INTRODUCTION TO INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGYPSYCHOLOGY

DefinitionDefinition

PsychologyPsychology is scientific study of behavior is scientific study of behavior and mental processes. and mental processes.

PERSPECTIVESPERSPECTIVES1.1. BIOLOGICAL:BIOLOGICAL: Biological perspective is the scientific study of Biological perspective is the scientific study of

the biological bases of behavior and mental the biological bases of behavior and mental states, very closely related to states, very closely related to neuroscienceneuroscience. .

2. 2. The psychoanalytic perspective:The psychoanalytic perspective: The psychoanalytic perspective originated with The psychoanalytic perspective originated with

the work of Sigmund Freud. This perspective the work of Sigmund Freud. This perspective emphasizes the role of the unconscious mind, emphasizes the role of the unconscious mind, early childhood experiences, and interpersonal early childhood experiences, and interpersonal relationships to explain human behavior and to relationships to explain human behavior and to treat people suffering from mental illnesses. treat people suffering from mental illnesses.

3. 3. Behavioral Perspective:Behavioral Perspective:

Behavioral psychology is a perspective Behavioral psychology is a perspective that focuses on learned behaviors. Today, that focuses on learned behaviors. Today, the behavioral perspective is still the behavioral perspective is still concerned with how behaviors are learned concerned with how behaviors are learned and reinforced. and reinforced.

John WatsonJohn Watson founded behaviorism in founded behaviorism in the early 1900's. Watson emphasized the the early 1900's. Watson emphasized the scientific study of observable behaviors scientific study of observable behaviors rather then the study of subjective mental rather then the study of subjective mental process. process.

4. 4. Humanistic Perspective:Humanistic Perspective: During the 1950s, a school of thought known as During the 1950s, a school of thought known as

humanistic psychologyhumanistic psychology emerged. Influenced greatly by emerged. Influenced greatly by the work of prominent humanists such as the work of prominent humanists such as Carl RogersCarl Rogers and Abraham Maslow, this perspective emphasizes and Abraham Maslow, this perspective emphasizes the role of motivation on thought and behavior. the role of motivation on thought and behavior.

5. 5. Cognitive Perspective: Cognitive Perspective: During the 1960s, a new perspective known as During the 1960s, a new perspective known as

cognitive psychologycognitive psychology began to take hold. This area of began to take hold. This area of psychology focuses on mental processes such as psychology focuses on mental processes such as memory, thinking, problem solving, language and memory, thinking, problem solving, language and decision-making. decision-making.

6. 6. Social cultural Perspective:Social cultural Perspective:

The sociocultural perspective maintains that behavior The sociocultural perspective maintains that behavior and mental processes are shaped not only by prior and mental processes are shaped not only by prior learning experiences (the behavioral perspective) or learning experiences (the behavioral perspective) or intra-psychic forces (for instance, the unconscious) but intra-psychic forces (for instance, the unconscious) but also by the social or cultural context. also by the social or cultural context.

HISTORY OF PSYCHOLOGYHISTORY OF PSYCHOLOGY

1.1. Structuralism:Structuralism: Structuralism was the first school of psychology Structuralism was the first school of psychology

and focused on breaking down mental processes and focused on breaking down mental processes into the most basic components. Researchers tried into the most basic components. Researchers tried to understand the basic elements of to understand the basic elements of consciousness using a method known as consciousness using a method known as introspection. introspection. Wilhelm Wilhelm WundtWundt, founder of the first , founder of the first psychology lab, was an advocate of this position psychology lab, was an advocate of this position and is often considered the founder of and is often considered the founder of structuralism, despite the fact that it was his structuralism, despite the fact that it was his student, Edward Titchener who first coined the student, Edward Titchener who first coined the term to describe this school of thought. term to describe this school of thought.

2. 2. Functionalism:Functionalism:

Functionalism is an early approach to Functionalism is an early approach to psychology that concerned with what the psychology that concerned with what the mind does-the functions of mental activity-mind does-the functions of mental activity-and the role of behavior in allowing people and the role of behavior in allowing people to adapt to their environment.to adapt to their environment.

3. 3. Gestalt Psychology:Gestalt Psychology:

Gestalt psychology is a school of thought Gestalt psychology is a school of thought that looks at the human mind and behavior that looks at the human mind and behavior as a whole. Originating in the work of Max as a whole. Originating in the work of Max Wertheimer, Gestalt psychology formed Wertheimer, Gestalt psychology formed partially as a response to the structuralism partially as a response to the structuralism of of Wilhelm Wilhelm WundtWundt. The development of . The development of this area of psychology was influenced by this area of psychology was influenced by a number of thinkers, including Immanuel a number of thinkers, including Immanuel Kant, Ernst Mach and Johann Wolfgang Kant, Ernst Mach and Johann Wolfgang von Goethe. von Goethe.

4. 4. Psychodynamic Model:Psychodynamic Model: the approach based on the belief that behavior is motivated by the approach based on the belief that behavior is motivated by

unconscious inner forces over which the individual has little unconscious inner forces over which the individual has little control. control. Key features of the Psychodynamic approach are:Key features of the Psychodynamic approach are:

– Our behavior and feelings as adults are rooted in our childhood Our behavior and feelings as adults are rooted in our childhood experiences. experiences.

– Relationships (particularly parenting) are of primary importance in Relationships (particularly parenting) are of primary importance in determining how we feel and behave. determining how we feel and behave.

– Our behavior and feelings are powerfully affected by the meaning of Our behavior and feelings are powerfully affected by the meaning of events to the unconscious mind. events to the unconscious mind.

– Information can be obtained from dreams, irrational behavior and what Information can be obtained from dreams, irrational behavior and what patients in therapy say. patients in therapy say.

– The personality is made up of three distinct structures: id, ego and super The personality is made up of three distinct structures: id, ego and super ego. ego.

– Defense mechanisms are used to protect the ego, e.g. repression. Defense mechanisms are used to protect the ego, e.g. repression. – Children develop through a series of fixed stages: oral, anal and phallic. Children develop through a series of fixed stages: oral, anal and phallic.

5. 5. Huministic Model:Huministic Model: Developed by Rogers and Maslow in the 1950s Developed by Rogers and Maslow in the 1950s

Assumptions:Assumptions:

A healthy mental attitude is dependent on taking personal A healthy mental attitude is dependent on taking personal responsibility, recognising the existence of free will, and striving responsibility, recognising the existence of free will, and striving towards personal growth and fulfilment. towards personal growth and fulfilment. Individuals have a need for Individuals have a need for self actualisationself actualisation. . People are naturally good, with the potential for personal People are naturally good, with the potential for personal growth if they are provided with the appropriate circumstances. growth if they are provided with the appropriate circumstances. Rogers (1959): if in early life children receive Rogers (1959): if in early life children receive unconditional unconditional positive regardpositive regard they will develop satisfactorily. However, if they they will develop satisfactorily. However, if they experience experience conditions of worthconditions of worth, they are prevented from , they are prevented from realising their potential and becoming self-actualised. realising their potential and becoming self-actualised. People use distorted thinking to defend themselves, e.g., by People use distorted thinking to defend themselves, e.g., by rationalisation, that is distorting their real motives to fit in with rationalisation, that is distorting their real motives to fit in with their self-concept. their self-concept.

6. 6. Behaviorism:Behaviorism:

The approach that suggests that The approach that suggests that observable behavior should be the focus.observable behavior should be the focus.This perspective views behavior (except for This perspective views behavior (except for genetically determined behavior) as the result of genetically determined behavior) as the result of environmental experience! Environmental environmental experience! Environmental experience (also called learning) is the sum total experience (also called learning) is the sum total of all life experiences that the individual has of all life experiences that the individual has been subjected to in the past and to the new been subjected to in the past and to the new experiences that will impinge on his or her experiences that will impinge on his or her behavior.behavior.

7. 7. Cognitive Model:Cognitive Model:

Studies mental processes including how Studies mental processes including how people think, perceive, remember and people think, perceive, remember and learn. As part of the larger field of learn. As part of the larger field of cognitive science, this branch of cognitive science, this branch of psychology is related to other disciplines psychology is related to other disciplines including neuroscience, philosophy, and including neuroscience, philosophy, and linguistics. linguistics.

FIELDS OF PSYCHOLOGYFIELDS OF PSYCHOLOGY

1.1. Experimental Psychology:Experimental Psychology: a general title applied to a variety of a general title applied to a variety of

psychologists who are trained in psychologists who are trained in designing and conducting research in designing and conducting research in specific basic areas like learning, specific basic areas like learning, sensation and perception, human sensation and perception, human performance, and motivation and performance, and motivation and emotion. A research oriented doctoral emotion. A research oriented doctoral degree (Ph.D.) is usually needed.  degree (Ph.D.) is usually needed. 

2. 2. Biopsychology:Biopsychology:

Take a comparative and ontogenetic Take a comparative and ontogenetic perspective in the experimental analysis of perspective in the experimental analysis of basic psychological processes as they basic psychological processes as they relate to the many ways in which animal relate to the many ways in which animal species adapt, survive, reproduce and species adapt, survive, reproduce and evolve.  evolve. 

3. Developmental Psychology:3. Developmental Psychology:

Concerned with growth and development Concerned with growth and development from conception till death. All aspects of from conception till death. All aspects of the animal or human organism the animal or human organism (physiological, biological, physical, (physiological, biological, physical, cognitive, emotional, social, cultural) may cognitive, emotional, social, cultural) may be studied.  be studied. 

4. 4. Social Psychology:Social Psychology:

study the ways in which the social context study the ways in which the social context affects the behavior of the individual and affects the behavior of the individual and groups in the real world and the groups in the real world and the laboratory. Social psychologists focus on laboratory. Social psychologists focus on topics such as social roles, attitude topics such as social roles, attitude formation and change, affiliation, formation and change, affiliation, interpersonal attraction and interaction, interpersonal attraction and interaction, conformity, and group processes.  conformity, and group processes. 

5. 5. Industrial / Organizational Psychologists:Industrial / Organizational Psychologists:

are concerned with the relation between individuals and are concerned with the relation between individuals and work. They are employed in business and industry, in work. They are employed in business and industry, in government, and in colleges and universities, and may government, and in colleges and universities, and may perform a variety of jobs. An industrial/organizational perform a variety of jobs. An industrial/organizational psychologist working in industry may study how work is psychologist working in industry may study how work is organized; suggest changes to improve the satisfaction organized; suggest changes to improve the satisfaction of employees, the quality of the organization's services, of employees, the quality of the organization's services, and productivity; consult with management on the and productivity; consult with management on the development of effective training programs for development of effective training programs for employees; design programs for the early identification employees; design programs for the early identification of management potential; administer career counseling of management potential; administer career counseling and pre retirement counseling programs; develop and pre retirement counseling programs; develop affirmative action programs; recommend changes in job affirmative action programs; recommend changes in job definition; design a system of performance evaluation. definition; design a system of performance evaluation.

6. 6. Educational Psychologists:Educational Psychologists:

are concerned with a range of activities from are concerned with a range of activities from initial design through development and initial design through development and evaluation of both materials and procedures for evaluation of both materials and procedures for education and training. Such positions exist in education and training. Such positions exist in public schools, in the military, in private research public schools, in the military, in private research and development companies, and in industrial and development companies, and in industrial concerns. They may deal with analyzing concerns. They may deal with analyzing education and training needs, with developing education and training needs, with developing materials for instruction in various media, with materials for instruction in various media, with designing the best conditions for instruction, and designing the best conditions for instruction, and with evaluating the effectiveness of instructional with evaluating the effectiveness of instructional programs.  programs. 

7.7. Clinical Psychologists:Clinical Psychologists: are concerned with the diagnosis and treatment of are concerned with the diagnosis and treatment of

psychological disturbances. After graduate preparation in an psychological disturbances. After graduate preparation in an accredited university or school of professional psychology, accredited university or school of professional psychology, supervised postdoctoral experience, and licensure or supervised postdoctoral experience, and licensure or certification by the state, some clinical psychologists enter certification by the state, some clinical psychologists enter independent practice/consulting roles. Others find themselves independent practice/consulting roles. Others find themselves responsible for a complete range of psychological services in responsible for a complete range of psychological services in public settings. Their responsibilities range from administering public settings. Their responsibilities range from administering and scoring psychological tests, to engaging in therapy, to and scoring psychological tests, to engaging in therapy, to supervising the training of graduate students in the delivery of supervising the training of graduate students in the delivery of mental health services, to administering a community mental mental health services, to administering a community mental health program. Some clinical psychologists obtain faculty health program. Some clinical psychologists obtain faculty positions in a college or university where they perform research positions in a college or university where they perform research and train graduate students. Others serve as adjunct (or part-and train graduate students. Others serve as adjunct (or part-time) faculty, while maintaining independent clinical practices. time) faculty, while maintaining independent clinical practices. Many serve as consultants. Many serve as consultants.

8. 8. Counseling Psychologists:Counseling Psychologists:

are concerned with counseling, teaching, are concerned with counseling, teaching, consulting research, and/or administration. In consulting research, and/or administration. In their work, they are particularly concerned with their work, they are particularly concerned with the role of education and work in an individual's the role of education and work in an individual's functioning, and with the interaction between functioning, and with the interaction between individuals and the environments in which they individuals and the environments in which they live. Typically, counseling psychologists work live. Typically, counseling psychologists work with normal or moderately maladjusted persons, with normal or moderately maladjusted persons, individually or in groups. This work includes use individually or in groups. This work includes use of traditional counseling interview methods, of traditional counseling interview methods, interest, ability and personality tests, and interest, ability and personality tests, and educational and occupational information. educational and occupational information.

9. 9. Cross-cultural psychologyCross-cultural psychology

Is a branch of psychology that looks at how Is a branch of psychology that looks at how cultural factors influence human behavior. Learn cultural factors influence human behavior. Learn more about what cross-cultural psychology is more about what cross-cultural psychology is and who should study it. and who should study it.

10. 10. Forensic Psychology:Forensic Psychology:

It is defined as an intersection between It is defined as an intersection between psychology and the criminal justice system. It is psychology and the criminal justice system. It is applied to the criminal justice system to evaluate applied to the criminal justice system to evaluate

the psychology of the defendants. the psychology of the defendants.

11. 11. Environmental psychologyEnvironmental psychology::

is an interdisciplinary field focused on the is an interdisciplinary field focused on the interplay between humans and their interplay between humans and their surroundings. The field defines the term surroundings. The field defines the term environment very broadly including all that environment very broadly including all that is natural on the planet as well as social is natural on the planet as well as social settings, built environments, learning settings, built environments, learning environments and informational environments and informational environments. environments.

12. Psychiatry:12. Psychiatry:

PsychiatryPsychiatry is a is a medicalmedical specialtyspecialty devoted devoted to the to the treatmenttreatment, , studystudy and prevention of and prevention of mental disorder. They can prescribe mental disorder. They can prescribe medicines. They are MBBS Doctors.medicines. They are MBBS Doctors.

13.13. Psychology of WomenPsychology of Women

This class explores the female experience This class explores the female experience within the world. Many times people ask within the world. Many times people ask why there isn't a Psychology of Men class. why there isn't a Psychology of Men class. There are plenty of them, as most classes There are plenty of them, as most classes are designed with the male as the are designed with the male as the baseline. This class looks at how women baseline. This class looks at how women differ from the baseline and how the differ from the baseline and how the female experience is also valid in its own female experience is also valid in its own right, not as just an "other." right, not as just an "other."

METHODS METHODS OF OF

PYCHOLOGYPYCHOLOGY

1. CASE HISTORY:1. CASE HISTORY:

An in-depth study of one person. In a case An in-depth study of one person. In a case study, nearly every aspect of the subject’s study, nearly every aspect of the subject’s life and history is analyzed to seek life and history is analyzed to seek patterns and causes for behavior. The patterns and causes for behavior. The hope is that learning gained from studying hope is that learning gained from studying one case can be generalized to many one case can be generalized to many others. Unfortunately, case studies tend to others. Unfortunately, case studies tend to be highly subjective and it is difficult to be highly subjective and it is difficult to generalize results to a larger population. generalize results to a larger population.

2. NATURALISTIC OBSERVATION:2. NATURALISTIC OBSERVATION:

Naturalistic observation is a method of Naturalistic observation is a method of observation, commonly used by observation, commonly used by psychologists, behavioral scientists and psychologists, behavioral scientists and social scientists, that involves observing social scientists, that involves observing subjects in their natural habitats. subjects in their natural habitats. Researchers take great care in avoiding Researchers take great care in avoiding making interferences with the behavior making interferences with the behavior they are observing by using unobtrusive they are observing by using unobtrusive methods. Objectively, studying events as methods. Objectively, studying events as they occur naturally, without intervention. they occur naturally, without intervention.

3. SURVEY METHOD:3. SURVEY METHOD:

Survey is a method of scientific Survey is a method of scientific investigation in which a large sample of investigation in which a large sample of people answer questions about their people answer questions about their attitudes or behavior. attitudes or behavior.

4. EXPERIMENTAL METHOD:4. EXPERIMENTAL METHOD:

The experimental method involves manipulating The experimental method involves manipulating one variable to determine if changes in one one variable to determine if changes in one variable cause changes in another variable. This variable cause changes in another variable. This method relies on controlled methods, random method relies on controlled methods, random assignment and the manipulation of variables to assignment and the manipulation of variables to test a hypothesis. test a hypothesis.

An experiment is a study of An experiment is a study of cause and effect.cause and effect.  It   It differs from non-experimental methods in that it differs from non-experimental methods in that it involves involves the deliberate manipulation of one the deliberate manipulation of one variable, while trying to keep all other variable, while trying to keep all other variables constant.variables constant.

Parts of a Simple Experiment:Parts of a Simple Experiment:

The experimental hypothesisThe experimental hypothesis:: a statement that predicts that the treatment a statement that predicts that the treatment will cause an effect. The experimental hypothesis will always be phrased as will cause an effect. The experimental hypothesis will always be phrased as a cause-and-effect statement. a cause-and-effect statement.

The independent variableThe independent variable:: the treatment variable that is manipulated by the treatment variable that is manipulated by the experimenter. the experimenter. (stimulus)(stimulus)

The dependent variableThe dependent variable:: the response that the experimenter is measuring. the response that the experimenter is measuring. (response)(response)

The control groupThe control group:: made up of individuals who are randomly assigned to a made up of individuals who are randomly assigned to a group but do not receive the treatment. The measures takes from the control group but do not receive the treatment. The measures takes from the control group are then compared to those in the experimental group to determine if group are then compared to those in the experimental group to determine if the treatment had an effect. the treatment had an effect.

The experimental groupThe experimental group:: made up of individuals who are randomly made up of individuals who are randomly assigned to the group and then receive the treatment. The scores of these assigned to the group and then receive the treatment. The scores of these participants are compared to those in the control group to determine if the participants are compared to those in the control group to determine if the treatment had an effect. treatment had an effect.

For example:For example:HypothesisHypothesis:: an aspirin a day reduces the likelihood of an aspirin a day reduces the likelihood of a heart attack. a heart attack. Independent variableIndependent variable: : Aspirin Aspirin Dependent Variable:Dependent Variable: the number of heart attacks. the number of heart attacks. The experimental groupThe experimental group:: would take an aspirin each would take an aspirin each daydayThe control groupThe control group:: would take a placebo, such as a would take a placebo, such as a sugar pill, that resembles an aspirin but has none of sugar pill, that resembles an aspirin but has none of the effects attributed to aspirin. the effects attributed to aspirin. After a few months or years of pill-taking, the number After a few months or years of pill-taking, the number of heart attacks would be measured as the dependent of heart attacks would be measured as the dependent variable. If the aspirin-takers (experimental group) had variable. If the aspirin-takers (experimental group) had a significantly smaller number of heart attacks than the a significantly smaller number of heart attacks than the placebo-takers (control group), then the research placebo-takers (control group), then the research hypothesis (aspirin-taking reduces heart attacks) hypothesis (aspirin-taking reduces heart attacks) would be supported. would be supported.

5. CORRELATION:5. CORRELATION:Correlation studies are used to look for relationships Correlation studies are used to look for relationships between variables. There are three possible results of between variables. There are three possible results of a co relational study: a positive correlation, a negative a co relational study: a positive correlation, a negative correlation, and no correlation. The correlation correlation, and no correlation. The correlation coefficient is a measure of correlation strength and coefficient is a measure of correlation strength and can range from –1.00 to +1.00. can range from –1.00 to +1.00.

Positive Correlations:Positive Correlations: Both variables increase or Both variables increase or decrease at the same time. A correlation coefficient decrease at the same time. A correlation coefficient close to +1.00 indicates a strong positive correlation.close to +1.00 indicates a strong positive correlation.

Negative Correlations:Negative Correlations: Indicates that as the amount Indicates that as the amount of one variable increases, the other decreases (and of one variable increases, the other decreases (and vice versa). A correlation coefficient close to -1.00 vice versa). A correlation coefficient close to -1.00 indicates a strong negative correlation.indicates a strong negative correlation.