introduction to organisational research and case studies
TRANSCRIPT
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ESRC Scottish Doctoral Training CentreInformation Science PathwayTraining 12th & 13th April 2016
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Introduction to organisational research and case studies
Professor Hazel Hall@hazelhhttp://hazelhall.org
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This session Theme is organisational research Context is Information Science Mix of lecture material and short exercises
Session begins with consideration of the distinctiveness of organisational research, then moves on to case studies
But first…
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Organisational research and case studies at doctoral level within CSI
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Research citedTitle Organisational
researchBusinessresearch
Case study as output
Setting
Intranet implementation in a corporate environment
X X X Professional services firm
Blogs in the classroom X X Edinburgh Napier
E-information roles X IM/KM
Outsourcing research & information services
X Business information services
Research in Librarianship Impact Evaluation Study (RiLIES)
X Information science research
Knowledge Management as a management innovation (Rasmussen)
X X X Large public sector body
Knowledge, creativity and innovative in manufacturing (Auernhammer)
X X X Automotive manufacturer
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ORGANISATIONAL RESEARCH
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Organisational research What makes organisational research “different/distinctive”?
Practical difficulties in accessing sites for data collection Information sharing practice of drug dealers Strategies for dealing with information security breaches in Company X
Legal and ethical issues when setting up studies Power of the context in sites of data collection
Real-life organisations staffed by humans whose behaviours are influenced by range of factors – culture, politics, power struggles
Intangibility of phenomena under investigation Knowledge, value, social capital, goodwill
Expectation of the organisation to derive value from the study
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Information Science and organisational research Borrows from other disciplines
because Information Science is concerned with range of organisational perspectives
technology, culture, functions…
Requirement to read widely Sociology, anthropology, management science… even physics?
Intranet implementation: Galison, P. (Ed), (1997). Image and logic: a material culture of microphysics. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
As an applied science, organisational partners may expect return on participation
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CASE STUDIES
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Understanding of the term “case study” Case study is an approach to research
Empirical enquiry that investigates a contemporary phenomenon within a bounded, real-life context
especially when boundaries between phenomenon and context are not clearly evident
• Intranet implementation: “The reasons why they don’t use the intranet to knowledge share [phenomenon] may be due to cultural issues [context]”
uses multiple methods including, but not exclusively, qualitative techniques, e.g. participant observation, interviews, document analysis
• Intranet implementation: interviews; document analysis• RiLIES: interviews; citation “sketching”• Rasmussen PhD: participant observation; document analysis• Auernhammer PhD: interviews; focus groups; survey
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Alternative understanding 1: output The case study is the output of research
“Story/ies” of the case(s) investigated Hall PhD: The
knowledge trap: an intranet implementation in a corporate environment Enhancing the impact of LIS Research projects Hall, H. & Davison, B. (2007).
Social software as support in hybrid learning environments: the value of the blog as a tool for reflective learning and peer support. Library and Information Science Research, 29(2), 163-187. Rasmussen, L. & Hall, H. (2016). The adoption process in Management Innovation: a Knowledge Management case study. Journal of Information Science, 42(3)
Auernhammer, J. & Hall, H. (2014). Organizational culture in knowledge creation, creativity and innovation: towards the Freiraum model. Journal of Information Science 40(2), 154-166.
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Alternative understanding 2: exercise
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Case study approach for real-life, contemporary research Describe - explore – explain – illustrate – provide
examples Intranet implementation
“Here’s a real information-intensive distributed organisation that hoped an intranet would support knowledge sharing in the firm. I established that it did not to the extent anticipated, and propose reasons why with illustrations and examples.”
Blogs in the classroom “We wondered if claims that blogs can encourage student reflection were
exaggerated. We tested this by analysing the content of recent student blog postings in an educational setting, and demonstrated with examples that reflection is often limited.”
Rasmussen PhD “I demonstrated that Knowledge Management may be considered a
‘management innovation’ and that an in-depth exploration of a KM implementation adds to an established model of the adoption process.”
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Case study approach for investigating “how” and “why” questions RiLIES
How can LIS research projects be conceived, designed and implemented to increases the chances that their findings will influence the practice of librarians?
Intranet implementation Why don’t staff in this corporate environment use the intranet for
knowledge sharing?
Rasmussen PhD How was KM implemented in this organisation and why was the
implementation sub-optimal?
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Case study approach for triangulation Collect data on specific cases to triangulate with other
data collected
Case study (or studies) were just part of the project, e.g. RiLIES Practitioner poll Focus groups Validation survey and case studies
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Single/multiple case studies as output A study can include single or multiple cases
Intranet implementation, Rasmussen PhD, Auernhammer PhD: 1 (big) case study
Blogs in the classroom: 1 (small) case study RiLIES: 5 case studies
In case of multiple case studies, each should stand on its own
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Rationale for single case study A critical case – likely to have strategic importance for the
general population Intranet implementation: focus on culture
‘If it is valid for this case, it is valid for all (or many) cases’. See http://heim.ifi.uio.no/~in166/h00/criticalcase.pdf
An extreme or unique case RiLIES: 5 case studies chosen were amongst the most frequently
cited in the practitioner poll as having influenced practice A new/revelatory case
Blogs in the classroom: no empirical studies conducted previously (although plenty of claims made!)
A prelude to further study, to test ideas For example, a pilot case
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Case study research design process Five elements
1. Identify research questions to be explored2. Determine propositions or hypotheses
Bearing in mind that case studies themselves often generate hypotheses and models to be tested in the future – by you, by other researchers
3. Select clear units of analysis4. Analyse data in a logical fashion so that it can be tied back to
propositions5. Interpret findings
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Case study research design process Five elements: Intranet implementation
1. What is the role of an intranet in knowledge sharing?2. External and internal organisational factors determine role
This proposition was based on an analysis of sociotechnical literature that dated back to the 1970s
3. Interviews and document analysis4. Data analysed and reframed using actor-network theory 5. Findings interpreted to uncover underlying explanations of practice
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Case study research and “rigour” Accusations of bias and lack of rigour in case study
research because data from which findings derive belong to a specific context Poor reliability
Can you be certain that you would report the same findings if you ran the same study at another time or location?
• Intranet implementation: Perhaps not, but research protocol is such that the process could be repeated in another large information-intensive professional services firm (i.e. method is reliable)
Doubtful validity How can this/these case(s) be generalisable to the wider context? To what
extent is your case study “representative” of the population as a whole?• Intranet implementation: It can’t, but it does not seek to “generalise”• RiLIES: Multiple case studies can address this to an extent
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Other “weaknesses” of case study research Causal inferences cannot be made, and it’s not possible to
“test” in a “traditional” sense Chemistry would give you Na2O + 2HCl = H2O + 2NaCl In case studies only associations and correlations can be made
Processes can be time-consuming and cumbersome Organising access, non-disclosure agreements Requirement to be on-site Willingness of “participants” to participate Labour in transcribing interviews Lack of power over external context…
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Events cannot be controlled
Intranet implementation: access agreed first week of September 2001 for interviews to start 1st October 2001…
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Value of case studies In-depth studies
“Power of good example” derives from “rich” data Intranet implementation Rasmussen and Auernhammer PhDs
Particularly useful for new areas of research, where there is little/no extant literature and previous empirical evidence is lacking Blogging in the classroom
Generate new hypotheses for future testing Blogging in the classroom
Often inexpensive Depends on depth of study (and how you transcribe interviews)
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Resources
Research methods textbooks in business and management are useful for organisational research in general
Most general research methods textbooks include chapters on case study research
Useful texts Eisenhardt, K. (1989). Building theories from case studies. Academy of
Management Review, 14, 532-550. Eisenhart, K. & Graebner, M. (2007).
Theory building from cases: opportunities and challenges. Academy of Management Review 50(1), 25-32.
Flyvbjerg, B. (2001). Making social science matter. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Yin, R.K. (2013). Case study research (5th ed.). London: Sage.
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Flyvbjerg, B. (2001). Making social science matter. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
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Yin, R.K. (2013). Case study research (5th ed.). London: Sage.
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Intranet implementation: Flyvbjerg (2001) helpful to justify case study approach.
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Exercise: what could possibly go wrong?1. With a partner, make a list of what could go wrong when
conducting organisational research. If either of you have personal experience of this, note this too.
2. When this is done, join up with another pair to compare lists and experiences. Then reframe these as questions/scenarios. Questions may begin:
“How do you ensure that…” “What should you do if…” “How can you avoid…”
3. Swap your list of questions/scenarios with that of another team. Discuss how you would answer their questions as they try to answer yours.
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Analysis of data for organisational research
Professor Hazel Hall@hazelhhttp://hazelhall.org
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In this section
Data analysis as part of the research process Data, evidence and findings Role of coding data in data analysis Coding exercise
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Data analysis as a process Design methods gather evidence present case
Move from description of elements, e.g. object, people, phenomena “observed” to explanation, i.e. analysis.
Output is tied to purpose of the research and related research questions, with scope for extension discover what the research is really about new research questions may emerge example: intranets and information sharing power issues and knowledge
management
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Refine & develop concepts – critical treatment
Research Established “theory”
Intranet implementation
Poor understanding of knowledge sharing with technologies
Blogs in the classroom
Blogs promote reflective learning
Contribution (Action)
Knowledge sharing practice is local.Efforts to knowledge share is influenced by power bases
(Adopt communities approach to KM in case study organisation)
Blogs do not promote reflective learning to the extent reported
(Pay attention to weekly blog hints to engineer reflection)
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Refine & develop concepts – critical treatment
Research Established “theory”
Intranet implementation
Poor understanding of knowledge sharing with technologies
Blogs in the classroom
Blogs promote reflective learning
Contribution (Action)
Knowledge sharing practice is local.Efforts to knowledge share is influenced by power bases
(Adopt communities approach to KM in case study organisation)
Blogs do not promote reflective learning to the extent reported
(Pay attention to weekly blog hints to engineer reflection)
Data analysis
Data analysis
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Belief in your research results Research findings are expected
to be grounded in evidence not to be based on speculation, nor on weak inference
Therefore decisions on data analysis are important Example from e-information roles study: apparently more opportunity in the public
and voluntary than the corporate sector. However: less obligation in corporate sector to advertise posts public and voluntary sector organisations could be playing “catch up” with the corporate
sectorWe could not be confident that this finding was grounded in evidence because our data
collection was not extensive enough
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Inevitability of “too much” data Assume it’s murder
safety net
Not all data collected will be analysed - data collectively “emphasised” to serve as evidence to build a case
Tension present a set of understandable findings yet acknowledge the complexities of the social world under investigation
You can’t just say “this
way of working is better
than the old way”
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Data, evidence and findings
Data + interpretation = evidence Evidence = social product/artefact of work completed
Evidence findings
Data cannot (normally) speak for itself, so data ≠ evidence evidence ≠ mere illustration evidence is built from multiple data sets
research design should permit multiple collection of “same” data for triangulation purposes
obligation falls on the researcher to check alternative claims for the evidence collected
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Links between findings & research design Outcome of data analysis (findings) must be understood in the context
of the methods adopted Example from e-information roles study: globalisation the strongest driver in the
creation of new job roles in the corporate sector. However: Research design determined sample selection focused on large, multinational companies
So we were confident that the finding was grounded in evidence, within the context of our sample
Obligation to provide detailed and comprehensive account of both findings and basis on which they were obtained
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Data analysis: some examplesResearch Format of data Coding & analysis
Intranet implementation
Recorded interviews; interview notes; archive of company documents
Interviews transcribed; interview data coded using Ethnograph; archive details organised into historical sequence & coded manually – “content analysis”
Blogs in the classroom
Students’ blog entries; survey
Content analysis of blog entries; survey results not incorporated
e-information roles Focus group notes; job adverts; job descriptions; survey; telephone interview notes
Combined mind-mapping of focus group notes & job data; survey & telephone data analysed using Excel
Outsourcing research & information services
Interview notes; provider web sites
Interview data coded & analysed manually – total of 11 data sets
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Data analysis options
Analysis using software Standard packages
Word Excel Access
Dedicated software SPSS - http://www.spss.com/ Ethnograph - http://www.qualisresearch.com/ Nvivo - http://www.qsrinternational.com/product Atlas.ti - http://www.atlasti.com/
Manual analysis
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Use of Excel to analyse survey & interview data for the e-information roles project
Relative ranking of the importance of employee backgrounds: computing, business, librarianship
Column M records comments
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Date Data Source
8 November 2001
History – investmentBudget changes
Named meeting minutes
Use of Word to analyse document data for intranet implementation
Source of information
Date of activity/development
Activity/development
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H: Who controls 422 the Intranet content, is it 423 controlled by you in XX … rather than 424 from the centre, from the KM group …? 425
#-CONTROL $-RELS KMGP: Well, in terms of what tools and what 427 -#-$ facilities are made available to us, 428 | | that's obviously controlled by the 429 | | central group. But in terms of the XX 430 |-$ content and the XX presence, that's 431 | entirely controlled by me … simply 432 | because it wouldn't be relevant to go 433 | through a central group. 434 -#
H: Yeh, OK. You've told me about 436#-INT BUY-IN ownership. How … it sounds as if 437 -# you've got really good buy-in from 438 | your own set of people … 439 | |P: Absolutely. 441 -#
#-INT BUY-INH: What about the Intranet as a whole in 443 -# the UK? What are your perceptions of 444 | buy-in there? 445 | |$-KM SPONSP: I think it varies. I mean, I'm very 447 -#-$ fortunate in that I report into the 448 | KM partner, who's also one of the 449 | senior partners … 450 -$
H: Which, who …? 452
Use of Ethnograph to analyse interview data for intranet implementation
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“Translating” data for analysis - coding Coding
records instances of occurrence organises data into categories comprises part of the analysis stage in qualitative research
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Attention to coding in research design Design of research tool has determined predefined codes
Indicate the best day of the week for team leader meetings:
A. MondayB. TuesdayC. WednesdayD. ThursdayE. FridayF. Don’t knowG. No preferenceH. Not applicable
Note also the importance of the last three options: there is a difference between not having a preference and not knowing; if this forms part of a survey of staff who have nothing to do with team leader meetings, there needs to be an option for their response. Attention to coding at the design stage can help with asking the “right” questions.
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Coding down
Data is coded according to predefined categories
identified in range of work brought together in literature review identified in a single piece of work commonly deployed, e.g. age breakdowns used in national statistics
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Dimension Code Interpretation Evidence
Reflection C Content-free Comment makes no reference to points in the original entry.
U Non-reflective (U=’unreflective’)
Comment makes reference to the original blog entry, the module content or the general context in order to state an opinion, emotion or a point of fact or theory.
R Reflective Comment addresses points from the main blog entry and demonstrates a consideration of the validity of the content, the process or the underlying premise.
Propositional stance A Agree Comment actively supports the point made in the original entry.
I Indifferent Comment neither supports nor challenges original entry.
D Disagree Comment takes up a contradictory position to the original entry.
Affective P Positive Comment is encouraging, approving, accepting, etc.
E Even Comment appears affectively neutral.
N Negative Comment is hostile, discouraging, dismissive, etc.
Scheme based on Kember, D., Jones, A., Loke, A., McKay, J., Sinclair, K., Tse, H., Webb, C., Wong, F., Wong, M. & Yeung, E. (1999). Determining the level of reflective thinking from students’ written journals using a coding scheme based on the work of Mezirow. International Journal of Lifelong Education, 18(1), 18–30.
Example coding down: blog posting data coding scheme
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Coding up
Data is coded according to categories suggested by the data
Revise codes as new insight is developed through the process of coding - further discovery of what the research is really about
Example from intranet implementation project: seven broad categories related the intranet under investigation
Content Functionality History KWorld Policy Staffing Uptake
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Some data in this spreadsheet fits with predefined codes, i.e. in columns D-L. However comments need to be coded up.
Relative ranking of the importance of employee backgrounds: computing, business, librarianship
Column M records comments
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H: Who controls 422 the Intranet content, is it 423 controlled by you in XX … rather than 424 from the centre, from the KM group …? 425
#-CONTROL $-RELS KMGP: Well, in terms of what tools and what 427 -#-$ facilities are made available to us, 428 | | that's obviously controlled by the 429 | | central group. But in terms of the XX 430 |-$ content and the XX presence, that's 431 | entirely controlled by me … simply 432 | because it wouldn't be relevant to go 433 | through a central group. 434 -#
H: Yeh, OK. You've told me about 436#-INT BUY-IN ownership. How … it sounds as if 437 -# you've got really good buy-in from 438 | your own set of people … 439 | |P: Absolutely. 441 -#
#-INT BUY-INH: What about the Intranet as a whole in 443 -# the UK? What are your perceptions of 444 | buy-in there? 445 | |$-KM SPONSP: I think it varies. I mean, I'm very 447 -#-$ fortunate in that I report into the 448 | KM partner, who's also one of the 449 | senior partners … 450 -$
H: Which, who …? 452
Value of software packages for coding and generating reports for analysis
Speaker
Code
Line numbers
Data coded
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Advice pointers Be disciplined and systematic when analysing data
especially important to keep records of what you do if you dip in and out of your research work
Be prepared to account for what you have done in the report of your work another reason to keep good records
When designing data collection tools, look forward to data analysis good decisions at this stage may save a lot of work at data analysis stage – as will
be demonstrated in the class exercise!
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The class exercise is based on the responses to questions 3.1, 3.2 and 3.3 in the e-information roles survey
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Ability to align work activities to business strategy
Ability to connect with developments
Ability to cope with changeAbility to see the big pictureAbility to translate the needs of
the business at all levelsAbstractingAdaptabilityAnalytic mindBusiness acumenBusiness awarenessBusiness developmentBusiness focusCataloguingChange managementClassificationCollaboration – non-technicalCollaboration – technicalCommercial awarenessCommunicationComputer literacyConfidenceContract/supplier managementCreativityDiplomacyE-learning facilitationEmpathyEngaging audiencesEnterprise content management
EnthusiasmEvaluation of information sourcesFacilitationFlexibilityGrammarImaginationIndexingInfluencingInformation analysisInformation deliveryInformation governanceInformation literacyInformation retrievalInnovationIntegrityIntellectual property knowledgeIntelligenceInterviewingIT savvyKnowledge harvestingKnowledge of e-information
arena, new technologiesKnowledge of government policyKnowledge of information
sourcesKnowledge of lawKnowledge of public sector
vocabularyLanguagesLeadershipLiteracy
ManagementManagement of individualsManagement of teams MarketingMulti-taskingNegotiationNetworkingNumeracyOrganisationOutgoing personalityPolitical awarenessPresentation skillsPrince 2Problem solvingProfessionalismProject managementRecords managementRelationship buildingRelationship managementRepackaging informationResearchSelf-managementSmall business knowledgeSocial computingSpellingStakeholder managementStrategic thinkingSynthesising informationTaxonomy developmentTechnical abilityTime management
TrainingUnderstanding of
technical toolsValidation of information
sourcesWeb authoringWeb developmentWeb usability testingWorking under pressureWriting
How would you group these responses for coding?
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Analytical tools and frameworks for organisational analysis
Professor Hazel Hall@hazelhhttp://hazelhall.org
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In this section Focus on tools and techniques for organisational and case study
analyses through a consideration of:
Purpose and output of frameworks Actor-network theory as a framework – with example of its application in the
research into the intranet implementation
NB there is a wide range of tools and techniques for research in general. Some (or elements of some) are more applicable to organisational and case study research than others. Actor-network theory is just one example for illustration purposes here.
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Purpose of frameworks Frameworks
help make sense of data collected, and thus of phenomena (e.g. organisational dynamics) observed
act as a tool for diagnosis
and thus aid the processes of:
acquiring knowledge reflection action for change (if appropriate, for example in an action research setting)
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Output of frameworks Frameworks provide you with a means of formatting your findings
e.g. as a graphical representation of the organisation under investigation
In using a framework you are encouraged to (re)organise your data understand what it is that your data represent present your findings in a format that is understandable to others – the
representation can be used as a short-cut to shared understanding
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Actor-network theory as a framework - example Background
Optimism associated with the development of systems to promote knowledge sharing is misguided.
Examples in the literature go back to 1980s. “Culture” often takes the blame.
Case study organisation wanted explanations as to why the efforts of its knowledge management staff to promote information systems for knowledge sharing were sub-optimal.
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Actor-network theory as a tool of analysis History
Developed in 1980s Michel Callon and Bruno Latour
Key concepts Non-humans, as well as humans, are actors Relationships between actors shift as they compete for organisational resources,
from tangible, e.g. office space, to intangible, e.g. corporate attention Actor-networks grow through successful “translation” Actor-networks diminish/disintegrate when ties in the network loosen
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Relevance of actor-network theory to this case The organisation was understood as a mesh of competing actor-
networks. The success/failure of corporate initiatives was suspected to be
related to the degree to which particular groups enhanced or diminished their organisational power-base.
Service delivery could be examined with reference to historical and social context of the organisation.
The approach provided opportunities to reflect, learn, act.
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Actors in the organisation
External consultants
Senior staff with KM responsibilities (not KM specialists)
Knowledge sharing as a concept
IntranetRepositories
Shared collaboration space
Mission statements
Specialist KM staff members in centralised unit
Specialist KM staff members in business units
Senior sponsors of KM (not KM specialists)
External systems vendors
Intranet usage statistics
“Ordinary” staff (not KM specialists)
KM strategy
KM as a concept
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Analysis phase 1Mission
statements
KM as a concept
Senior sponsor of KM (not a KM specialist)
Intranet
Specialist IT/KM staff member in centralised unit
Senior specialist IM/KM staff member in centralised unit
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Analysis phase 2Mission
statements
KM as a concept
Senior sponsor of KM (not a KM specialist)
Intranet
Specialist IT/KM staff member in centralised unit
Senior specialist IM/KM staff member in centralised unit
Senior specialist IM/KM staff member in centralised unit
Specialist IM/KM staff members in centralised unit
Some specialist IM/KM staff members in business units
“Ordinary” staff (not KM specialists)
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Analysis phase 3Mission
statements
KM as a concept
Senior sponsor of KM (not a KM specialist)
IntranetSenior specialist IM/KM staff member in centralised unit
Senior specialist IM/KM staff member in centralised unit
Specialist IM/KM staff members in centralised unit
Specialist IM/KM staff members in business units
“Ordinary” staff (not KM specialists)
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Some findings Central position of intranet, and its proximity to KM as a concept,
account for confusion over what KM represented in the organisation. Distance between policy documentation and “ordinary” staff explained
lack of engagement with KM, and what it implied in terms of behaviours.
Ties between KM staff in business units and “ordinary” staff strengthened over time at the expense of their relationship with the central KM team and the main tool of the KM implementation. As a result their commitment to KM weakened, as did that of their “ordinary” colleagues.
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ESRC Scottish Doctoral Training CentreInformation Science PathwayTraining 12th & 13th April 2016