introduction to particle physics

Introduction to particle physics

Hal

Particle physics want to answer What are the “elementary”

constituents of Matter?

What are the forces that control their behaviour at the most basic level?

What is elementary means ? The word

“elementary” is used in the sense that such particles have no known structure, they are “pointlike. ”

“elementary” depends on the spatial resolution of the probe used to investigate possible structure.

Units in particle physics

History of Constituents of Matter


Дми́трий Ива́нович Менделе́ев


Electrons were first discovered as the constituents of cathode rays. In 1897 British physicist J. J. Thompson showed the rays were composed of a previously unknown negatively charged particle, which was named electron.


radioactivesource

a - particles

target(very thin Gold foil)

fluorescent screen

Detector (human eye)

Proton discovery

a - particle

Atom: spherical distribution of electric chargesimpact

parameter b

For Thomson’s atomic modelthe electric charge “seen” by thea – particle is zero, independentof impact parameter no significant scattering at large angles is expected

An atom consists of a positively charged nucleussurrounded by a cloud of electrons


James Chadwick's 1932 discovery of the neutron Neutron

Neutron discovery:observation and measurement of nuclear recoils in an “expansion chamber”filled with Nitrogen at atmospheric pressure

incidentneutron

(not visible)

scattered neutron(not visible)

recoil nucleus(visible by ionization)

Neutron discovery

Neutron discovery

Plate containing free hydrogen(paraffin wax)

Incident neutrondirection

proton tracks ejectedfrom paraffin wax Recoiling Nitrogen nuclei

Assume that incident neutral radiation consistsof particles of mass m moving with velocities v < Vmax Determine max. velocity of recoil protons (Up) and Nitrogen nuclei (UN)from max. observed range

Up = Vmax

2mm + mp

UN = Vmax

2mm + mN

From non-relativistic energy-momentumconservationmp: proton mass; mN: Nitrogen nucleus massUp m + mN

UN m + mp= From measured ratio Up / UN and known values of

mp, mNdetermine neutron mass: m mn mpPresent mass values : mp = 938.272 MeV/c2; mn = 939.565 MeV/c2

Antimatteraaaa 2

4332211 mcxxxi

ct

i

Dirac equation

2242 cpcmE two solutionsP.A.M. Dirac

For each solution of Dirac’s equation with electron energy E > 0 there is another solution with E < 0What is the physical meaning of these “negative energy” solutions ?Motion of an electron in an electromagnetic field: presence

of a term describing (for slow electrons) the potential energy of a magnetic dipole moment in a magnetic field existence of an intrinsic electron magnetic dipole moment opposite to spin

electron spin

electronmagnetic dipolemoment me

[eV/T] 1079.52

5-me

e me

1928

Antimatter discovery

6 mm thick Pb plate

63 MeV positron

23 MeV positron

Cloud chamber photograph by C.D. Anderson of the first positron ever identified. The positron must have come from below since the upper track is bent more strongly in the magnetic field indicating a lower energy

Carl D. Anderson

Cosmic-ray “shower”containing several e+ e– pairs

1932

NeutrinosA puzzle in b – decay: the continuous electron energy spectrum

First measurement by Chadwick (1914)

Radium E: 210Bi83(a radioactive isotope produced in the decay chain of 238U)

- epn (Two body decay) electron total energy E = [M(A, Z) – M(A, Z+1)]c2

(E. Fermi, 1932-33)

b- decay: n p + e- + n

First neutrino detection(Reines, Cowan 1953)

n + p e+ + ndetect 0.5 MeV g-rays from e+e– g g (t = 0) Eg = 0.5

MeVneutron “thermalization” followed by capture in Cd nuclei emission of delayed g-rays (average delay ~30 ms)

H2O +CdCl2

I, II, III:Liquid scintillator

2 m Event rate at the Savannah River nuclear power plant: 3.0 0.2 events / hour(after subracting event rate measured with reactor OFF )in agreement with expectations


Late 1950’s – early 1960’s: discovery of many particlesat the high energy proton accelerators (Berkeley Bevatron, BNL AGS, CERN PS),all with very short mean life times (10–20 – 10–23 s,collectively named “hadrons”)

ARE HADRONS ELEMENTARY PARTICLES?


1964 (Gell-Mann, Zweig): Hadron classification into “families”; observation that all hadrons could be built from three spin ½ “building blocks.” (named “quarks” by Gell-Mann) The three quarks are u(+2/3),d(-1/3),s(-1/3). And three antiquarks ( u , d , s ) with opposite electric charge.

Mesons: quark – antiquark pairs

2/)( ; ; 0 uudddudu - -Examples of non-strange mesons:

Examples of strange mesons:dsKusKdsKusK - 00 ; ; ;

Baryons: three quarks bound together Antibaryons: three antiquarks bound together

Examples of non-strange baryons:udduud neutron ; proton

Examples of strangeness –1 baryons: ; ; 0 sddsudsuu -

Examples of strangeness –2 baryons: ; 0 ssdssu -

What are the “elementary” constituents of Matter?

3 x 6 = 18 quarks + 6 leptons = 24 fermions (constituents of matter)+ 24 antiparticles 48 elementary particles

consistent with point-like dimensions within the resolving power of present instrumentation ( ~ 10-16 cm)

What are the forces that control their behaviour at the most basic level?

Gravitational interaction (all particles) Totally negligible in particle physics

Electromagnetic interaction (all charged particles) Infinite interaction radius

No static fields of forces In Relativistic Quantum Mechanics static fields of forces DO NOT EXIST ; the interaction between two particles is “transmitted” by intermediate particles acting as “interaction carriers” Example: electron – proton scattering (an effect of the electromagnetic interaction) is described as a two-step process : 1. incident electron scattered electron + photon 2. photon + incident proton scattered proton

The photon ( g ) is the carrier of the electromagnetic interaction

incident electron ( Ee , p )

scattered electron ( Ee , p’ )

incident proton ( Ep , – p ) scattered proton

( Ep , – p’ )

gq

“Mass” of the intermediate photon: Q2 Eg2 – pg

2 c2 = – 2 p2 c2 ( 1 – cos q ) The photon is in a VIRTUAL state because for real photons Eg

2 – pg

2 c2 = 0 (the mass of real photons is ZERO ) – virtual photons can only travel over very short distances thanks to the “Uncertainty Principle”

Energy – momentum conservation: Eg = 0 pg = p – p ’ ( | p | = | p ’| )

Weak interactionThe weak interaction is the only force affecting neutrinos (except for gravitation). Its most familiar effect is beta decay. The weak interaction is unique in a number of respects:1.It is the only interaction capable of changing flavour.2.It is the only interaction which violates parity symmetry P (because it almost exclusively acts on left-handed particles). 3.It is mediated by massive gauge bosons.

-W

-W

W

W

Strong interactionIn particle physics, the strong interaction, or strong force, or color force, holds quarks and gluons together to form protons, neutrons, baryons and mesons. The interaction radius 10 –13 cm. The theory about strong force is quantum chromodynamics (QCD). Each quark exists in three states of a new quantum number named “colour”

Particles with colour interact strongly through the exchange of spin 1 particles named “gluons”, in analogy with electrically charged particles interacting electromagnetically through the exchange of spin 1 photons.

Strong interactionFree quarks, gluons have never been observed experimentally;only indirect evidence from the study of hadrons – WHY?

CONFINEMENT: coloured particles are confined withincolourless hadrons because of the behaviour of the colour forcesat large distances

The attractive force between coloured particles increases withdistance increase of potential energy production of quark – antiquark pairs which neutralize colour formationof colourless hadrons (hadronization)

Conclusion

1937: Theory of nuclear forces (H. Yukawa) Existence of a new light particle (“meson”)as the carrier of nuclear forcesRelation between interaction radius and meson mass m:

mcR

int

mc2 200 MeV for Rint 10 -13 cm

Yukawa’s meson initially identified with the muon – in this case m– stoppingin matter should be immediately absorbed by nuclei nuclear breakup(not true for stopping m+ because of Coulomb repulsion - m+ never come close enough to nuclei, while m– form “muonic” atoms)

Experiment of Conversi, Pancini, Piccioni (Rome, 1945): study of m– stopping in matter using m– magnetic selection in the cosmic raysIn light material (Z 10) the m– decays mainly to electron (just as m+)In heavier material, the m– disappears partly by decaying to electron,and partly by nuclear capture (process later understood as m– + p n + n).However, the rate of nuclear captures is consistent with the weak interaction.

the muon is not Yukawa’s meson

Hideki Yukawa

1947: Discovery of the - meson (the “real” Yukawa particle)

Observation of the + m+ e+ decay chain in nuclear emulsionexposed to cosmic rays at high altitudes Four events showing the decay of a +

coming to rest in nuclear emulsion Nuclear emulsion: a detector sensitive toionization with ~1 mm space resolution(AgBr microcrystals suspended in gelatin)

In all events the muon has a fixed kinetic energy (4.1 MeV, corresponding to a range of ~ 600 mm in nuclear emulsion) two-body decaym = 139.57 MeV/c2 ; spin = 0 Dominant decay mode: + m+ + n(and – m– + n )Mean life at rest: t = 2.6 x 10-8 s = 26 ns – at rest undergoes nuclear capture,

as expected for the Yukawa particle A neutral – meson (°) also exists: m (°) = 134. 98 MeV /c2

Decay: ° g + g , mean life = 8.4 x 10-17 s – mesons are the most copiously produced particles in proton – proton and proton – nucleus collisions at high energies

CONCLUSIONSThe elementary particles today:

3 x 6 = 18 quarks + 6 leptons = 24 fermions (constituents of matter)+ 24 antiparticles 48 elementary particlesconsistent with point-like dimensions within theresolving power of present instrumentation( ~ 10-16 cm)

12 force carriers (g, W±, Z, 8 gluons)

+ the Higgs spin 0 particle (NOT YET DISCOVERED) responsible for generating the masses of all particles

Experimental Astroparticle Physics Dr. Vitaly KudryavtsevLectures 1-2, slide 35

Cosmic rays underground

At the surface, muons contribute more than a half to the total cosmic ray flux.

The energy spectrum of muons: dN / dE E -3.7 (at E>1 TeV). Only muons and neutrinos can penetrate to large depths

underground. The background from cosmic-ray muons for underground

experiments will be considered later in the course. Atmospheric neutrinos are hard to detect due to small

interaction cross-section. Nevertheless their flux has been measured and the deficit of muon neutrinos has been observed pointing to the neutrino oscillations - this will be considered in detail later.


Cosmic rays underground

Review of Particle Physics: pdg.lbl.gov (Cosmic Rays).

Muon flux as a function of depth underground: x (m w. e.) = depth (m) (g/cm3)

Neutrino-induced muons dominate at x > 15 km w. e.


Energy loss of muons

-dEdx

abE ; EE0 if x0

where a3 MeV/(g/cm2 ) is the energy loss due to ionisation, b 410- 6 (g/cm2 )-1 is the sum of the fractional energy losses due to bremsstrahlung, pair production and inelastic scattering; both numbers are valid for E> 1 TeV and standard rock (Z = 11, A = 22);

dEa+ bE

- dx ; dEa+ bEE0

E

- dx0

x

; 1b

ln abEabE0

- x ;

abEabE0

e- bx ; abE(abE0 )e- bx ; E E0 ab

e- bx -

ab

;

E = abe- bx - 1( )E0e

- bx

11

Institute of Physics Peter Kalmus Particles and the Universe

Neutrinos

Antiparticles

1950s, 1960s

> 200 new “elementary” (?) particles

Feel weak force“predicted” later discovered 100,000,000,000,000 per second pass through each person from the Sun

Equal and opposite properties “predicted” later discoveredAnnihilate with normal particlesNow used in PET scans

Many new particles created in high energy collisions

Convert energy to mass. Einstein E = mc2

mx 10101 -

mx 15101 -

mx 15107.0 -

mx 18107.0 -

Thomson (1897): Discovers electron

Neutron discovery:observation and measurement of nuclear recoils in an “expansion chamber”filled with Nitrogen at atmospheric pressure

incidentneutron

(not visible)

scattered neutron(not visible)

recoil nucleus(visible by ionization)

An old gaseous detector basedon an expanding vapour;ionization acts as seed for theformation of liquid drops. Tracks can be photographedas strings of droplets

Neutron discovery

Example: Rutherford’s scattering

radioactivesource

a - particles

target(very thin Gold foil)

fluorescent screen

Detector (human eye)

cm 107.6m 107.6)s m105.1()kg106.6(

s J 10626.6v

13151-727

34--

-

-

a

mh

0.05 c~ resolving power

of Rutherford’sexperiment

a-particlemass

introduction to particle physics

Documents

electron energy e

matter electrons

e e pairs1932also

antimatter discovery

potential energy

constituents of cathode

negative energy solutions

radium e