Introduction to Psychology

History, Application, Methods

What is PsychologyO The science of behavior (what we do)

and mental processes (sensations, perceptions, dreams, thoughts, beliefs, and feelings)

O Psychologists examine how we process information--how we organize, interpret, store, and use it.

O APA: American Psychological Association largest organization dedicated to the advancement of Psychology

What do psychologists worry about

O Stability vs. ChangeO How does age affect personality? O How does our personality change within the

“stages?”O Rationality vs. Irrationality

O Are we really “wise”?O Biology vs. Experience

(nature/nurture)O Nature v. Nurture

The Big One: Nature v. Nurture

O The question: the relative contribution that genes and experience make to development of psychological traits and behaviors

O Notables have said:O Plato-character and intelligence inherited.O John Locke-mind is a “tabula rosa” (blank

slate); experience writesO Rene Descartes-ideas are innateO Charles Darwin-natural selection; survival

of the fittest

Natural selection: principle that those inherited trait variations contributing to survival will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations

View Point

Levels of Analysis

Biological

Influence

Psychological

Influences

Social Cultural Influenc

es

Biopsychosocial Approach &

Behavior/Mental Process

Types of Psychologists1. Clinical: work in clinics, hospitals,

private practices treating disorders2. School: work for school districts to

treat mild disorders3. Counselors: Talk therapy for

everyday problems4. Psychiatrist: Medical doctor who

specializes in disorders uses psychotherapy and drugs for treatment

Types Continued5. Sports/Performance: Work for sports

teams to maximize performance and minimize anxiety

6. Forensic: Study criminal behavior and/or testify in court regarding defendant sanity

7. Industrial/Organizational: Work for large organizations to maximize employee output and profit

Schools of PsychologyHistorical Development

Ancient HistoryO Stone Age

O Trephination: carving holes in the skull to release evil spirits

O GreeksO Socrates and Plato concluded that mind is

separate from the body and knowledge is innate

O Plato and Democritus: Relationship between thought and behavior

O Aristotle: Observation/data based and knowledge is aquired

Pre-Scientific PsychologyO Who

1)Rene Descartes (1596-1650)—Pre-Science2) John Locke (1632-1704)—Science

O What did they ask1) Is the mind connected to the body or distinct?

O Descartes: mind distinct2)Are ideas inborn or is the mind a blank slate

filled by experience? O Descartes: inbornO Locke: filled

HistoricalContemporary Debates

The Birth of Psychological Science

O Francis Bacon (1561-1626)O Natural Sciences and revolutionary in

Scientific PhilosophyO Empiricism

O Knowledge comes from experience via the senses

O Science flourishes through observation and experiment

O PhrenologyO Study of personality based on head

bumps

Fathers of PsychologyO Hermann von Helmholtz

O PhysicistO Conducted simple experiments on

perception and the nervous systemO First to measure the speed of a nerve

impulse.

O William Wundt (1879 Leipzig, Germany)

O Founded the first formal laboratory devoted to experimental psychology

O Founder of structuralism,O Utilized introspection

Fathers of PsychologyO Herman Ebbinghaus

O 1885 published classic studies on memory

O G. Stanley HallO First psychology laboratory in

US (1883) at John Hopkins UnivO First American Psychology

Journal (1887)O First president of American

Psychological Association (1892)

Fathers (and Mothers) of Psychology

O Margaret Floy Washburn: First woman to receive PhD in Psychology (1894)

O Francis Cecil Sumner: First African-American PhD in psychology

O Mary Whiton Calkins: First woman elected president of APA, 1905

Growth of Psychology

Figure 1- British Psychological Society membership

Schools of Psychology

Structuralism

O Edward Titchener (Cornell University)O Student of WundtO Emphasized the “what” of mental illness rather than

“why” or “how” of thinkingO Founder of structuralismO Founder of experimental psychology

StructuralismO Uses introspection: the systematic examination by

individuals of their own thoughts and feelings about specific sensory experiences.

O Emphasized the structure of the mind and behavior.

O Opposition1) Reduced all complex human experience to

sensations2) Studied only verbal reports of human conscious

awareness3) Sought to combine parts into a whole rather than

study complex behaviors directly.

FunctionalismO Major opponent to structuralismO Primary importance to learned habits

that allow organisms to adapt to their environment and to function effectively

O “What is the function or purpose of any behavioral act?”

Famous FunctionalistsO William JamesO John Dewey

O PragmatistO Progressive education

O Mary CalkinsO Student of William JamesO Denied Harvard PhDO Posthumously awarded the

degreeO Memory research and President

of the APAO Margaret Floy Washburn

O First female PhD in psychO Second female President of the

APA (1921)O The Animal Mind

William James

O Mind has an ongoing relationship with our environment (perhaps a product)

O Influenced by DarwinO Influence for behavioristsO Consciousness cannot be studiedO Published “Principles of Psychology” 1890

BehaviorismO Emphasizes the study of objectively

observable behavior rather than inner mental experiences.

O Emphasizes the role of environment as the cause of behavior

O From our environment, we learn to do certain behaviors and learn not to do others. Sometimes called learning theory. O Rewards and punishment

Nail BitingO When nervous I bite my nails

O Behaviorist: Let’s learn how to stop biting your nails

O Not let’s learn on how to calm down

O If we study aggressive behavior in adults:O We might conclude that extra attention

given to a child’s classmates or siblings. O Behaviorismthat children from

physically abusive parents often learn to be abusive with their own children.

O Behaviorismeducation through positive reinforcement rather than punishment

Learning

Famous BehavioristsO John B.Watson

O Importance of observable behaviorO The chief goal of psychology was the

prediction and control of behavior.

O B. F. SkinnerO Radical

behaviorism O Acknowledge

d that evolution provided each species with a repertory of behaviors.

O Ivan PavlovO Classical

conditioning.

GestaltismO The whole is greater than the sum of its’ partsO Opposes structuralismO Max Wertheimer

O (1880-1943)O University of PragueO Founded psychiatric hospitals in Prague, Frankfurt,

and ViennaO Professor of Psychology at the University of

FrankfurtO Wolfgang KöhlerO Kurt KoffkaO Kurt Lewin

BiologicalO The biological school of psychology

focuses on the causes of behavior in the genes, the brain, the nervous system, and endocrine system.

O ExampleO Study the role of specific brain systems in

aggressionO Stimulating different regions O Recording any destructive actions that are

elicited.

CognitiveO Cognition: mental activity including

O ThinkingO RememberingO Learning O Using language.

O Behavior is only partly determined by environmental events and learning

O People act because they think

Cognitive Psychologists Study

O The hostile thoughts and fantasies people experience when witnessing violent actsO Noting aggressive imagery and

intentions to harm others

O They study the impact of violence in movies and videos, including pornography, on attitudes toward gun control, rape, and war

Predominant Cognitive Psychologists

O Jerome BrunerO Developed a learning theory based upon

categorizationO David Ausubel

O Attempted to explain meaningful verbal learning as a product of consciousness rather than of behavior

O Created the “advance organizer”O Jean Piaget

O Identified stages of cognitive development.

Psychoanalytical

O Emphasizes unconscious motives and conflicts

O Originally also called "psychodynamic"O Looking at aggression

O Reaction to frustrations caused by barriers to pleasure, such as unjust authority.

O They view aggression as an adult’s displacement of hostility originally felt as a child against his or her parents.

Famous Psychoanalysists

O Sigmund FreudO Developed from his work with

mentally disturbed patientsO Views a person as being pushed and

pulled by complex network of inner and outer forces.

O Developed stages of life to age 12, claiming that an individual would change little after that point.

Erik Erikson

O Expanded on Freud’s stages of life to include 8 stages into later adulthood.

PsychoanalystsO Carl Jung

O Challenged his mentor Freud with the hypothesis that adulthood, not childhood, represents the most significant phase of psychology.

O Bernice NeugartenO Focused on the difference

between chronological age and social age.

HumanismO Emphasize personal growth, self-

esteem, and the achievement of human potential

O Less on the scientific understanding, prediction, and control of behavior.

O Humans are not driven by the powerful, instinctive forces suggested by Freudians or manipulated by environments.

MaslowO Developed the Hierarchy of NeedsO Stated that each level of needs must be

satisfied before one moves onto the next.

Carl RogersO Developed the idea of active

listening and the concept of UPR (unconditional positive regard).

EvolutionaryO Connect contemporary psychology to a

central idea of the life sciences, Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution by natural selection.

O Researchers focus on the environmental conditions in which the human brain evolved.

O Survival of the fittestO Begs the question

O Do selfish genes mean selfish people?O Is evolutionary psych racist?

Social-CulturalOStudy cross-cultural differences in

the causes and consequences of behavior.

OExampleO Compare the prevalence of eating

disorders for white Americans vs. African American teenagers within the U.S.

Social-Cultural Psychologists Study

O Perceptions of the world as affected by culture

O Languages one speaks, and how it affects one’s experience of the world

O How does culture affect child development toward adulthood.

O Symbolic cultureO Individuals within the cultureO Acceptable behaviors within a culture

Subfields of PsychologyO Personality psychologists investigate

our persistent traitsO Social psychologists explore how we

view and affect one anotherO Biological psychologists explore the

links between brain and mindO Developmental psychologists study

changing abilities from womb to tombO Cognitive psychologists study how we

perceive, think, and solve problems