit journals Many editorial boards of for-profit journals

resigned to start OA journalsresigned to start OA journals For-profit journals included OA journals in For-profit journals included OA journals in

their lists, experimenting with different their lists, experimenting with different models of payment, & allowing pre- & models of payment, & allowing pre- & post-prints to be archivedpost-prints to be archived

For-profit journals’ anti-OA campaign in For-profit journals’ anti-OA campaign in USA & Europe backfiredUSA & Europe backfired

The debate continuesThe debate continues

Why is Open Access Why is Open Access relevant to Africa?relevant to Africa?

It’s a way of enabling development and innovationIt’s a way of enabling development and innovation It’s a way of making sure that researchers get visibility in It’s a way of making sure that researchers get visibility in

the world, and can be aware of what other researchers are the world, and can be aware of what other researchers are doingdoing

By putting research results in the public domain, discussion By putting research results in the public domain, discussion is made possible and further innovation enabledis made possible and further innovation enabled

It’s a way of using social and cultural capital to foster digital It’s a way of using social and cultural capital to foster digital literacyliteracy

It’s trying to get back to the collegial, altruistic model of It’s trying to get back to the collegial, altruistic model of scholarly communicationscholarly communication

Africa (like other developing countries) is particularly Africa (like other developing countries) is particularly vulnerable to the Digital Dividevulnerable to the Digital Divide

Information is a resource which must be accessible to allInformation is a resource which must be accessible to all

ConclusionConclusion“…“…Access to information is a pre-condition for Access to information is a pre-condition for

becoming a knowledge society. Acknowledging a becoming a knowledge society. Acknowledging a right of access to information not only allows right of access to information not only allows access to the ideas of others, but also opens up access to the ideas of others, but also opens up the opportunity to participate in the global the opportunity to participate in the global information-based socio-economic and political information-based socio-economic and political activities… the right of access to information has activities… the right of access to information has become the dominant right in the information and become the dominant right in the information and knowledge era.” knowledge era.”

(PJ Lor & JJ Brits (2007). ‘Is a knowledge society (PJ Lor & JJ Brits (2007). ‘Is a knowledge society possible without freedom of access to possible without freedom of access to information?’)information?’)